Lesson Title: Metals

Types of Metals

Metals are divided into ferrous metals and non-ferrous metals.

Ferrous metal includes iron (cast iron and wrought iron), stainless steel, and carbon
steel, while non-ferrous metal includes aluminum, zinc, and copper.

Ferrous metal is all forms of iron and steel alloys. It is iron-based alloy with small
percentages of carbon and other elements added to achieve desirable properties.
The metal generally has good strength & hard, and magnetic property.

Non-ferrous metal is made for superior working condition and is generally higher cost
in production because of made for specialty such as corrosion resistance. It has
non-magnetic property.

Advantages of Metals

 They are generally ductile.

 They have a wide range of properties according to type.
 They have higher stiffness and tensile strength than most non-metals.
 They are non-porous; hence chemical activity tends to be confined to the
surface.
 They are easily alloyed, further increasing their versatility.
 Strong bonds can be produced easily by welding, soldering or brazing.

Problems of Metals

 They are expensive in energy terms to produce.

 They deteriorate by chemical surface action in normal atmospheres.
 They have high density.
 Fire proofing is required since it is an excellent heat conductor.

Steel

Steel is a combination of iron and carbon (0.01% - 1%). It contains varying amounts
of manganese, sulfur, silicon and 20 other alloys. Alloys are added to produce steel
of different characteristics. Carbon is the key element in controlling the properties
of ordinary steel called carbon steel.

Influence of Carbon

All ferrous metals contain carbon. Variations in carbon contents of ferrous metals
have important influences on the properties of ferrous metals. In general, ductility
and ease of welding reduces, and hardness increases with an increase in carbon
content and, in the case of steels, tensile strength increase with an increase in
carbon content up to about 1.5%. In cast irons, the form in which carbon as
graphite occurs, as well as its quantity, largely determines their properties. In grey
cast irons, by far the most widely used of the cast irons, carbon in the flake form
results in low ductility, and both tensile strength and hardness generally decrease as
the carbon content increases. On the other hand, the strength and hardness of
nodular and malleable cast irons increases as the carbon content of the matrix
increases. The high carbon steels and all cast irons have relatively low melting
points and are suitable for casting.

Carbon Content of Steels

All steels contain carbon but the description plain carbon steels is used to distinguish
those steels which do not contain substantial proportions of alloying elements.
These are subdivided into: -

Low carbon steel (up to 0.15% carbon) is soft and suitable for iron wire and thin
sheet for tin plate.

Mild steel (0.15 to 0.25% carbon) is strong, ductile and suitable for rolling into
sections, strip and sheet but not usually for casting. They are easily worked and
welded. The group includes normal and high strength low alloy weldable structural
steels.

Medium carbon steel (0.25% to 0.5% carbon) is suitable for forgings and for general
engineering purposes.
High carbon steel (0.5 to 1% carbon): Tensile strength increases to about 90N/mm2
as the carbon content increase to about 1% and this strength can be further
increased by heat treatment. Hardness increases up to about 1.5% carbon content,
but ductility decrease and high carbon steel is too brittle for structural work. They
are also difficult to weld. It can be used as files and cutting tools. It is also suitable
for casting, e.g. heavy machine frames.

Rust

 Rusting is oxidation or combination of the iron with oxygen that occurs in the
presence of moisture.
 Proceeds more rapidly where there is noticeable dampness but it occurs in any
air with a relative humidity higher than 70%.
 Rusting occurs more rapidly in salt air and industrial atmosphere.
 The rust is formed from the solid metal, reducing its size so that the members
become weaker and loses any decorative finishes it might have.
 The rust penetrates deeper as time passes on.
Protection

 Keep metal dry

 Where dampness cannot be avoided, impermeable coatings, i.e. painting, will
greatly reduce the likelihood of corrosion

 Galvanizing of steel, in which a thin zinc coating is applied

 Electroplating is often applied to articles such as nuts and bolts

 Cathodic protection methods

 Bituminous coating

 Epoxy coating

Cathodic Protection

There are 2 main systems of cathodic protection – sacrificial anode system and
impressed current system

Sacrificial Anode System

 The zinc is connected to a steel which is less stable, and therefore the current
will flow from zinc to steel and zinc will be corroded instead of steel
Impressed Current System

 An external current with sufficient intensity is applied to over-ride the corrosion

current.

Fire Proofing

Building fires are not hot enough to melt steel, but are often able to weaken it
sufficiently to cause structural failure due to steel being good conductor. For this
reason, building ordinance requires fireproofing to all structural steels so that it can
protect the steel frame from heat long enough for the building to be fully evacuated
and the fire extinguished.

Fireproofing of steel frame was originally done by encasing steel beams and
columns in brick masonry or poured concrete. Today’s architects or designers can
choose from a group of fireproofing techniques that are lighter and cheaper.

 Encasement in concrete

 Enclosure in metal lath and plaster

 Enclosure in multiple layers of gypsum board

 Spray on fireproofing coating or painting

Steel Connection

 Steel members must be connected to form a structure such as bridge and

building
 It can be connected by the welding, and nut & bolt.

Welding

 The most popular way of connection

 The metal weld is stronger than the metal being welded
 It gives a neat appearance
 Welding consists of heating 2 pieces to be joined
 Chemical and properties of weld metal must be matched to the metal being
welded.
 2 types of welding, i.e. fillet and butt welds
 Butt welds
 Fillet welds

Nuts and Bolts

Principle Requirements for Structural Steel

 Weldability – welding is an economic and extremely effective means of

producing structural joints in steel
 Ductility – steel must be resistant to impact at all service temperatures likely to
be encountered, and, if overstressed, should yield rather than fail in a brittle
manner
 Highest possible yield strength

Principle Requirements for Reinforcing Steel

 Steel must bond to concrete

 Steel must be ductile to permit bending as well as to guard against brittle failure
 Weldable to facilitate joining
 High yield strength
 Low-carbon steel to obtain ductility and weldability
 Mild steel and high yield steel

Heat Treatment

 Annealing: heated metal to about 900℃ and then cooled it back to room
temperature very slowly in the furnace. The result is a soft malleable steel of
fairly low yield point.
 Normalizing: instead of cooling in furnace as described above, the steel is taken
out from the furnace and cooled in still air. The result is increased strength and
impact resistance.

 Quenching: heated metal to about 900℃ and then cooling it rapidly by plunging
the hot metal into cold water. The result is increased hardness and strength
but also increased brittleness.

 Tempering: temperature used for tempering is 200-400℃ and then permitted to

cool in still air. The result is to restore toughness to the steel without losing all
the hardness.
NON-FERROUS METALS (Optional Topic)

Copper

Properties:
 Very ductile and malleable

 Good electrical and thermal conductivities

 Low tensile strength

 Develop a protective coating on weathering

 Joined by welding, brazing and soldering

Uses:
 Electrical cables; pipes; lightning conductors; roof coverings; wall-covering
finishes; flashings

Copper-Based Alloys

 Brass: alloy of copper and <50% zinc

 Bronze: alloy of copper and tin and small quantities of other metals, e.g. Ni, Pb,
P, Zn. Harder and stronger than brass but less ductile.

Lead

Properties
 The most dense common metal
 Low melting point (327℃) and high thermal movement
 Low tensile strength, malleable and easily cut
 Forms a protective coating of lead when exposure to the atmosphere
 Attack by weak acids

 Impervious to moisture
 Best protection for lead components is a bitumen-based product

Uses

 Radiation shields

 Paint pigments

 Sheathing of electric cables

 Ornamental work

Aluminium

Properties

 Light
 Relative high cost of aluminium is due to the electrolytic method of extraction but
this permits very high purity
 Strength increases in aluminium alloys containing Mg, Mn, Si, Zn
 Good electrical and thermal conductivities
 Polished surface reflects heat and light
 High coefficient of thermal expansivity
 Non-magnetic
 Resistant to atmospheric corrosion due to formation of a protective oxide film.
Anodizing artificially increases this coating
 Liable to attack by alkalis

Uses
 Cladding; window frames; cables; vapour barriers; decorative metalwork; dip
treatments

Zinc

Properties
 Low tensile strength but can be increased by alloying or hot working
 Low melting point
 Forms a good corrosion-resistant coating for iron and steel.

Uses
 Protection against corrosion, zinc primer, hot-dip glavinizing

 Paint pigments