AVIATION WEATHER

SURVEILLLANCE SYSTEMS
Advanced radar and surface sensors
for flight safety and air traffic management

PRAVAS MAHAPATRA

with contributions from

Richard J. Doviak
Vladislav Mazur
Dusan S. Zrnic

of the US National Severe Storms Laboratory

The Institution of Electrical Engineers

The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Copublished by:
The Institution of Electrical Engineers,
Michael Faraday House,
Six Hills Way, Stevenage,
Herts. SG1 2AY, United Kingdom

and

The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

1801 Alexander Bell Drive
Suite 500
Reston
VA 20191-4344
USA

© 1999: The Institution of Electrical Engineers

This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the

Universal Copyright Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair
dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or
review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988r
this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any forms
or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the Institution
of Electrical Engineers (IEE) or in the case of reprographic reproduction in
accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing
Agency. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be
sent to the IEE at the address above.

While the author and the publishers believe that the information and
guidance given in this work are correct, all parties must rely upon their
own skill and judgment when making use of them. Neither the author nor
the publishers assume any liability to anyone for any loss or damage
caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such error or
omission is the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all such
liability is disclaimed.

The moral right of the author to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted by him/her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A CIP catalogue record for this book
is available from the British Library
ISBN 0 85296 937 6

Printed in England by Short Run Press Ltd., Exeter

to my parents
 Preface

While writing this book I had the feeling of chasing and trying to catch the pieces
of an exploding bombshell. So rapid and diversified has been the growth of the
subject of this book in the recent past, that there was a distinct fear of the book
becoming obsolete even before it was completed. I have therefore taken the
approach of focusing more on the fundamental aspects of the aviation weather
problem and generic solutions to them. Specific equipment and systems are
referred to essentially to illustrate the capabilities and potential of modern
aviation weather surveillance systems, as well as the problems encountered in
performing the surveillance function. The specific systems also serve to provide a
realistic flavour to the description. One casualty of such an essentially generic
approach has been the relative lack of reference to specific software and
algorithms that perform many of the intelligent tasks described in this book. But
given the fluidity of the software scene which undergoes rapid and continual
upgrading, substantial coverage of specific software would be impractical for a
book of this nature.
The book is written with scientists, engineers, airline technology managers, civil
aviation planners and other interested meteorological and aviation personnel in
mind. Most of the material presented here should be of value in the training
programmes of aviation operators including pilots and air traffic controllers.
The literature in the area of aviation weather surveillance is vast but scattered
among a wide variety of sources. This highly interdisciplinary area of activity draws
personnel and information from diverse scientific and technological fields which
are fundamentally different from one another, each with its own distinct
methodology, focus and even jargon. This book is the first attempt to make a
synthesis of such scattered information and to present it to personnel with diverse
backgrounds in a coherent manner for independent and self-contained reading.
The information contained here is graduated in such a way that the serious
technically minded reader can apprise himself or herself of many details of
modern aviation weather surveillance, while the lay reader can still get a fair
appreciation of the intricacies of the interplay of various apparently unrelated
factors in the common task of aviation quality improvement.
Pravas R. Mahapatra
 Acknowledgments

I am indebted to many in bringing this book to the present form. First and
foremost, I wish to express my deepest gratitude to Drs Dusan Zrnic' and Dick
Doviak of the US National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL), who have long
been my friends, philosophers and guides in this area of inquiry, and who,
along with their colleague and my friend Dr Vlad Mazur, have contributed the
last three 'guest chapters' of the book, and also other graphical material that
has greatly enriched this work. I have also been fortunate in receiving
inspiration, both philosophical and practical, from my special friend and
former director of NSSL, Dr Ed Kessler. A large number of professional
colleagues and manufacturers' representatives from around the world have
generously contributed and permitted their material to be included in
this book, for which I am indebted to them. Input from my colleague
Prof. S. P. Govindaraju on aeroplane flight parameters appearing in
Chapter 2 is gratefully acknowledged. Also greatly appreciated is the help on
multiple occasions rendered by my long-time friend and colleague Dr M.
Sachidananda in obtaining hard-to-get reference material. Special thanks are
due to the editorial team at the IEE, especially John St Aubyn, Jonathan
Simpson and Fiona MacDonald who have provided superlative support on all
aspects connected with the processing of the manuscript. I am grateful to the
reviewers of the manuscript who have read the book with meticulous care and
made corrections and useful suggestions which have improved the quality of
the work. Finally, but importantly, I must express words of sentimental
gratitude to my wife Purnima and children Satya and Pooja who have not only
cheerfully borne the deprivation of my attention during the thick of this
project, but even cheered me up during my long nocturnal writing sessions.
 Abbreviations

ACARS ARINC communication and retrieval system

ACAS airborne collision avoidance system
A/D analogue-to-digital (converter)
ADAS AWOS data acquisition system
ADF automatic direction finder
AGC automatic gain control
AGFS aviation gridded forecast system
AJV aviation impact variable
ARINC Aeronautical Radio, Inc.
ARSR air route surveillance radar
ARTCC air route traffic control centre
ARTS automated radar terminal system
ASD aircraft situation display
ASDE airport surface detection equipment
ASOS automated surface observing system
ASR airport surveillance radar
ATC air traffic control
ATCRBS air traffic control radar beacon system
ATM air traffic management
ATMS advanced traffic management system
AV airport visibility
AWOS automated weather observation system
AWPG aviation weather products generator
CAA Civil Aviation Authority (UK)
DME distance measuring equipment
EFAS en route flight advisory service
FAA Federal Aviation Administration (USA)
FAR Federal Aviation Regulation (USA)
FAST fore/aft scanning technique
FDP flight data processing (or processor)
FFT fast-Fourier transform
GOES geostationary operational environmental satellite
GPS global positioning system
HF high frequency
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organisation
IFR instrument flight rules
ILS instrument landing system
INMARSAT international maritime satellite organisation
ITWR interim terminal doppler radar
ITWS integrated terminal weather system
JAWS joint airport weather studies
K-H Kelvin-Helmholtz
LAPS local analysis and prediction system
LDR linear depolarisation ratio
LLWAS low level windshear alert system
LLWAS-NE low level windshear alert system with network expansion
LORAN long-range navigation system
LST local standard time
MAP mesoscale analysis and prediction (system)
MKS metre-kilogram-second
MLS microwave landing system
MOPA master oscillator power amplifier
MST mesospheric-stratospheric-tropospheric (radar)
MVD median volume diameter (of a population of droplets)
NACA National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (USA)
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration (USA)
NAWPG national aviation weather products generator
NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research
NDB nondirectional beacon
NEXRAD next-generation radar (forerunner of WSR-88D)
NIMROD Northern Illinois Meteorological Research on Downbursts
PAR precision approach radar
Pirep pilot report
POSH probability of severe hail
PPI plan-position indicator
PRF pulse repetition frequency
PRI pulse repetition interval (same as PRT)
PRT pulse repetition time (same as PRI)
PUP principal user processor
RAMS regional atmospheric modelling system
RASS radio-acoustic sounding system
RAWPG regional aviation weather products generator
RDA radar data acquisition (unit or subsystem)
RDASC radar data acquisition status control
RDP radar data processor (or processing)
RHI range-height indicator
RPG radar product generator
RVR runwav visual range
RWP real-time weather processor
SAV state-of-the-atmosphere variable
SSR secondary surveillance radar
ST stratospheric-tropospheric (radar/profiler)
STC sensitivity-time control
STOL short takeoff and landing
TACAN tactical air navigation (system)
TASS terminal area surveillance system
TCAS traffic alert collision avoidance system
TDWR terminal doppler weather radar
TOA time of arrival
TRACON terminal radar control
TRSB time reference scanning beam
TVAD tangential velocity azimuth display
TVS tornado vortex signature
UHF ultra-high frequency
USAF United States Air Force
V/STOL vertical/short takeoff and landing
VAD velocity azimuth display
VFR visual flight rules
VHF very high frequency
VLF very low frequency
VOR very-high-frequency omnirange
VORTAC colocated VOR and TACAN systems
WISP winter icing and storms project
WSR-88D weather surveillance radar - 1988 Doppler
 Symbols

a, b constants used to specify Z-R relationship

c speed of light
d diameter (of hailstones); distance from sensor; thickness of
sheared layer
dmax maximum distance of radar for observing weather at a
minimum height hmin
e base of natural logarithm
emax highest elevation angle of the radar antenna during the
scan cycle
fc carrier frequency
fd Doppler frequency
fdm mean Doppler frequency (of an ensemble of scatterers)
fr pulse repetition frequency
^v Nyquist frequency
/ 4 ( 0 , <f>) normalised two-way power pattern of antenna
g acceleration d u e to gravity
h height (clearance) of radar beam above ground (for
straight-line propagation)
h! height (clearance) of radar beam above ground
(considering atmospheric refraction)
hmin minimum height of observation of weather phenomena
j V=T
k /?'/R(~4/3)
km sample number (in frequency domain) corresponding to
the mean Doppler frequency
lc reference length (length of wing chord at designated cross-
section)
m refractive index of water
n refractive index of air
nr total number of resolution volumes or pixels in a full circle
of scan
r range (distance) to a given resolution volume
r position vector
raa radius of airport area
rb maximum radius of blind zone
rm maximum range (e.g. of radar)
r
max{aa) maximum permitted distance of radar from centre of
airport area (while providing resolution paa over the
entire airport area)
r
max(ta) maximum permitted distance of radar from centre of
terminal area (while providing resolution pta over the
entire terminal area)
r
max(P) maximum permitted distance of radar from the common
centre of airport and terminal areas while meeting the
resolution requirement everywhere within terminal area
rta radius of terminal area
ru (maximum) unambiguous range
shh complex scattering coefficient of a hydrometeor
considering the horizontally polarised component of
scattered radiation caused by a horizontally polarised
incident radiation
shv complex scattering coefficient of a hydrometeor
considering the horizontally polarised component of
scattered radiation caused by a vertially polarised
incident radiation
svv complex scattering coefficient of a hydrometeor
considering the vertically polarised component of
scattered radiation caused by a vertically polarised
incident radiation
t two-way propagation delay corresponding to-a given radar
target or resolution volume
tm electromagnetic propagation time delay (two-way)
corresponding to maximum range rm
ts sampling instant
u, v, w orthogonal wind components (w being vertical)
v wind vector
v horizontal wind speed
\h horizontal wind velocity vector
V1 longitudinal velocity component
vt transverse velocity component
vr radial component of scatterer velocity relative to radar
V77n mean radial velocity (of an ensemble of scatterers) (used as
f i n Chap. 11)
vu (maximum) u n a m b i g u o u s velocity
w weight of aircraft
W1 terminal velocity (of raindrops)
X1 samples of (complex) receiver voltage output
B receiver bandwidth
C radar constant
CD drag coefficient
CL lift coefficient
^Lmax maximum lift coefficient
CMp pitching moment coefficient
C\ turbulent structure parameter of refractive index
D drag force; diameter of raindrop
F F-factor (related to wind shear)
F equivalent average F-factor
/'(K) Fourier transform of weighting function In
G antenna gain
Hmax m a x i m u m altitude of weather surveillance
HDR hail detection signal
/ in-phase c o m p o n e n t of radar signal
In a normalised weighting function
K attenuation coefficient in d B / k m ; m a g n i t u d e of K
K wavenumber
Kg gust alleviation factor
K5 attenuation coefficient d u e to snow
K10 constant related to refractive index of water
KDp specific differential phase shift
L lift force; logarithm of ratio of e c h o power a n d single-lag
autocorrelation estimate; length (distance) interval
La amplitude loss factor (one-way)
Lf receiver filtering loss (or finite bandwidth loss) factor
L5 system loss factor
M n u m b e r of radar pulses used for signal processing (Doppler
m o m e n t estimation)
Mp pitching moment
N number of raindrops per unit spatial volume per unit
diameter interval; noise power
Nd number of hailstones per cubic metre of spatial volume per
millimetre size interval
P instantaneous power level of microwave radiation through
air
P0 initial power level of microwave radiation through air
Pa average transmitted power
P1 power associated with the ith signal sample
Pr received power (by radar)
Pro receiver o u t p u t power
Pt transmitted power (peak)
P estimated radar echo power
Q quadrature component of radar signal
R radius of the earth; rainfall rate; autocorrelation of the
signal sample sequence
R' fictitious radius of the earth to account for atmospheric
refraction of radar beam
Rg Richardson number
Rs rate of snowfall
S reference area (wing platform area)
Sk &th sample of t h e p e r i o d o g r a m
Sm receiver sensitivity (minimum detectable signal)
Sxx etc. wind shear components
T aircraft engine thrust
Tx pulse repetition time (or pulse repetition interval)
T1 temperature of the layer in which a wave evolves
Ude derived gust velocity
V9 V6 radar resolution volume (the subscropt 6 explicitly denotes
6-dB thresholding)
Va airspeed of aircraft
Yn airspeed vector of aircraft
V00 speed of aircraft relative to undisturbed air
W magnitude of the range weighting function (of processing
filter)
W absolute (inertial) wind vector
Ww wind speed perturbation d u e to weather factors
Wx horizontal wind c o m p o n e n t (usually along aeroplane
g r o u n d track)
Wy horizontal wind c o m p o n e n t perpendicular to Wx
Wz vertical c o m p o n e n t of wind (positive downwards)
Z reflectivity factor
ZDP reflectivity difference (between two different polarisations)
ZDR differential reflectivity
Ze equivalent reflectivity factor
Zh reflectivity factor at horizontal polarisation
Zv reflectivity factor at vertical polarisation
a angle of attack; constant in K-R relationship
astaU stall angle of attack
/3 profiler b e a m tilt angle; constant in K-R relationship
Sy Kronecker delta function (S^=O, tef, S^=I, i=j)
s extinction coefficient (or specific attenuation); normalised
turbulent energy dissipation rate
77 reflectivity
6b beam width
6 antenna scan rate
6 potential temperature
A wavelength (of radar signal)
p vector separation between two points (in the atmosphere)
P00 density of undisturbed air
pa density of ambient air
paa linear resolution requirement over airport area
pd duty ratio
phv(0) correlation coefficient of polarised signal at zero lag
psn signal-to-noise ratio
pta linear resolution requirement over the terminal area
(outside the airport area)
ab backscattering cross section of rain drop
(TJ spectrum width component due to fall speed differences
among hydrometeors
(J0 spectrum width component due to oscillation (s) of
hydrometeors
av spectrum width component due to rotation (scanning) of
radar beam
crs spectrum width component due to wind shear
(T1 spectrum width component due to turbulence
av spectrum width of radial (Doppler) velocity (for an
ensemble of scatterers)
(I2Q second central moment of two-way antenna power pattern
a2r second central moment of two-way range weighting function
cr2p variance of the velocity at a point
T radar pulse width
cf)hh two-way phase shift with horizontally polarised transmission
and reception
(f)^ two-way phase shift with vertically polarised transmission
and reception
<fiDP differential phase (between two different polarisations)
kh change in aircraft altitude
An turbulence-induced incremental vertical acceleration of
aircraft; perturbation in refractive index of air due to
turbulence
Ar range resolution
AiV number of raindrops per unit spatial volume having
diameter between D and D + AZ)
Ay difference in wind speed (e.g. across gust fronts and
microbursts)
A Fourier wavelength (i.e. scale of the velocity perturbation)
<I> spectral density (tensor)