K.L.N.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,POTTAPALAYAM
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
Two Mark Questions and Answers
MA8351- Discrete Mathematics
Unit – I Logic and Proofs
1.Express the statement “Good food is not cheap” in symbolic form.
P: Food is Good
Q: Food is Cheap
Therefore the symbolic form is P → ~𝑸
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2. Obtain PDNF for ~ 𝑷 ∨ 𝑸
P Q ~𝑷 ~𝑷∨𝑸
T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T
The PDNF of ~ 𝑷 ∨ 𝑸 : (𝑷 ∧ 𝑸) ∨ (∽ 𝑷⋀𝑸) ∨ (∽ 𝑷⋀ ∽ 𝑸)
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3.Write an equivalent formula for 𝑷 ∧ (𝑸 ↔ 𝑹) which contains neither the biconditional
nor the conditional.
𝑷 ∧ (𝑸 ↔ 𝑹) <=> 𝑷 ∧ [(𝑸 → 𝑹) ∧ (𝑹 → 𝑸)]
<=> 𝑷 ∧ [(~𝑸 ∨ 𝑹) ∧ (~𝑹 ∨ 𝑸)]
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4. What is duality law of logical expression? andGive the Dual of (𝑷 ∨ 𝑭) ∧ (𝑸 ∨ 𝑻)
Duality: The dual of a compound proposition that contains the logical
operators∨, ∧, ~ is the propositions obtained by replacing each∨ by
∧, each ∧by ∨, each T by F and each F by T.
Given: (𝑷 ∨ 𝑭) ∧ (𝑸 ∨ 𝑻)
Dual: (𝑷 ∧ 𝑻) ∨ (𝑸 ∧ 𝑭)
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5. Express the statement “ The crop will be destroyed if there is a flood”
in symbolic form.
P: The crop will be destroyed
Q: There is a flood
The given statement is Q → 𝑷
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6.Determine whether the conclusion C follows logically from the premises
𝑯𝟏 &𝑯𝟐 𝒐𝒓𝒏𝒐𝒕. 𝑯𝟏 : 𝑷 → 𝑸, 𝑯𝟐 : 𝑷&𝑪: 𝑸

𝑯𝟐 : P 𝑪: Q 𝑯𝟏 ∶ 𝑷 → 𝑸
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
The Conclusion is valid.
7. Show that P→ 𝑸 <=> ~𝑸 → ~𝑷 (𝒐𝒓) Prove that P→ 𝑸 and its contrapositive ~𝑸 → ~𝑷
are equivalent.
~𝑸 → ~𝑷 <=> ~~𝑸 ∨ ~𝑷 <=> 𝑸 ∨ ~𝑷 <=> ~𝑷 ∨ 𝑸 <=> P→ 𝑸
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8. Define Minterms and Max terms:
Min terms: Let P and Q be two statement variables. The Formulae P∧ 𝑸, 𝑷 ∧∽ 𝑸,
∽ 𝑷 ∧ 𝑸, ∼ 𝑷 ∧∽ 𝑸are called Min terms.
Max terms: Let P and Q be two statement variables. The Formulae
P∨ 𝑸, 𝑷 ∨∽ 𝑸, ∽ 𝑷 ∨ 𝑸, ∼ 𝑷 ∨∽ 𝑸 are called Max terms.
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9. Give the converse and contra positive of the implication” If it is raining,
then I get wet”.
P: It is raining
Q: I get Wet.
Q → 𝑷: (Converse)If I get wet, then it is raining.
∼ 𝑷 →∽ 𝑸 : (Contra positive) If I do not get wet, then it is not raining.
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10. Write the negation of the following Propositions, “ To enter into the country you need a
passport or a voter registration card”.
For not entering into the country you need not have a passport or a voter registration
card.
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11. What is tautology?. Give an Example.
A statement that is true for all possible values of its propositional variables is
called a tautology.
Example: 𝑷 ∨∽ 𝑷.
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12. What is contradiction?. Give an Example.
A statement that is falsefor all possible values of its propositional variables is
called a contradiction.
Example: 𝑷 ∧∽ 𝑷.
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13.Define simple statement function.
A simple statement function of one variable is defined as an expression consisting of
a predicate symbol and no individual variable.
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14. Express the statement “ For every ‘x’ there exists a ‘y’ such that
𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ≥ 𝟏𝟎𝟎in symbolic form.
(∀𝒙)(∃𝒚)(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ≥ 𝟏𝟎𝟎)
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15. Express the statement, “ Some people who trust others are rewarded” in
symbolic form.
Let𝑷(𝒙) ∶ 𝒙 is a person
𝑻(𝒙) ∶ 𝒙trusts others
𝑹(𝒙) ∶ 𝒙is rewarded.
(∃𝒙)[𝑷(𝒙) ∧ 𝑻(𝒙) ∧ 𝑹(𝒙)]
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16. Give an example of free and bound variable in predicate logic.
(∀𝒙)𝑷(𝒙, 𝒚)is the scope of the quantifier, and both occurrence of x are bound, y are free.
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17. Define a compound statement function.
A compound statement function is obtained by combining one or more simple
statement functions by logical connectives.
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18.Give Symbolic form of the statement “ All men are giants”.
𝑴(𝒙) ∶ 𝒙 is a man and 𝑮(𝒙) ∶ 𝒙is a giant
(∀𝒙)[𝑴(𝒙) → 𝑮(𝒙)]
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19.Consider the statement “ Given any positive integer, there is a greater positive
integer.”Symbolize this statement with and without using the set of positive integers as the
universe of discourse.
Let any positive integer x & y. Then 𝑮(𝒚, 𝒙): There is a greater positive integer.
𝑺𝒚𝒎𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎: (∀𝒙)(∃𝒚)𝑮(𝒚, 𝒙)
20.Let𝑷(𝒙) ∶ 𝒙 is a person
𝑭(𝒙, 𝒚) ∶ 𝒙is the father of y
𝑴(𝒙, 𝒚) ∶ 𝒙is the mother of y
Write the predicate” x is the father of the mother of y”.
We name a person called z as the mother of y. Obviously we want to say that x is the father
of z and z the mother of y.
(∃𝒛)[𝑷(𝒛) ∧ 𝑭(𝒙, 𝒛) ∧ 𝑴(𝒛, 𝒚)]
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21. Symbolize the expression” All world loves a lover.”
𝑷(𝒙) ∶ 𝒙is a person
𝑳(𝒙) ∶ 𝒙is a lover
𝑹(𝒙, 𝒚) ∶ 𝒙is loves y
(∀𝒙)[𝑷(𝒙) → (∀𝒚)(𝑷(𝒚) ∧ 𝑳(𝒚)) → 𝑹(𝒙, 𝒚)]
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22. Use quantifier to express the associative law for multiplicationof real numbers.
(∀𝒙)(∀𝒚)(∀𝒛)[(𝒙. 𝒚). 𝒛 = 𝒙. (𝒚. 𝒛)]
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23.How many rows are needed for the truth table of the formula.
(𝒑 ∧∼ 𝒒) ↔ [(∼ 𝒓 ∧ 𝒔) → 𝒕].
25 = 32 rows are needed for the truth table of the given formula.
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24. Symbolize the following statement : For any value x, x2 is non – negative.
(∀𝒙)(𝒙𝟐 ≥ 𝟎)
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25. Find the truth value of (∀𝒙)(𝑷 → 𝑸(𝒙)) ∨ (∃𝒙)𝑹(𝒙), where
P: 2 > 1; 𝑸(𝒙): 𝒙 > 3, 𝑹(𝒙): 𝒙 > 4With the universe of discourse E being 𝑬 = {𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒}.
P is true. Only true for the predicate is 𝑸(𝟒)
Therefore (∀𝒙)(𝑷 → 𝑸(𝒙)) is false.
Since 𝑹(𝟐),𝑹(𝟑)&𝑹(𝟒) are all the predicate is false.
(∃𝒙)𝑹(𝒙)is false.
Hence(∀𝒙)(𝑷 → 𝑸(𝒙)) ∨ (∃𝒙)𝑹(𝒙) is false.
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26. Let the universe of discourse be 𝑬 = {𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟕}. Let 𝑨 = {𝟓, 𝟔}&𝐵 = {𝟔, 𝟕}. Let
𝑷(𝒙): 𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑨, 𝑸(𝒙): 𝒙is in B&𝑹(𝒙, 𝒚): 𝒙 + 𝒚 < 12.
Find the truth value of [(∃𝒙)(𝑷(𝒙) → 𝑸(𝒙)) → 𝑹(𝟓, 𝟔)]
𝑹(𝒙, 𝒚): 𝒙 + 𝒚 < 12 ,the only possibility is ( 5 +6 < 12).
Therefore [(∃𝒙)(𝑷(𝒙) → 𝑸(𝒙)) → 𝑹(𝟓, 𝟔)] is true.
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27. Let 𝑨 = {𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟔, } Determine the truth value of (∃𝒙 ∈ 𝑨)(𝒙𝟐 > 25 )
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟔𝟐 > 25is true.
Hence (∃𝒙 ∈ 𝑨)(𝒙𝟐 > 25 ) is true.
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28. Let 𝑨 = {𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, } Determine the truth value of each of the following.

i). (∃𝒙 ∈ 𝑨)(𝒙𝟐 = 𝟒) ,ii). (∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑨)(𝒙𝟑 < 130 ),iii). (∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑨)(𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎)
i). 𝟐𝟐 = 𝟒 Hence (∃𝒙 ∈ 𝑨)(𝒙𝟐 = 𝟒 ) is true.
ii). For all the value satisfy 𝒙𝟑 < 130, where x = {1,2,3,4,5} is true.
Hence (∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑨)(𝒙𝟑 < 130 ) it is true.
iii). For none of the value satisfy(𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎 ), where x = {1,2,3,4,5} isfalse.
Hence (∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑨)(𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎 ) is false.
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29. What are the negations of the statement “ There is an honest politician” and “ All
Americans eat cheeseburgers”?
“ Not all politicians are honest”.
“There is an American who does not eat cheeseburgers.”
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30. How can this English sentence be translated into a logical expression?
“ You can access the internet from campus only if you are a computer science student or
you are not a freshman.”
Let A : You can access the internet from campus
B: you are a computer science student
C: you are a freshman.
The logical expression: 𝑨 → (𝑩 ∨∼ 𝑪)
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31. Define: Logically Equivalent.
The compound propositions P and Q are called logically equivalent if 𝑷 → 𝑸 is a
tautology.
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32. What does the statement (∀𝒙)𝑵(𝒙) mean if 𝑵(𝒙) is “ Computer x is connected to the
network” and the domain consists of all computers on the campus?
“Every computer on campus is connected to the network.”
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33.Translate the statement “ The sum of the two positive integer is always positive.”
(∀𝒙)(∀𝒚)(𝒙 + 𝒚 > 0)
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34. Translate the statement
(∃𝒙)(∀𝒚)(∀𝒛)[(𝑭(𝒙, 𝒚) ∧ 𝑭(𝒙, 𝒛) ∧ (𝒚 ≠ 𝒛)) →∽ 𝑭(𝒚, 𝒛)]
into English, where F(a, b) means a and b are friends and the domain for x, y, and z
consists of all students in your school.
“ There is student none of whose friends are also friends with each other.”
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35. Define Constructive Existence Proof , with an example.

A proof that an element with a specified property exists that explicitly finds such an
element.
Example: There is a positive integer that can be written as the sum of cubes of positive
integers in two different ways.1729 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑 + 𝟗𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐𝟑 + 𝟏𝟑
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36. State “Fermat’s Last Theorem”.
The equation 𝒙𝒏 + 𝒚𝒏 = 𝒛𝒏 has no solutions in integers x, y and z
with 𝒙𝒚𝒛 ≠ 𝟎, whenever n is an integer with n > 2.
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37. Define Vacuous proof & Trivial Proof.
Vacuous proof : A Proof that 𝑷 → 𝑸 is true based on the fact that P is false.
Trivial Proof : A Proof that 𝑷 → 𝑸 is true based on the fact that Q is true.
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38. Define Proof by Contraposition and Proof by Contradiction
Contraposition:A Proof that𝑷 → 𝑸 is true that precedes by showing that p must be false
when Q is false.
Contradiction:A proof that P is true based on the truth of the conditional statement∽ 𝑷 →
𝑸 Where Q is a contradiction.
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39.Define Boolean Variable.
A variable that has a value 0 or 1
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40. Define functionally complete sets of connectives.
Any set of connectives in which every formula can be expressed in terms an equivalent
formula containing connectives from this set is called afunctionally complete set of
connectives.
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41. How many rows appear in a truth table for the proposition [Apr/May 2015]
(𝒑⋁¬𝒓)⋀(𝒒⋁¬𝒔) Answer: 16
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42. What is the truth value of the proposition 𝟒 + 𝒙 = 𝟓[Apr/May 2015]
1
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43. Express the statement “Some student in this class has visited Mexico” using
predicates and quantifiers.[ Apr/May 2015]
C(x) : x is a student in this class
M(x): x has visited Mexico (∃𝒙)[𝑪(𝒙) ⋀𝑴(𝒙)]
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44. Define free and bound variables.[Apr/May 2015],[May/JUNE 2014]

Free variable : Any occurrence of the variable x that is not bound by a quantifier
or set equal to a particular value is called a free variable.
Bound variable:When a quantifier is used on the variable x, we say that this
occurrence of the variable is bound.
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45.What is meant by proposition? [MAY/JUNE 2014]
A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both.
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46.State the rules of inference for statement calculus. [MAY/JUNE 2014]
Rule P: A premise may be introduced at any point in the derivation.
Rule T: A formula S may be introduced in a derivation if S is a tautologically implied by
one or more of the preceding formulas in the derivation.
Rule CP: If we can derive S from R and a set of premises, then we can derive 𝑹 → 𝑺 from
the set of premises alone.
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47.Write the negation and symbolize “ Every student in the class studied Discrete
Mathematics”. [MAY/JUNE 2014]
Let S(x): x is a student
D(x): x studied Discrete Mathematics
(∀𝒙)(𝑺(𝒙) → 𝑫(𝒙))
Negation: There are some students in the class who did not study Discrete Mathematics
~[(∀𝒙){𝑺(𝒙) → 𝑫(𝒙)}] ⟺ ~[(∀𝒙){~𝑺(𝒙) ∨ 𝑫(𝒙)}] ⟺ (∃𝒙)[𝑺(𝒙) ∧∼ 𝑫(𝒙)]
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48.Give the truth value of 𝑻 ⟺ 𝑻 ∧ 𝑭 Solution: False
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49.Define equivalence of formulas.
Solution: Two statement formulas A and B are equivalent iff 𝑨 ↔ 𝑩 is a tautology.
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50. Define Conditional Statements. Write the truth table.
Solution: Let P and Q be two statements. Then the statements 𝑷 ⟶ 𝑸 is called a
conditional statements. 𝑷 ⟶ 𝑸 has a truth value F if P has the truth value T and Q has the
truth value F. In all the remaining cases ,it has the truth value T.
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51. Make a truth table for the statement(𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) ∨ (∼ 𝒑)
p q 𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 ∼ 𝒑 (𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) ∨ (∼ 𝒑)

T T T F T
T F F F F
F T F T T
F F F T T
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52. Express the bi-conditional 𝑷 ↔ 𝑸 in any form using only disjunction(∧) ,
conjunction(∨)and negation (∼).
 𝑷 ↔ 𝑸 ⟺ (𝑷 ⟶ 𝑸) ∧ (𝑸 ⟶ 𝑷) ⟺ (∼ 𝑷 ∨ 𝑸) ∧ (∼ 𝑸 ∨ 𝑷)
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Unit - II COMBINATORICS
1. How many different bit strings of length seven are there?
Each of seven bits can be chosen in two ways, because each bit is either 0 or 1.
Therefore a total of 27= 128 different bit strings of length seven.
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2. State the generalized Pigeonhole principle.
If N objects are placed into k boxes, then there is at least one box containing at least
⌈𝑵 /𝑲⌉ objects.
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3. State the Principle of Mathematical of Induction.
To prove that P(n) is true for all positive integers n, where P(n) is a
propositional function, We complete two steps;
Basis Step: We verify that P(1) is true.
Inductive Step: We show that the conditional statement 𝑷(𝒌) ⟶ 𝑷(𝒌 + 𝟏) is
true for all positive integers k.
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4. Find the number of three letter words using the given six letters without repeating
any letters in a given word.
𝟔𝑷𝟑 = 𝟔 ∗ 𝟓 ∗ 𝟒 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎.
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5. Obtain the number of permutations of all the letters of the words in
“ENGINEERING”.
Total number of letters: 11
𝑬 ⟶ 𝟑 times repeated, 𝑵 ⟶ 𝟑 times repeated, 𝑰 ⟶ 𝟐 times repeated &𝑮 ⟶ 𝟐
times repeated & R ⟶ 𝟏 time repeated
𝟏𝟏 !
𝟑! 𝟑! 𝟐! 𝟐! 𝟏!
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6. In how many ways can 8 persons be seated at a round table if they can sit
anywhere?
Circular permutation =(n-1)!= (8-1)! = 7 ! = 5040 ways.
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7. How many ways are there to select five players from a 10- member tennis team to
make a trip to a match at another college?
𝟏𝟎 !
𝟏𝟎𝑪𝟓 = = 𝟐𝟓𝟐
𝟓 !𝟓 !
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8. In how many ways can a selection of 3 books be made from 13 books so as to include
always one particular book?
First select one particular book, Remaining (13-1)= 12 books are available to select 2
books.
𝟏𝟐 !
𝟏𝟐𝑪𝟐 = = 𝟔𝟔
𝟐 ! 𝟏𝟎 !
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 9. In how many ways can a prize winner choose three CD’s from the top ten lists if
repetition are allowed?
n = 10 and r=3 using the formula (𝒏 + 𝒓 − 𝟏)𝑪𝒓 = 𝟏𝟐𝑪𝟑 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎
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10. Let {𝒂𝒏 }be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation
𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒏−𝟏 − 𝒂𝒏−𝟐 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒏 = 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒 … and suppose that𝒂𝟎 = 𝟑&𝒂𝟏 = 𝟓
What are 𝒂𝟐 &𝒂𝟑 ?
𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂𝟏 − 𝒂𝟎 = 𝟓 − 𝟑 = 𝟐
𝒂𝟑 = 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟐 − 𝟓 = −𝟑
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11. Obtain the recurrence relation for the solution 𝑫(𝒌) = 𝟓. 𝟐𝒌
𝑫(𝒌) = 𝟓. 𝟐𝒌 … (𝟏)
𝟓
𝑫(𝒌 − 𝟏) = 𝟓. 𝟐𝒌−𝟏 = . 𝟐𝒌
𝟐
𝟐𝑫(𝒌 − 𝟏) = 𝟓. 𝟐𝒌 … (𝟐)
(𝟏) − (𝟐) => 𝑫(𝒌) − 𝟐𝑫(𝒌 − 𝟏) = 𝟎 is the required relation.
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12. Show that in any group of 29 persons at least five persons must have born on the
same day of the week.
Seven days of the week as 7 pigeon holes and 29 persons as pigeons. Using
generalized Pigeon hole Principle ⌈𝑵 /𝑲⌉ = ⌈𝟐𝟗 /𝟕⌉ = 𝟓 .
Hence at least 5 of any 29 persons must have born on the same day of the week.
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13.How many functions are there in a set with m elements to one with n elements?
A function which corresponds one of the n elements in the co domain for each of
the m elements in the domain. i.e the product rule: 𝒏. 𝒏 … … 𝒏 = 𝒏𝒎 .
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14.State the well ordering property.
Every non empty set of non negative integers has a least element.
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15.Give two examples based on pigeonhole principle.
(i). Among any group of 367 people, there must be at least two with the same birthday,
because there only 366 maximum possible birthdays.
(ii). In any group of 27 English letters, there must be at least two that starts with the same
letter, since there are 26 remaining letters .
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16.How many possibilities are there for win , place and show (first, second and third)
positions in a horse race with 12 horses if all orders are possible? The number of ways to
pick the three winners in the number ordered selections of three elements from 12.
𝟏𝟐𝑷𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐 ∗ 𝟏𝟏 ∗ 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏𝟑𝟐𝟎.
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17.State the division algorithm.
“If a is an integer and d is a positive integer, then there are unique integers q and r with
𝟎 ≤ 𝒓 < 𝒅&𝒂 = 𝒅𝒒 + 𝒓. "
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18.How many different 2-digit numbers can be made from the digits 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0?
when repetition is allowed? when repetition is not allowed?
Case 1: When repetition is allowed.
The tens place can be filled by 10 ways and the units place can be filled by 10 ways.
Therefore the total number of 2 digit numbers = 10 * 10 =100
Case 2: When repetition is not allowed.
The tens place can be filled by 10 ways and the units place can be filled by9ways.
Therefore the total number of 2 digit numbers = 10 * 9 =90
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19.Define Permutation.[Apr/May 2015]
A permutation of set of distinct objects is an ordered arrangement of these objects.
It is denoted by P(n, r) (or) 𝒏𝑷𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏 ≥ 𝒓.
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20. Find the recurrence relation satisfying 𝒚𝒏 = 𝑨𝟑𝒏 + 𝑩(−𝟒)𝒏
Let 𝒚𝒏 = 𝑨𝟑𝒏 + 𝑩(−𝟒)𝒏 … (1)
𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = 𝑨𝟑𝒏+𝟏 + 𝑩(−𝟒)𝒏+𝟏
𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = 𝟑𝑨𝟑𝒏 − 𝟒𝑩(−𝟒)𝒏 …(2)
𝒚𝒏+𝟐 = 𝟗𝑨𝟑𝒏 + 𝟏𝟔𝑩(−𝟒)𝒏 …(3)
(𝟑) + (𝟐) − 𝟏𝟐(𝟏) = 𝒚𝒏+𝟐 + 𝒚𝒏+𝟏 − 𝟏𝟐𝒚𝒏 = 𝟎
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
21.Define generating function.
The generating function for the sequence
𝒂𝟎 , 𝒂𝟏 , … . 𝒂𝒌 … 𝒐𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔.
∞

𝑮(𝒙) = 𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + … . 𝒂𝒌 𝒙 + ⋯ = ∑ 𝒂𝒌 𝒙𝒌
𝒌

𝒌=𝟎
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22.What is the generating function for the sequence 1,1,1,1,1?
The generating function of 1,1,1,1,1 is 𝟏 + 𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟒
𝒙𝟓 −𝟏
(i.e.,) 𝟏 + 𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙𝟒 = 𝒙−𝟏 when 𝒙 ≠ 𝟏
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
23. State the principle of Inclusion and Exclusion.
Let X and Y be two finite subsets of a universal set∪. If X and Y are disjoint, then
|𝑿 ∪ 𝒀| = |𝑿| + |𝒀|
If X and Y are not disjoint then
|𝑿 ∪ 𝒀| = |𝑿| + |𝒀| − |𝑿 ∩ 𝒀|
This is called the principle of inclusion and exclusion.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
24.Find a formula for the probability of the union of n events in a sample space.
The probability of the union of n events in a sample space is𝑵(𝑷′𝟏 𝑷′𝟐 … 𝑷′𝒏 )
= 𝑵 − ∑ 𝑵(𝑷𝒊 ) + ∑ 𝑵(𝑷𝒊 𝑷𝒋 ) − ∑ 𝑵(𝑷𝒊 𝑷𝒋 𝑷𝒌 )
𝟏≤𝒊≤𝒏 𝟏≤𝒊≤𝒋≤𝒏 𝟏≤𝒊≤𝒋≤𝒌≤𝒏
+ … (−𝟏)𝒏 𝑵(𝑷𝒊 𝑷𝒋 … 𝑷𝒏 )
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
25.Define Combination.
A combination is an unordered collection of distinct objects.
𝒏
It is denoted by 𝑪(𝒏, 𝒓)(𝒐𝒓)𝒏𝑪𝒓 (𝒐𝒓) ( )
𝒓
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Unit – 3 Graphs
1. Define a Graph.
A graph G = { V,E,Φ} consists of a non empty set V = {V1,V2,V3,….}
called the set of Vertices of the graph and E = {e1,e2,e3,….} called the set of edges of
the graph, and Φ is a mapping from the set of edges E to set of ordered or
unordered pairs of elements of V.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. How many edges are there in graph with ten vertices eachofdegree 6?
Let ‘e’ be the number of edges of the graph.
2e = sum of all degrees = 10x6=60
2e = 60 ⇒ e = 30 ∴ There are 30 edges.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. For the following degree sequences 4,4,4,3,2 find if there exist a graph or not .

Sum of the degree of all vertices = 4+4+4+3+2 = 17 which is an odd number.

∴ such a graph does not exist.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Does there exist a simple graph with five vertices of the following degrees? If so
draw such graph with a degree sequence 1,1,1,1,1.

We know that in any graph the number of odd degree vertices is always even. Here
the number if odd degree vertices is 5 (not an even no,). ∴ such a graph does not
exist.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Can simple graph exist with 15 vertices each of degree 5.

We know that 2e = ∑ 𝒅(𝒗)

2e = 15x5 = 75
𝟕𝟓
e = 𝟐 Which is not an integer.
Such a graph does not exist.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. How many vertices does a regular graph of degree 4 with 10 edges have?

We know that 2e = ∑ 𝒅(𝒗)

Let ‘n’ be the number of vertices and ‘e’ is the number of edges.
4n = 2x10 ( since in a regular graph each vertex
is of same degree)
⇒n = 5
∴ There are 5 vertices in a regular graph of degree 4 with 10 edges.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. Define adjacency matrix of a simple graph.
 Let G = {V,E} be a simple graph with n- vertices {v1,v2,v3,….vn}.
Its adjacency matrix is denoted by
𝟏𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏𝒗𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒗𝟐 ,
A = [𝒂𝒊𝒋 ] = {
𝟎𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒏𝒐𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏𝒗𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒗𝟐
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
8. Draw the graph of the following adjacency matrix.(𝟏 𝟎 𝟏)
𝟎 𝟏 𝟎

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9. If the simple graph ‘G’ has ‘n’ vertices and ‘e’edges, howmany edges does Gc have?

𝒏(𝒏−𝟏)
We know that |𝑬(𝑮𝑼𝑮𝒄 )| = 𝟐
𝒏(𝒏−𝟏)
|𝑬(𝑮)| + |𝑬(𝑮𝒄 )| = 𝟐
𝒏(𝒏−𝟏)
e + |𝑬(𝑮𝒄 )| = 𝟐
𝒏(𝒏−𝟏)
⇒ |𝑬(𝑮𝒄 )| = –e
𝟐
𝒏(𝒏−𝟏)
∴ 𝑮𝒄 has 𝟐 - e edges.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10. State the conditions for Eulerian cycle.

A Eulerian circuit or cycle should satisfy the following conditions.

a)Starting and ending points (vertices) are same.
b)Cycle should contain all the edges of graph but exactly once.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11. Define a regular graph.

A graph in which all vertices are of equal degree is called a regular graph. If degree
of each vertex is r, then the graph is called a regular graph of degree r.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12. Define Isomorphic graphs.

Two simple graphs G1= (V1, E1) and G2 =(V2 ,E2) are isomorphic if there is a one-to-
one and onto function ‘f’ from V1 to V2 with the property that a and b are adjacent
in G1 if and only if f(a) and f(b) are adjacent in G2 for all a and b in V1 . Such a
function f is called an isomorphism.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13. Define a Complete graph.
 A graph is said to be complete if every vertex in G is connected to every other vertex
in G. Thus a complete graph G must be connected.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
14. What should be the degree of each vertex of a graphG if it has Hamiltonian circuit ?

Let G be a connected graph with n vertices. Then G is Hamiltonian if n≥ 𝟑and

n≤deg(v) for each vertex v in G.
If G is a connected simple graph with n vertices where n≥3, then G is Hamiltonian
if the degree of each vertex is atleast n/2.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
15. Define a strongly connected graph.
A directed graph is strongly connected if there is a path from ‘a’ to ‘b’ and from
‘b’ to a whenever ‘a’ and ‘b’ are vertices in the graph.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
16. Define Path Matrix.
If G = (V, E) be a simple digraph in which |𝑽| = 𝒏 and the nodes of G are
assumed to be ordered. An nxn matrix P whose elements are given by
𝟏𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒗𝒊 𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒗𝒋 ,
P = [𝒑𝒊𝒋 ] = {
𝟎𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17. What are the necessary conditions for G1 and G2 to be isomorphic ?
If G1 and G2 are isomorphic then G1 and G2 have
a) The same number of vertices.
b)The same number of edges
c)An equal no. of vertices with a given degree.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
18. Define regular graph.
If every vertex of a simple graph has the same degree, then the graph is called a
regular graph. If every vertex in a regular graph has degree k, then the graph is
called k-regular.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
19. Write the adjacency matrix of the digraph and draw the graph.
G = {(v1,v3), (v1,v2),( v2,v4),( v3,v1),( v2,v3),( v3,v4),( v4,v1), (v4,v2),( v4,v3)}
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑉4
𝑉1 0 1 1 0
𝑉2 0 0 1 1
𝑉3 1 0 0 1
𝑉4 1 1 1 0
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
20. Find the degree sequence of each of the following graphs.
1. K4 b) K5 c) K2

1. 3,3,3,3 b) 4,4,4,4,4 c) 1,1

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
UNIT – 4 ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES
1.Give an example of semigroup which is not monoid.
 (i) (N,+) is a semigroup but not monoid as 0,the identity element does not exist.
(ii) A set of even positive integers (E,+) and (E, .) are semi- groups but they are
not monoids as they do not have 0 & 1.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. A Cyclic monoid is commutative.
For any a,b,c𝝐 M, 𝒃 = 𝒂𝒎 and 𝒄 = 𝒂𝒏 for some m,n𝝐𝑵.
𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒂𝒎 ∗ 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒏 ∗ 𝒂𝒎 = 𝒄 ∗ 𝒃.Hence M is commutative.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Let S denotes the set of positive integers ≤ 100 for x ,y 𝝐S. Define 𝒙 ∗ 𝒚 =
𝒎𝒊𝒏{𝒙 , 𝒚}. Verify whether (S,∗) is a monoid,assuming that ∗ is associative.
𝒙 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝒎𝒊𝒏{𝒙 , 𝟏𝟎𝟎} = 𝒙(𝒊𝒇𝒙 ≤ 𝟏𝟎𝟎∀𝒙𝝐𝑺) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 ∗ 𝒙
100 is the identity element in S.Hence, (S,∗) is a monoid.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. A semigroup homomorphism preserves idempotency.
Let g: S →T where (S,∗) and (T,∆) are any two semigroups.
Let a be an idempotent element is S.
To Prove that g(a) is an idempotent element in T
a∗a = a ( since a is an idempotent element in T.
g(a∗a) = g(a)
g(a) ∆ g(a) = g(a)
g(a) is the idempotent element in T.
The semigroup homomorphism preserves idempotency.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Define Semi-group homomorphism.
If (S,∗) and (T,∆) are any two semi-groups then a mapping
g: S →T such that for any two elements
a,b𝝐𝑺 g(a∗b) = g(a) ∆ g(b) is called a semi-grouphomomorphism.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. The identity element of a group is unique.
Suppose 𝒆𝟏 and 𝒆𝟐 be the 2 identity elements of G.
If 𝒆𝟏 is the identity element then 𝒆𝟏 ∗ 𝒆𝟐 = 𝒆𝟐 ∗ 𝒆𝟏 = 𝒆𝟐
If 𝒆𝟐 is the identity element then 𝒆𝟏 ∗ 𝒆𝟐 = 𝒆𝟐 ∗ 𝒆𝟏 = 𝒆𝟏
𝒆𝟏 = 𝒆𝟐 . Therefore, identity element of a group is unique.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. Inverse of each element of (G,∗) is unique where G is a group.
Suppose there are 2 inverse elements a and b.
𝒂 ∗ 𝒙 = 𝒙 ∗ 𝒂 = 𝒆 (since a is the inverse)
𝒃 ∗ 𝒙 = 𝒙 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒆 (since b is the inverse)
𝒃 = 𝒆 ∗ 𝒃 = (𝒂 ∗ 𝒙) ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒂 ∗ (𝒙 ∗ 𝒃) = 𝒂 ∗ 𝒆 = 𝒂
b=a. Therefore, inverse of an element is unique.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8. Define abelian group or commutative group.
A group (G,∗) is called abelian if 𝒂 ∗ 𝒃 = 𝒃 ∗ 𝒂∀𝒂. 𝒃𝝐𝑮.
Example: (Z,+) is an abelian group.

9. A cyclic group is abelian.

 Let 𝒙, 𝒚𝝐𝑮 where G is cyclic.
𝒙 = 𝒂𝒎 and 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒏 for some integers m,n.
𝒙 ∗ 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒎 ∗ 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒏 ∗ 𝒂𝒎 = 𝒚 ∗ 𝒙. Hence, G is abelian.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10.Define Left Coset.
Let (H,∗) be a subgroup of group (G,∗).
aH={𝒂 ∗ 𝒉/𝒉𝝐𝑯} is called the left coset of H in G generated by the element
a𝝐G. ‘a’ is called the representative of the left coset aH.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11. State Lagrange’s theorem.
The order of a subgroup of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the
group.(ie) O(H)/O(G) where H is the subgroup of G.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12. Define Normal subgroup.
A subgroup (H,∗) of the group (G,∗) is called a normal Subgroup if for any
𝒂𝝐𝑮, 𝐚𝐇 = 𝐇𝐚.(ie) Left and right cosets of H in G generated by ‘a’ are thesame.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13. Is the union of two subgroups of a group, a subgroup of G? Justify your
answer.
The union of two subgroups of a group need not be a subgroup of G.
Let the group be (Z,+)
Let H= 3Z={𝟎, ±𝟑, ±𝟔, … … … } and
K=2Z={𝟎, ±𝟐, ±𝟒, … … … }
H and K are subgroups of (Z,+).
3 𝝐 3Z 𝝐3Z∪2Z = H∪K.
2 𝝐 2Z 𝝐3Z∪2Z = H∪K.
But 3+2=5 ∉ 3Z∪ 𝟐𝒁. Therefore, H∪K is not a subgroup of (Z,+)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
14. Give an example of sub semigroup.
For the semigroup (N,+) where N is the set of natural number, the set of
natural number, the set E of all even non- negative integers (E,+) is a sub semigroup
of (N,+).
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
15. Find a subgroup of order two of the group (Z8, +8) H={[𝟎], [𝟒]} is a subgroup
of order two fo the group G=(Z8, +8)

+8 0 4
0 0 4
4 4 0
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
16.Find all the subgroup of (Z5, +5)
𝐙𝟓 = {[𝟎], [𝟏], [𝟐], [𝟑], [𝟒]}
Let A be a subgroup of 𝐙𝟓 . Then 𝐎(𝐇)/𝐎(𝐙𝟓 ) by
Lagrange’s theorem. (ie) O(H)/5 ⇒ 𝑶(𝑯) = {𝟏, 𝟓}
If O(H)=1 then 𝑯 = {[𝟎]}
If O(H)=5 then 𝑯 = {[𝟎], [𝟏], [𝟐], [𝟑], [𝟒]}= 𝐙𝟓
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17.Define Ring.
An algebraic system (S,+, . ) is called a ring if the binary Operations +
and . on S satisfies the following 3 properties.
(i) (S,+) is an abelian group.
(ii)(S, . ) is a semi group.
(iii) The operation . is distributive over +. (ie) For any
a,b,c ∈ 𝑺 a.(b+c)=a.b + a.c
(b+c).a = b.a + c.a
Example: The set of all intezers Z under usual addition
and Multiplication is a Ring.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
18. Define Field.
Let R be a ring with identity element. R is called a skewfield if Every
non-zero element in R has a multiplicative inverse. A commutative skewfield is
called a field
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
19. If T={a,b,c,d,e} , how many subsets of T have less than 4 elements? [MAY/JUNE2014]
Empty set=1
Subsets with one element= 5C1 =5
Subsets with two elements= 5C2 =10
Subsets with three elements=5C3=10
Total number of subsets of T have less than 4 elements=26.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
20. Find the partial ordering for the power set of a set? [MAY/JUNE2014]
(𝑷(𝑨), ⊆)
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
𝟐𝒙+𝟏
21. Let f: R→ 𝑹 defined by 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑 . Show that f is a bijection. [MAY/JUNE 2014]
Let f(x)=f(y)
𝟐𝒙+𝟏 𝟐𝒚+𝟏
= ⟹𝒙=𝒚
𝟑 𝟑
F is one-one function.
Let f(x)=y
𝟐𝒙+𝟏 𝟑𝒚−𝟏
=y ⟹ 𝒙 = 𝟐
𝟑
𝟑𝒚−𝟏
So that we can find 𝒚 ∈ 𝑹 such that 𝒙 = 𝟐 ∈ 𝑹
F is onto . Therefore f is a bijective function.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22.Find 𝒈 ∘ 𝒇 if 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒈(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓 [MAY/JUNE 2014]
(𝒈 ∘ 𝒇)(𝒙) = 𝒈(𝒇(𝒙)) = 𝒈(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓) = 𝟐(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓) − 𝟑
= 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟕

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 K.L.N. COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, POTTAPALAYAM.
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
Two Mark Questions and Answers
MA8351- Discrete Mathematics
UNIT – 5 LATTICES AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
1.Define partial ordered set. (Nov/Dec 2018)
A relation R on set A is called a Partial Ordering or Partial Order relation if R is
Reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive. ie. R is a Partial Order relation on A if it
has the following three properties:
(i) 𝒂𝑹𝒂, ∀𝒂 ∈ 𝑹
(ii) 𝒂𝑹𝒃&𝐛𝐑𝐚 ⇒ 𝐚 = 𝑏
(iii) 𝒂𝑹𝒃&𝐛𝐑𝐜 ⇒ 𝐚𝐑𝐜
A set A together with a partial ordering R is called a partially ordered set or a Poset.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Let X = {𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟔, 𝟏𝟐, 𝟐𝟒, 𝟑𝟔}and the relation ≤ be such that x ≤ y if x divided y. Draw
the Hasse diagram of (x, ≤ ).
X = {𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟔, 𝟏𝟐, 𝟐𝟒, 𝟑𝟔}

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Draw the Hasse diagram of the Lattice L of all subsets of {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄} under intersection
and union.
P(A) = {{∅}, {𝒂}, {𝒃}, {𝒄}, {𝒂, 𝒃}, {𝒂, 𝒄}, {𝒃, 𝒄}, {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄}} where A ={𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄}
{𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄}

{𝒂, 𝒃} {𝒂, 𝒄} {𝒃, 𝒄}

{𝒂} {𝒃} {𝒄}

{∅}
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Let (𝑳, ≤) be a Poset. If the poset L has a least element, then this least element is
unique.
Let (𝑳, ≤) be a Poset.
Suppose 𝒂𝟏, 𝒂𝟐 be two least element of a Poset L.
Then 𝒂𝟏 ≤ 𝒂𝟐 ∀ a 𝝐 L 1
and 𝒂𝟐 ≤ 𝒂𝟏 ∀ a 𝝐 L 2
From 1,2 By using antisymmetric condition 𝒂𝟏 = 𝒂𝟐
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Define Lattice
 A partially ordered set (𝑳, ≤) in which evry pair of elements has a least upper
bound and a greatest lower bound is called a Lattice.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. State the properties of Lattices.
Let (𝑳, ≤) be a Lattice. For any a, b 𝝐 L
𝐚⨁𝐚 = 𝐚
i. } - Idempotent law
𝐚∗𝐚 = 𝐚

𝐚⨁𝐛 = 𝐛⨁𝐚
ii. } - Commutative property
𝐚∗𝐛 = 𝐛∗𝐚

𝐚⨁(𝐛⨁𝐜) = (𝐚⨁𝐛)⨁𝐜
iii. } – Associative law
𝐚 ∗ (𝐛 ∗ 𝐜) = (𝐚 ∗ 𝐛) ∗ 𝐜
𝐚⨁(𝐚 ∗ 𝐛) = 𝐚
iv. } Absorption law.
𝐚 ∗ (𝐚⨁𝐛) = 𝐚
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. The following is the Hasse diagram of a partially ordered set. Verify whether it is a
lattice.

a c b

Here (e,c) and (c,d) have no greatest lower bound and least
upper bound. ∴ The given diagram is not a lattice.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8. Check whether the partially ordered set is a lattice or not

No greatest lower bound and least upper bound exists. The given diagram is not a
lattice.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9. S.T. in a lattice if a≤b≤ 𝒄 then a⨁b = b*c
 Given a≤ b. Then a ⨁ b = b (1)
Given b≤ 𝒄. Then 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄 = 𝒃 (2)
From (1), (2) a ⨁ b = 𝒃 ∗ 𝒄
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10.Verify {𝑷(𝑨), 𝑼,∩} is a bounded lattice where {𝐀} = {𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄}
𝑷(𝑨) = {{∅}{𝒂}{𝒃}{𝒄}{𝒂, 𝒃}{𝒂, 𝒄}{𝒃, 𝒄}{𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄}}
{𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄}
{∅}

Least element = ∅
Greatest element = A
Since, lower bound {∅} and upper bound A exists, this is a bounded lattice.
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11.Prove that every distributive lattice is modular.
Let (L, ≤) be a distributive lattice.
∴ a ⨁ (b*c) = (a⨁b) * (a⨁c)
for any a,b,c ∈ L, given 𝐚 ≤ 𝒄 → 𝒂 ⊕ 𝒄 = 𝒄
∴ 𝐚⨁(𝐛 ∗ 𝐜)= a⨁b) *c
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12.Show that every chain is modular.
Every chain is a distributive lattice & every distributive lattice is modular.
Then,every chain is modular.
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13.Define complemented lattice.
A lattice (L, *, ⨁, 0,1) is said to be complemented lattice if every element of L has
atleast one complement.
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14.Define Boolean Algebra.
A Boolean algebra is a lattice which is both complemented and distributive. It is
denoted by (B, +, ., 0, 1)
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15.Give an example of two element Boolean Algebra.
(B, +, . ,0,1) where B = {𝟎, 𝟏}
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16.Show that in any Boolean Algebra (B, +, . ,0,1)
(a+b) (a’+c) = ac +a’b +bc
LHS (a+b) (a’+c) = aa’ +ba’+ac+bc
= ba’ +ac+bc (¨ aa’ = 0 by complement law)
= a’b+ac+bc (by commutative law)
=ac + a’b +bc =RHS
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17. Is the “divides” relation on the set of positive integers transitive? Apr/May 2015
If 𝒂/𝒃 and 𝒃/𝒄 then 𝒂/𝒄
Eg. 𝟐/𝟔 and 𝟔/𝟏𝟐 then 𝟐/𝟏𝟐
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18. State any two properties of Lattices. (Apr/May 2015)
Let (𝑳,∧,∨) be a given lattice. Then ∨ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∧ satisfies the
Following conditions ∀ 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳
Idempotent Law 𝒂⋀𝒂 = 𝒂 𝒂⋁𝒂 = 𝒂
Commutative Law 𝒂∨𝒃=𝒃∨𝒂 𝒂∧𝒃=𝒃∧𝒂
Associative Law(𝒂 ∧ 𝒃) ∧ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧ (𝒃 ∧ 𝒄)(𝒂 ∨ 𝒃) ∨ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ (𝒃 ∨ 𝒄)
Absorption Law 𝒂 ∧ (𝒂 ∨ 𝒃) = 𝒂 𝒂 ∨ (𝒂 ∧ 𝒃) = 𝒂
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19. Define Lattice Homomorphism. (Apr/may2015)
Let (L1 ,,) and (L 2, ,) be two given lattices. A mapping
f: L1->L2 is called Lattice Homomorphism if,for all a,b∈L1
1.f(a^b) =f(a)*f(b)
2.f(a  b) =f(a)  f(b).
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20.Prove Boolean identity:a.b+a.b’=a(Apr/May2015)
Proof: (a.b)+(a.b’)=a.(b+b’) (Distributive Rule)
=a.1 since (b+b’=1)
=a
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21.Show that absorption laws are valid in a Boolean algebra (or)Prove that a+ab=a
(May/June2016), (April/May 2017)
Proof LHS =a + ab =a(1+b) = a + ab =a
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22.Let X = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖, 𝟏𝟐, 𝟐𝟒}and R be a division relation . Find the Hasse diagram of the
poset <X, R>. (May/June2016)
Soln: The relation D={ (1,2), (1,3), (1,4),(1,6),(1,8),(1,12),(1,24),(2,4),(2,6),(2,8),(2,12),
(2,24),(3,6),(3,12),(3,24),(4,8),(4,12),(4,24),(6,12),(6,24),(8,24),(12,24)}
Hasse Diagram for (S24,D) 24

8 12

4 6

2 3

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23.Let X = {1,2,3,4,5,6} and R be a relation defined as <x, y>𝝐 R if and only if x-y is divisible
by 3. Find the elements of the relation R. (April/May 2017)
Soln: R= {(4,1), (5,2), (6,3)}
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24. Show that in a lattice if a ≤ b and c ≤ d then a* c ≤ b* d. (Apr/May 2019)
Given a ≤ b ⇒ a* b=a ________(1)
and c ≤ d ⇒ c*d=c _________(2)
claim: a* c ≤ b*d
It is enough to prove that (a* c) * (b*d) = a* c
(a* c) * (b*d) = a*(b*c)*d = (a*b)*(c*d) = a*c (using (1) &(2))
Therefore a* c ≤ b*d.
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25. Is it true that every chain with at least three elements is always a complemented lattice?
Justify your answer. (Apr/May 2019)
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26. Determine whether 𝑫𝟖 is a Boolean algebra (Nov/Dec 2018)
Let 𝑫𝟖 = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟖}
Least element is 1 and greatest element is 8.
The elements 2 and 4 don’t have the complement.
Hence 𝑫𝟖 is not a Boolean algebra.
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27. Let A = (1, 2, 5, 10) with the relation divides. Draw the Hasse diagram.

The relation R={ (1,2), (1,5),(1,10),(2,10), (5,10)}

Hasse Diagram: 10

2 5

1.
2. Prove that a lattice with five elements is not a Boolean algebra.