MATHE GING BNTHE Ma» RS a Now 2 Module - 3 wy wi 2 Complex Variables -[3.1] Introduction We are well acquainted with several concepts associated with a real valued function ¥ = f(x). We introduce complex valued function w = f(z) [function of a complex : pariable z] and discuss some topics associated with it. 3.2]. Recapitulation of Basic Concepts A number of the form z = x+i 2 y where x, y are real numbers and i = (1 or = ~1 iscalled acomplex number. x is called the real part of z and y iscalled the imaginary part of z. Also z = x—iy is\called the complex conjugate of -z. or x Thus & = cosx+isin by Maclaurin’s series. @) Hence e-*) =-cos(—x) +isin(-x) or &* = cosx-isinx 42 Adding and subtracting (1) with (2) we have eee . 2 -and — sinx = cosx =(iB), ile) cos (ix) = ar - itary = i Thus cos (ix) = cosfx and sin(ix) = isinhx De-Moivre’s Theorem ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS -IV.~ = isinhx (cos 0+ isin@)" = cosn@+isinn 8, where n is areal number Geometrical representation of 2 = x-+iy (Argand diagram) We plot the point P(x, y) inthe x—y plane and draw PM perpendicular to the. « X-axis, Let OP =r and POM = 8, From the figure we have cos0 =~, sino = % r r x= rc0s®, y =rsin@ Eliminating @ (by squaring and adding) andr (by dividing) we obtain, >| Y+P=P? and yx =tand or re N+P and 8 = tan! (y/xy A z=xtiy = r(cosO+ising) Since cos 6+ising = of r=VF+¥7 is called the modulus of 2 and 0 amplitude Of 2 or argument of 2. Symbolically w Izls P+ y? and ampz or argz = 0 = tan =r €° iscalled the polar form of 2. = tan”! (y/x) is called the e write these as follows. ‘yx)COMPLEX VARIABLES. | . 137 Properties associated with the modulus and amplitude 1 @) layla tay llayi (b) amp (2, +z,) = amp 2, + amp z, 2 (a) Ney . (©) amp |= |= amp z,- amp z, . 2 ‘1 e 2 3. lata | S lz l+l zl 4 lay-Rl 2 Igl-ig! "Neighbourhood ; A neighbourhood of a point 2, in the complex plane is the set of all Points 2 such that | z-zy | < § where 8 isa small positive real number. Geometrical meaning: If 2°= xp-tiyy then Vamagl = | (xtiy)—(ay+iyg) | = 1 (2-39) +4 (y-Yp) | ie, 2221 = N= Pe ny ye Now ‘L221 = 6 is x-men yF = 8 <7 (xeag Pt (y-ag® = Be This ‘represents acircle with centre (i, yg) and radius 8, Gecmetriéally aneighbotithood ofapoint zy (ie, |z-z5 | < 8) istheset ofall points inside a circle haying’ 2) as the centre and § as the radius. 3.3} Function of a Complex Variable, Limit, Continuity and Differentiability. Function of a'complex variable Ifitis possible to find one ormore complex numbers w forevery value z inacertain domain D, we say that w is a function of z defined for the domain D. In otherwords w = f(z) is called a finction of the complex variable 2. w is said to be single valued or many valued function of z according as fora given value of z there cortresponds one or more than one value of tv,138 “ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS -1V Since z=xtiy or z=rel° wealways write w= f(z) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y) [Cartesian form] w= f(z) = u(r, @)+io(r, 6) [Polarform] | Examples : 1. Consider f(z) = 22 ie, utiv= (xtiy? = 24 riys2y? or utiv = (x) +i(2xy) = us xt-¥ and v = 2xy inthe cartesian form. Also in the polar form f(z) = f(ré®) = (rd®? je, utrive Peie = 7 (cos26+isin26) => w= cos20 and v=r'sin20 ” 2. Consider f(z) = logz Itis convenient to find « and v inthe polar formby taking z = ri? Wehave, u+iv = log(re'®) = logr+i® loge. But log.e = 1 utio = logr+id “ = u = logr and v = @ inthe polar form. Since we know that r=iP+y? and @ = tanT(y/z)” . a= log ty and v= tar! (y/2), in the cartesian forma, Limit : A complex valued function f(z) defined in the neighbourhood of a point % is said to havé a ‘limit 1 as z terids to zp if for every © > 0 however small’ there exists a positive real number 5 such that | f(z)-I| 0 S(%y+82)-f (2) Hence, f’(2)) =, lim ze 8230 Further f(z) is said to be continuous / differentiable in a domain or a region D if f(z) is continuous / differentiable at every point of D. ‘These definitions are analogous with the definitions of a real valued function. [3.4] Analytic Function and Connected Theorems _.A complex valued function w = f(z) is said to be analytic at a point 2 = 2, if (2+82)-f2) exists and is unique at 2 and in the 5230 ’ neighbourhood of zy, Further f(z) is said to be analytic in a region if it is analytic at every point of the region. Analytic functionisalsocalled a regular function or holomorphic function. Wecan as well say that f(z) is analytic at a point 2, if it is differentiable at zy and in the neighbourhood of 29. 3.41| Theorem-1 [Cauchy-Riemann equations in the cartesian form] The necessary conditions that the function w = f(z) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y) may be analytic at any point z = x+iy is that, there exists four continuous first order au au ow a nll see Se ay” ie" By and satisfy the equations . we sons: Be 7 oy tl Se gg, Mese are known as Cauehy-Riemann( CR) equations: H,= Vy and v, =H, Proof: Let f(z) beanalyticata point z = x+iy and hence by the definition, exists and is unique. Inthe cartesian formf(z) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y),andlet §z betheincrementinz corresponding to the increments 5x, Sy in x, y.140 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS - IV = yp We s8x vty) tio(e48x, yt3y)J-[uley ytiv(x, y)] 3240 og filzys lt Lecetdx, yt8y)—u(x, y)] z= 8230 a3 ai yp Wet bx, = eva 4) 8230 Now 82 = (2+8z)-z where z = x+iy Bz = [(x+8x) +i(y+3y)]-[x+iy] ie, 825 x+idy Since 5z tends to zero, we have the following two possibilities. Case (i) : Let Sy = 0 sothat 82= 8x and 6240 “imply "5x0. Now (1) becomes f'@)= It u(xedx, y-w(xy) | yy PEERS, y)~-0(x, y) 3x0 bx 3x40 ax These limits from the basic definition are the partial derivatives of w ahd v wih x vy tu ae PQ) sata, 7) Case (ii) : Let 8x=0 — sothat 8z = i8y and 82-50 imply i3y + 0°or by 30. Now (1) becomes u(x, y+8y)—u(x, y) vy, y+8y)~-0(x, y) “(zy = ip SOPOT . f by 0 iby By 30 iby But Li = if? = i/-1 = ~i and hence we have, f(z) = It aj. Het by) u(x, y) 4 pe Vet Sy)~-V(a, 9) / by30 by by30 by , ou wv s-it+ ay "ay au fay= oi +)COMPLEX VARIABLES : 144 —J = Equating the RHS of (2) and (3) we have, du | dv de du Now equating, the real and imaginary parts we get, ou _ ay ov _ ow ae ay ae = ay Thuis we have established Cauchy-Riemann equations: 1, = v, and v, =~, ‘These are the necessary conditions in the cartesian form for the complex valued inet F(z) =utiv tobe analytic, 3.42 Theoied-2 [Cauchy-Riemann equations in the polar form] I S(zys fod?) u(r, 0) 440(7, 8) isanalyticata point z, then there exists ou o« dv a * four continuous first order partial derivatives 3r’ 30’ 9p? 9p And Satisfy the equations : SH 1a, ae -1 mw a7 0 oF fe These are knowi as Cauchy-Riemann (C-R) equations in the polar forrs, Proof: Let f(z)-be analyticata point z = ré® and hence by definition, fiz lt fatszi-f5) exists and is unique. 8230 In the polar-form f(z) = u(r, 8)+iv(r, @) and let 8z be the increment in z corresponding to the increments 87, 50 in r, 0 faye tt [u(r+8r, 0+50)+i0(r+5r, 04+80)]~[u(r 8)+iv(r, 0) re) ee, O) i 0(r, 0)] 8230 pi(zy ecu HUrtbr, 0+ 60) e u(r, 8) 8230 Se ate ie o(r+6r, Ae ae, 6) -() } . 8250 7 Consider 2 = Fe"®. Since, z isa function of two variables r, 0 wehave,142 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS -1V a az zo br+ 5-80 bz > ort 8 =i ré°) Sr4 3 (ré®) 88 ie, 825 Porsine® 80 Since 5z tends to zero, we have the following two possibilities. Case (i) : Let 80 = 0 sothat 8z = Sr and. 5240 imply 670. Now (1) becomes, u(r+6r, 6)-u(r, ®), drut oy oCs, 6) = It it He) 830 25, iess0 Sr ie, f(z) = 8 [s+ 2] . , ba thay 2.2) Case (ii) : Let 8r = 0 sothat 82 = ird°50 and 82-30 imply 800. Now (1) becomes : u(r, 0+86)-u(r, 0) vr, 8480)-v(r, 6) "(z)= It +i It 7 f 300 iré®80 _ 80-30 ird® 56 = it u(r, O88 u(r, 8) +4 & v(r, 0+56)-v(r, 6) ire | 5050 300 _ 50 a {2 1 {ldu .a F@)= alee B]-a[2 53 But Vi = i/? = i/-1 = -i andhence we have, 1 au av -i f(2)= 3a(- HR] 1 is harmonic, Again differentiating (1) w.r.t 6 and (2) w.rt. r_ partially we get fu Ho few nae "Mor ae” ap * a > Brae Pu &u 30aF = 3r96 8 2ways true and hence we have 0 ButDividing by r and transposing terms in the RHS. to LHS we obtain Pot at a v satisfies Laplace’s equation in the polar form => 9 is harmonic. ‘Thus we have proved that u and » are harmonic. Note : The converse of this theorem is not true. That is to say that we can give examples of function uy & v satisfying Laplace's equation but not satisfying Cauchy-Riemann equations. Let ua dog v= 2_3n? a ae ze 32 -3y", by 7 oY This shows that u and v are harmonic functions. . ou ae eo -a But Cauchy-Rierann equations $* = gy ee y are not satisfied, Hence u+iv isnot analytic. Orthogonal-Property - Uf f(z) =utiv is analytic then the family of curves wx, y) = % U(X, y) = Cy, cy and cy being constants, intersect each other orthogonally. Proof: We know that two cuves intersect each other orthqgonally if the tangents at the point of intersection are atright angles. Further we know that x represents slope of the tangent and the condition for perpendicularity of two lites is thatthe product of their slopes must be equal to ~ 1. Consider u(x, y) = c, and differentiating wrt x treating y as a function of x we get, . .146, ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS - IV du du dy dy du Sy aL ae = my (say at by at or yo (say) dy w Similarly for v(x, y) = cy = P = my (say) dude ax ax : me Ou dv eee) 5 : But f(z) = utiv is analytic and hence we have Cauchy-Riethanh equations + Ou ae ou De 7 By MG, TG, Using these in (1) we have, a MyM au a =~} ay © ay . Hence the curves intersect orthogonally at every point of interséction. Note: Converse of this theorem is not tru andi is illustrated by he lowing exaipe Let une and vax +2 We shall show that the curves u = c, and v = 6) (c, and ¢ beiitg constants) intersect orthogonally but u and v does not satisfy Cauchy. ‘Riemann equations. Consider Fag p24 Pac Differentiating these w.r.t, x treating y asa function of x we obtain y(2e) = 22d ty —# i det dy Hag ay Yare * y= My (Say)COMPLEX VARIABLES Further wehave, 2! ox - du dv ay Cauchy-Riemann equations $= 3y™ oe y are not satisfied. Thus we conclude that u + iv isnot analytic, Note: The result can also be established for the polar family of curves. If r = f(6) we know that tan = Gp’ & being the angle between the radius vector and the tangent. The angle between the tangents at the point of intersection of the curves is $-9, and tan 6, -tan 9, = ~1 is the condition for orthogonality. Consider u(r, 6) = "| and differentiate w.r.t.@ treating r asa function of 8. wy tt aa, = 0 oF #2 y= 0 or do a0 Hence tan 6 =.1-9" = Similarly for the curve v(r, 0) = ¢, tan 6 = (74) (r2,) fan 9, : tan $, = ——— But ru, = vg and rv, =—u, by C—R equations. N é ‘ (%)-(-ug) 1 low tan @,- tang, = ———* =~ f 1 fae ay Thus the polar family of curves u(r, 6) = c, and v(r, 0) = ¢, intersect each -other orthogonally. WORKED PROBLEMS ‘Type-l : Finding the derivative of an analytic function. Working procedure for problems * Given w = f(z),we substitute z= x + iy or z=re® to find the real and imaginary parts u and v as functions of x, y or r, 6. © We find first order partial derivatives and verify Cauchy-Riemann equations in the cartesian or polar form to conclude that f(z) is analytic.148 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS - IV * To find the derivative of f(z) we make.use of the fundamental results derived while establishing C—R equations. They are as follows: _ f(z) =u, tiv, [Cartesian form] f(z) = © 1° (w+ iv,) [Polar form * We substitute for the partial derivatives and rearrange as a function of (x +iy) or ré'® whichis2, with the result f(z) is obtained as a function of z é 1 Show that w = 2 + & isenalytcand hencefind >> Bydata w=z+e ie, utiv=(xtiy) + ty) = (xtiy) + &d¥ = (xtiy)+ & (cosy + isiny) ie, b+ iv =(x+ecosy) + i(ytesiny) uaxteoosy vay tetsiny ésiny u=l+fosy oo ea uy = -&siny vy = 1+ e cosy We observe that Cauchy-Riemann equations in the cartesian form 1, = v, and 0 = nly are satisfied. Thus w=z+ ¢ is analytic a Also wehave 5° = f’(z) =u, + iv, . dw ikea ie, = (1+e% cosy) + i(esiny) dz = 1+ (cosy +isiny) =1+e-d¥=14et'¥ dw ince’ z=x4i —=1+¢ Since z=xtiy, dz tTCOMPLEX VARIABLES. 149 2. Show that f(z) =sinz is analytic and hence find f’ (z) >> Bydata f(z) = sinz iy utiv in (x+iy) sinx cosiy + cosx siniy ie, w+ iv = sinx costy + icosx sinhy [We - have sin(i6) used sin(A+B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB and the int 8, cos(i8)'= cosh | w= sinz coshy v= cosx sinky 4, = c0sx coshy 9, sinx sinky "y y Cauchy-Riemann equations 4, = inx sink y cos x cosh y yy and v, = —u, are satisfied. Thus f(z) = sinz is analytic. Also wehave, f’(z) =u, + iv, f'(2) = cos xcoshy + i(—sitix sinky) Using cosh y = cosiy and isinty = sin(iy) we have, £2) = cos xcosiy ~ sinxsin (iy) = cos (x+iy) [We have used cos A cos B- sinA sin B = cos(A+B) ] Since z=x+iy, f’(z) = cosz 3. Show that f(z) = cosh z is analytic and hence find f(z), >> By data f(z) = coshz ie, wiv = cosh(x+iy) = cosi(x+iy), since. cosh = cosi@ = cos(ix- y) = cosix cosy + sinix siny ie, uw +iv = coshx cosy + isinhx siny 4 = coshx cosy 0 = sintx siny u, = sinhx cosy v= cosh x siny uy = ~cosh x-siny 2y = sink x cosy Cauchy-Riemann equations u, = v, and v, = -w, are satisfied, results150 Thus f(z) = coshz is analytic. Also we have f’(z) =u, + io, ie, f(z) = sinhx cosy + icoshx siny Multiplying and dividing by i in the RHS we have, f'(z) =4 Lisinh x cosy — cosh x siny] [sin ixcos y ~ cos ixsiny} sin(ix-y) = : sini(x+iy) je, f(z) = 7 i Sink (x+iy) = sinh (x+iy) Since z=xtiy , f’(z)=sinhz Note : Finding u and v from f(z) and later finding. f(z) as a function of z can also be done in the following alternative manner. f(z) = coshz = cosh(x+iy) LY ctiy, -(ret i otf ttivgettiyy ie, utivey [e +€ ] = 5 [4 (oosysisiny) +e°* (cosy isiny)] 1 -x .1 Se =5 (X48) cosyti-= (e-e )siny 2 a ie, tiv = coshx cosy+isinkx siny = w= coshx cosy and v= sinhx siny Also f’(z) =u, tiv, = sinhx cosy+icoshx siny eet Meely dy-ely 2 2 2i +> oh [aetyae tin] [eter] Thus f'(z) = sink (x+iy) = sinhz ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS -IV