See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/239819478

Use of the NMR and Resistivity Logs to Quantify Movable Hydrocarbon;

Solution for the Tight and Low-Resistivity Carbonate Reservoirs

Article · May 2011

DOI: 10.2118/141047-MS

CITATIONS READS

0 100

3 authors, including:

Hossein Mohammadlou
Chrysaor Norway
11 PUBLICATIONS   20 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

PhD project View project

Rivival of Frøya high region View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Hossein Mohammadlou on 01 November 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

SPE 141047

Use of the NMR and Resistivity Logs to Quantify Movable Hydrocarbon;

Solution for the Tight and Low-Resistivity Carbonate Reservoirs
M.H. Mohammadlou, SPE, Norwegian University of Science and Technology; H. Langeland, SPE, Norwegian
University of Science and Technology; M.B. Mørk, Norwegian University of Science and Technology

Copyright 2011, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE EUROPEC/EAGE Annual Conference and Exhibition held in Vienna, Austria, 23–26 May 2011.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper have not been
reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does not necessarily reflect any position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its
officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is prohibited. Permission to
reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of SPE copyright.

Abstract
Until an accurate fluid saturation tool is designed, the lack of a solid link between the petrophysical properties of reservoir
rock and fluid is a real problem. The reservoir water saturation models are normally based on the standard Archie model to
calculate fluid volumes. However, in tight carbonate reservoirs with heterogeneous wettability this model may present
unrealistic results for the fluid volume (e.g., water/oil/gas) estimates. An integrated model using resistivity and NMR logs is
introduced to quantify the movability of hydrocarbons in the reservoir transition zone. Pay zones may be missed in low-
resistivity reservoirs (i.e., transition zones) due to the high water volume estimated from conventional logs.

New synthetic resistivity logs are made in both the invaded and non-invaded zones based on assumptions made on the basis of
pore and fluid interaction in the NMR log T2 distribution. The differences between the original and synthetic resistivity logs in
connection with other log data are dominant signatures of the fluid volumes and movability in the formation. The new
approach is developed on basis of exploration well data from a complex and heterogeneous carbonate reservoir in the
Norwegian Barents Sea. The estimated fluid movability results are in agreement with the wireline formation tester (WFT)
measurements of the well.

This model, in addition to the transition zone, can also be applied for hydrocarbon bearing intervals which contain connate
water. This approach shows that the reservoir wettability signature can also be identified by comparing the measured and
constructed resistivity logs.

Introduction
The complex pore geometry in carbonates has long been a challenge in accurate estimation of formation water and thereby
hydrocarbon saturation. It is well known that oil-bearing reservoirs can be misinterpreted or even missed by conventional
resistivity-based log interpretation when comparable amount of oil and water exist in the reservoir (i.e., low-resistivity
reservoirs, thin layer beds, transition zones) (Griffiths, et al., 2007; Saha, 2003). Deep filtrate invasion, microporous reservoir
rocks, fine-grained matrix (micritic), and capillary bound water are among the reasons for a low-resistivity reservoir.
Furthermore, the low-resistivity condition is appeared in the reservoir transition zone (TZ) where the water saturation is
substantial above the free water level (FWL) to the oil water contact (OWC). Inaccurate water saturation is also obtained in
formations with complex lithology for which the use of Archie's default parameters (e.g., m = n = 2) results in a doubtful
answer (Freedman et al., 2001). The wide variability in morphology of carbonate grains leads to highly complex pore shapes
and sizes, and a range of dissolution, precipitation, and recrystallization processes which are so common in carbonate rocks
lead to additional complexity in the pore geometry of carbonate reservoirs (Ramamoorthy et al., 2008).

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) referring to the response of atomic nuclei to magnetic fields has been applied since the
late 1950s for characterization of reservoir rocks, (Brown and Gamson, 1960). Useful petrophysical information can be
retrieved from NMR log interpretation such as total porosity, free fluid porosity, pore size distribution, formation permeability,
fluid viscosity and fluid types. In complex environments such as mixed-lithology reservoirs, low-resistivity pay zones, tight
formations, and heavy oil reservoirs, where conventional logging tools may fail to unveil important reservoir properties, the
2 SPE 141047

NMR log is one of the more useful techniques to assess them (Coates et al., 1999). Based on the distinction between the NMR
relaxation of a particular pore size to the other pores, the combination of NMR and resistivity logs can be used to identify the
productivity of the reservoir. For the case of tight and low-resistivity reservoirs, where there is little resistivity contrast
between the water and oil bearing formation, NMR is more applicable in the fluid characterization if there is a sufficient
viscosity difference between the oil and water. Transition zones may have low-resistivity pay zones where water saturation is
higher than the connate saturation.

Numerous studies have been published in the literature on the reservoir potential of transition zones (Fanchi et al., 2002;
Masalmeh, 2000; Xian et al., 2006). Of particular importance are low-permeable (tight) reservoirs holding a capillary TZ of
tens of meters, and thereby enormous reservoir volumes. The main objective of the present study is to establish a methodology
to investigate the volume of producible hydrocarbon (i.e., oil) with a combination of NMR log and resistivity measurements.
The proposed method is especially useful in cases when the fluid saturation evaluation is complicated due to reservoir
heterogeneities. Wettability, low-resistivity, and complex pore connectivity, among other factors, are the main sources of
obscurity in estimation of the fluid saturation and fluid movability in carbonate reservoirs. In the present study, a lithology
weighted T2 cutoff value is used for the bound and free fluid calculation. Subsequently, two sets of synthetic resistivity logs
are created using NMR and resistivity logs to express the fluid saturation and movability. This approach states a simple
solution for interpreting the fluid saturations and the fluid movability at heterogeneous reservoir conditions. In this
methodology, the wettability effect does not impact saturation calculation, while many other saturation models do.

The background for this work is the observations of relatively high residual oil saturation in reservoir intervals within a tight
and low-resistivity exploration well in the Norwegian Barents Sea. In the previous paper a mixed wettability system was
considered for the studied reservoir case. Larsen et al., (2009) has studied the well documenting influences on fluid pressures
and reservoir wettability from interactions with water based drilling mud invasion. They have simulated the reservoir
performance for all reservoir wettability states by using the wireline formation tester (WFT) in the case of mud filtrate
invasion, and concluded that a water-gradient is measured from the WFT in the TZ if an oil-wet reservoir is drilled with water-
based mud even though the oil saturation is high. On the other hand the results of the WFT measurements may not be
completely representative due to the supercharging effect either from tight formations or because of presence of movable
fluids of oil and water at the same time at the place of measurement. The estimated fluid saturation and movability from this
approach is in good agreement with the achievements of Larsen et al., (2009).

Transition zone
Numerous changes in the composition of hydrocarbon, pressure and temperature of the reservoir and fluid contacts can happen
after hydrocarbon build up in a trap during geological processes like sediment burial and tectonic motions. The changing
geological conditions, as well as diagenetic changes within the sediments can result in various degrees of preferential wetting
being established during the evolution of the petroleum reservoirs (Chilingarian and Yen, 1978; Chapman, 1983; Hunt, 1984).

At the time of a reservoir exploration, the water saturation can be equal to or greater than the connate water saturation, both
greater than zero. As oil begins to accumulate through the secondary migration (primary drainage), it begins to interact with
the rock surface and it eventually establishes an equilibrium condition of wettability in the reservoir. Depending on further
development of the reservoir by changes in the reservoir physical and environmental conditions, the preferential wettability
also changes adjusting to a suitable state of wettability equilibrium. Different zones within a large reservoir column can
therefore have very different states of wettability. The establishment of reservoir wettability is a complicated process that
depends on a large number of conditions discussed by Donaldson and Alam (2008) in detail. Overall, Jadhunandan and
Morrow (1995) conclude that the wettability of sandstone rocks with light oils are in the range of neutral to water-wet and
carbonates have been found to range from neutral to oil-wet.

In the course of secondary migration, when the capillary pressure between the oil as non-wetting and water as wetting phases
reaches the threshold entry pressure of a particular pore, the oil glob enters inside the originally water-wet pore space. In
addition to the rock property and hydrocarbon composition, pore sizes also play a major role to maintain the original state of
wettability or to alter it. Higher threshold entry pressure of a micro-sized pore requires a large amount of capillary pressure
(PC) to be developed before the oil enters the pore, which does not occur in practice. Therefore smaller pores hold original
water inside the pore and remain water-wet. On the other hand the bigger pores may be invaded by the migrated oil if the PC is
larger than the entry pressure of those pores. Within the reservoir TZ, likewise, the oil and water have the affinity to fill the
larger and smaller pores, respectively. The smallest pore throat determines the maximum capillary rise above the free water
level, which is significant in tight and microporous reservoirs. The reservoir TZ is the vertical distance of the reservoir interval
from where the first blob of movable water appears in the reservoir down to the level of 100% water bearing zone. Both oil
SPE 141047 3

and water are mobile in this zone. Masalmeh (2000) noticed that the TZ may vary in thickness from a few meters to over
hundred meters, and thereby containing a significant part of the reserve.

A similar condition like TZ may develop due to the free water level rise if the initial hydrocarbon bearing zone is flooded with
formation brine. Apparently one may simulate this condition with a core flooding process of the water injection into the
reservoir for higher hydrocarbon recovery, but this is different in practice. Tectonic developments may have resulted in
movement of the fluid interfaces of the reservoir. Eventually the palaeo free water level or oil water contact may fall within the
new TZ or water bearing zone. It complicates the evaluation when the trapped and bypassed hydrocarbon is left below the free
water level. As Larsen et al., (2009) have concluded the wettability may cause a rock to hold a significant volume of
hydrocarbon within the flooded zone even though a water gradient and low formation resistivity is detected by the wireline
tools. Therefore supplementary attention to the wettability is needed in evaluation of a reservoir in new exploration areas.
Study of the structural and geological development of the prospect area can also assist the petrophysical evaluation of the
reservoir in general.

NMR free fluid and bound fluid estimation

The NMR cutoff transverse relaxation time (T2 cutoff) is a value of T2 below which the pore surface to fluid volume ratios in
the porous media are too high for the fluid to be producible at the prevailing capillary pressure in the reservoir. The area under
the T2 distribution for all T2 values less than the T2 cutoff defines the bulk volume irreducible water (BVI). The T2 cutoff
used to distinguish between effective and ineffective pore sizes is often reported as 33ms for sandstones and 100ms for
carbonates (ranged from 20ms to 225ms) (Guy et al., 1998). The boundary fluid T2 cutoff time on the T2 distribution curve in
a carbonate reservoir depends on the complexity of the pore size and structure. The estimated irreducible water saturation from
the special core analysis (SCAL) is used to obtain the T2 cutoff value of the capillary bound fluid. Lack of laboratory
measurements and heterogeneous nature of the reservoir rocks increase the difficulty of estimating representative cutoff
values. Assuming a brecciated carbonate rock consisting of particles ranging from micro to pebble size, also containing
siliciclastic grains and with large variation in pore sizes lab measurements of limited core samples cannot properly represent
the real in situ formation properties, leading to uncertainties in the saturation estimation.

In a single phase water saturated rock composed of carbonate and siliciclastic rock fragments, a weighted cutoff value based
on the carbonate and siliciclastic rock volume fraction can be used in the estimation of the bound and free fluid indexes. To
calculate the bulk volume of irreducible fluids and free fluids from the constant T2 cutoff, the two above mentioned values of
33ms and 100ms is used for sandstone and carbonates (limestone and dolomite) respectively, based on their volume fraction as
below:

VDol + VLime VSand

nmrT 2cutoff = ∗ 100 + ∗ 33 (1)
VDol + VLime + VSand VDol + VLime + VSand

where the nmrT2cutoff is the mineral volume weighted T2 cutoff, and Vi is the specific mineral or rock component volume
fraction derived from the core or log data.

Supplementary measurements preferably in larger scale than core plugs are necessary to investigate the accuracy of the
weighted cutoff estimation. In partially saturated rocks, however, the use of a single cutoff assumes that pores below a certain
size are completely saturated with the wetting phase as the non-wetting saturation increases. Therefore in water wet reservoir
rock, irreducible water saturation can be estimated if an accurate T2 cutoff value is used in the calculation. In the absence of a
core-measured T2 cutoff, special core analysis or mercury injection measurements can be used. The calculation is, however,
not easy when the rock is mixed wet or oil wet. A heterogeneous wettability distribution increases the uncertainty in the
petrophysical evaluation of the rock by the conventional methodologies used in fluid saturation estimation. In partially
saturated rocks the wetting phase relaxation (surface relaxation) and non-wetting relaxation (bulk relaxation) generally occur
at different times. The surface relaxation happens at shorter times regardless of the fluid type, but the bulk relaxation occurs at
longer time depending on the fluid viscosity. In light oil types, however, where the oil viscosity is around the filtrate viscosity
value, the T2 distribution may not signify a clear response for the bulk oil and water (i.e., free fluid).

To implement an accurate T2 cutoff, the fluid types, wettability, and contributed T2 distribution have to be identified. The
combinable magnetic resonance (CMR) tool records the hydrogen signals from the formation with a vertical depth resolution
of 15cm and a depth of investigation of maximum 3.8cm from the wellbore wall. The measurements are mainly done in the
4 SPE 141047

flushed zone, except in the intervals of very tight and impermeable rock with no filtrate invasion. Inside the flushed zone, the
NMR signal of the tool normally represents mud filtrate and residual hydrocarbon responses. Kleinberg and Vinegar (1996)
demonstrated the existence of an empirical relationship between crude oil viscosity, η oil , the logarithmic mean of the
measured T2 distribution (T2gm) of the bulk oil and the temperature (Temp) of the reservoir as shown here:

4Temp ( o k )
η oil (cp) = (2)
T 2 gmoil (ms)
However, the logarithmic T2 mean of the NMR log within the flushed zone cannot directly be used for the viscosity
calculation. Zhang et al., (1998) estimated bulk relaxation of the oil depending on the temperature and oil viscosity as below.
The equation can be used to estimate oil viscosity if the bulk relaxation is known.

0.00718 × Temp( ok )
T2 bulkoil ( ms ) ≅ T1bulkoil ( ms ) ≅ (3)
ηoil ( cp )
Figure 1 represents a thin section micrograph from the studied reservoir from an interval with a dominant residual oil volume
and with water in micropores (blue colour) of the section. The oil peak in the T2 distribution ranges from 300 to 1000
millisecond with a mode at 475 ms. Using the above equation, the contributed viscosity is calculated to be about 5 cp. This
value is consistent with the oil sample retrieved in MDT fluid sampling with 29 API and 5 cp. Thus the oil type can be
characterized as a medium viscosity oil relaxing at a mode of 475 ms and bound water below 100 ms. Since the oil viscosity is
approximately ten times the viscosity of the formation water at reservoir condition, the dominant free (bulk) water signature
fall in the uppermost time interval in the T2 distribution beyond 1000 ms. With some limitations, this is helpful in applying the
T2 cutoff boundary of free and bound fluid volumes. Often, the wettability, fluid saturations, pore sizes, and diffusion
relaxation mix up the signals and therefore an accurate cutoff appliance is more uncertain.

Typically estimation of water saturation from core analysis or wireline logs is based on the resistivity measurements. So far,
numerous saturation equations have been developed for water saturation; often based on the Archie equation (Archie, 1941).
The Archie equation provides water saturation in clean water wet rock, however, it does not account for wettability effects and
clay contents. Effect of clay has been investigated by many researchers after Archie whereas the wettability is still among the
challenging subjects. Laboratory measurements can be used to provide wettability of reservoir core plugs. However, coring of
the entire reservoir column is not practical for economic reasons. Heterogeneous wettability of the formation causes a big
challenge in reservoir characterization since there is no particular tool to log the wettability.

Oil_Peak

CapB_Cutoff

CB_Cutoff

Pc Curve T2T2
Raw
Raw(ms)
(ms) T2 Calibrated

Figure 1: Thin section micrograph of the case reservoir at 1222.6 MD showing organic matter (dark) and water in micropores (blue).
The relevant NMR T2 distribution of the sample is divided into three areas showing respectively clay bound water, capillary bound
water and the free fluid (oil peak). The scale of the sample micrograph is 0.5mm and the sample is composed of fine-grained dolomite
matrix with quartz grains and elongated illite/mica

The hydrocarbon saturation is the most important property that is severely affected by wettability. Freedman et al., (2003) have
presented an NMR method for magnetic resonance fluid characterization (MRF) and diffusion editing (DE) to provide
SPE 141047 5

wettability, saturation and oil viscosity in partially saturated rocks. They showed that at higher saturation of non-wet fluid and
lower saturation of wetting fluid, the T2 distribution provides valuable information about the wettability. On the contrary,
where the wetting phase saturation is high enough to hide the bulk relaxation of the non-wet phase, the wettability of the rock
is difficult to estimate. Their observations form the basis for the investigation of NMR-resistivity integration.

Suggested approach for saturation estimation and fluid movability

Traditionally the cementation and saturation exponents (m and n) are derived from electrical measurements made on cleaned
core plugs. However, the most common observation is that the cleaning may significantly alter the rock performance, thereby
the calculated water saturation may no longer be representative of the reservoir conditions. Generally micritic and microporous
carbonate rocks hold original water inside pores during primary drainage by capillary forces and remain water wet. This makes
a path for the electrical current in the resistivity measurements. However, the larger pores preferentially in carbonate rocks
may change from water wet to mixed or oil wet with time during and after the drainage process. On the other hand, various
diagenetic processes (i.e., dissolution, cementation, brecciation, recrystallization and compaction) makes Archie’s cementation
factor (m) a variable property. To employ a precise cementation factor “m” in saturation models all diagenetic effects have to
be considered before model initialization. In reality this is not a convenient procedure because of the lack of core material
through whole reservoir sections. Therefore a more practical and robust way could be a facies-based estimation from the
electrical logs (i.e., electrofacies) instead of using a single core-derived value.

Often resistive filtrate invasion and large contrast between formation water and filtrate salinity complicates the petrophysical
evaluation of the reservoir. Invasion pushes some but not all original fluids away from the borehole. It is equivalent to a water
flood, and water flood efficiency varies quite a bit with permeability and porosity. It is believed that irreducible water within
the flushed zone does not move, but it changes resistivity because the ions in the water can move. The less-salinity invasion
water dilutes the high salinity formation water, so it has the same effect as moving the irreducible water. On the contrary clay
bound water (CBW) does not move and does not exchange ions, so CBW does not change its resistivity. Not exchangeable
ions may also remain within the flushed zone where whole or parts of the rock mass are composed of a tight and impermeable
cluster. The effect can be seen on the shallow resistivity tool where the log shows abrupt lowering in resistivity measurement
and the gamma ray log reads higher value compared to the shoulder beds. This is the result of residual formation water within
the flushed zone and must not be mistaken for the replaced hydrocarbon.

After the new cutoff of exchangeable bound water (EBW) has been made, it is used to generate a new Rmfapp applied in a
new saturation model suggested below. This cutoff value distinguishes water volume remained in the flushed zone both in
clays and clean rock after mud filtrate invasion. As a result, fluid mixing law and other approximations must be considered for
saturation determination. The main concern here is that when significant volume of non-exchangeable water is present inside
the flushed zone, the electrical current shortcuts from that area and the mixing law is not practical any longer. Birchak et al.
(1974) has introduced the mixing law to model conductivity of mixtures at high frequencies. Subsequently, the model has been
modified by several researchers to be implemented in cases of mixtures of formation rock, water and hydrocarbon. One of the
most recent works done by Montaron (2008) is about modeling non-Archie rocks by the mixing/connectivity theory. He
introduced a new connectivity theory to estimate reservoir water saturation at various wettability conditions. However, the
analytical estimation of the connectivity index as a function of wettability and pore geometry is a complicated approach.

In accordance with the mixing law, the equation below is used to estimate apparent mud filtrate resistivity within the flushed
zone when the entire hydrocarbon and exchangeable ion water is displaced with mud filtrate. The equation is made for the
fluids and the rock effect is removed on both side of the formula.

ϕT ϕ NEBW ϕ EW
= + (4)
Rmfapp Rw Rmf

where,
ϕ T : total porosity (fraction)
ϕ NEBW : pores with non-changeable ions by mud filtrate (fraction)
ϕ EW : pores with changeable ions by filtrate (fraction)
6 SPE 141047

Rmfapp
: apparent mud filtrate resistivity (Ohmm)
Rw : formation water resistivity (Ohmm)
Rmf
: measured wellhead mud filtrate resistivity (Ohmm)

On the other hand, the apparent mud filtrate resistivity from the Archie equation is calculated from the flushed zone resistivity
measurement (Rxo). The calculated Rmfapp from the above mentioned equation is limited to the maximum and minimum
values of the Archie estimated resistivities. It should be noted that if the maximum Rmfapp is larger than the true filtrate
resistivity at reservoir condition it must be corrected to the true resistivity. Likewise for the minimum value it has to be
corrected, if Rmfapp is smaller than the formation water resistivity. Based on the Archie’s law, an artificial microresistivity log
(Ro.xo) can be made assuming the rock is filled with 100% apparent mud filtrate. The same can be done for the deep
resistivity of the rock (Ro.t) when the rock is filled entirely with formation brine. These two logs represent the lowest
resistivity measurements within the invaded and un-invaded zones respectively.

The NMR T2 distribution is typically divided into free fluid and bound fluid regions. Regardless of the reservoir wettability
we assume that the formation water and hydrocarbon (herein oil) occupied entirely the bound fluid and free fluid volume area,
respectively. A new deep resistivity log is calculated from this assumption based on the Archie equation. Similarly, to estimate
a new shallow resistivity log, it is assumed that the bound fluid area is filled with apparent mud filtrate (not mud filtrate) and
the free fluid area is filled with hydrocarbons. The latter means that the entire hydrocarbon volume is residual. Two sets of
logs are now available for the flushed and un-invaded zones with the stated assumptions. Although we neglected to include the
wettability effect in our calculation, by plotting the new extracted resistivity logs (Ro.t and Rt.model) and the actual one (Rt)
collectively, the wettability effect can be acquired from the model qualitatively. The illustration in Figure 2 represents these
logs with five different separations of A to E. Separation between Ro.t and Rt is an indication of hydrocarbon in the pore
space. Zone-E as a result is a water bearing formation. The most important information is obtained from the separation
between the Rt and Rt.model. Table 1 summarizes the results of the resistivity log separation for the illustrated situations in
Figure 2.

Ro.t, resistivity of formation filled with 100% formation water.

Rt, wireline measured deep resistivity log.
Rt.model, artificial resistivity log made on the bases of
assumptions on section 4.

Figure 2: Model constructed resistivity log based on the stated assumptions Rt.model, deep resistivity log for the fully water
saturated zone Ro.t, and true resistivity log Rt.
SPE 141047 7

Wherever the Ro.t is greater than the Rt, the zone is partially saturated with hydrocarbon and water. The shift between Rt and
Rt.model gives better estimate of the accuracy of the assumptions which we made in the log construction. On the other hand
the flushed zone resistivity logs separation has to be evaluated and cross-checked with the deep resistivity logs. Estimates of
fluid movability are the main result of the comparison between the two sets of logs in the invaded and un-invaded zones. In
addition a qualitative wettability analysis can also be done from the analysis.
Table 1: Description of actual and modeled resistivity logs separation for the un-invaded zone

Zone Fluid type Rt and Rt.model separation discussion

Assumption is correct and all NMR-estimated free fluids are hydrocarbon.

A Oil
B Oil
C Oil
The zone is water wet.
This zone has movable water together with residual hydrocarbon.
Actual resistivity is greater than model resistivity. Oil wettability and incorrect T2 cutoff
positioning are two proposals for this case. It shows that the fraction of the pores below the
T2 cutoff is filled with hydrocarbon and/or the cutoff value is not precisely estimated.
Alternatively, due to the heterogeneous pore geometry and wettability distribution the
Archie’s cementation and saturation factors can be inaccurately estimated.

Same as zone B with minor hydrocarbon volume. At the bottom section of this
D Oil zone the closeness of the Ro.t and Rt shows water bearing formation and the separation of
Rt and Rt.model shows some movable formation water.

E Water Bound volume water bearing zone. No free fluid.

Case study
The suggested model is applied on an exploration well in complex carbonate rocks in the Norwegian Barents Sea. The well
proved to have a noticeable residual oil column with good and patchy indications of hydrocarbons in much of the stratigraphic
sequence. Even though the well did not prove any commercial hydrocarbons from the fluid samples by the modular dynamic
tool (MDT), good oil shows were obtained from cores, sidewall cores and cuttings. Formation fluid sampling by MDT gives a
water gradient and movable formation water at all four sampling depths with traces of oil (29 API) at 1184.5m 1 . The fluid
samples and reservoir studies concluded with residual dead oil in the well. However, presence of unusually higher oil
saturation in a number of intervals from 1225m to 1370m indicate possible movable hydrocarbon in the well.

This well was plugged without production testing, but an earlier drilled well at the same structure produced formation water
with 2% of oil cut in the production testing. On the other hand, retrieved core samples of that well were bleeding oil (30-34
API) for a couple of hours at the surface condition.To realize the reservoir saturation and fluid movability the traditional
saturation models were completed primarily. Figure 3 illustrates the reservoir saturation results in 5 different zones using
Archie, Modified Simandoux, Modified Indonesian, Waxman&Smits, and Dual Water methods.

The clearest response of all the models is too high water saturation despite the fact that not all these methods are suitable for
the investigated rock type. Most part of the water volume, however, is estimated as bound (irreducible) water from the NMR
log interpretation (Figure 4 and Figure 5). All models except Waxman&Smits show that a significant volume of the
hydrocarbon is movable in the main reservoir section of zone-3. However, this is not consistent with the MDT pressure
measurements and fluid sampling results. On the other hand, the whole estimated hydrocarbon volume can hardly be
producible due to wettability, mobility, relative permeability, and other fluid-flow effects. The estimated fluid saturation
volumes from the new method on the basis of resistivity and NMR log responces are illustrated in Figure 4 and Figure 5.

1 All depths are measure depth relative to kelly bushing (RKB).

8 SPE 141047

Figure 3: Reservoir saturation models from the Archie, Modified Simandoux, Modified Indonesian, Waxman&Smits, and Dual Water
methods.

The track 8 of Figure 4 and Figure 5 shows presence of residual hydrocarbon and movable water in the whole reservoir
section. The amount of free water is noticeable in zone 2 (Figure 4); however, minor live oil is also seen randomly in the
reservoir, mainly below the tight reservoir sections. Zone 3 (Figure 5) shows some similarities with zone 2 in the residual oil
volume, however, the volume of free oil and water is different in this zone.

In contrast to the zone 2 which shows rather constant free water from the top to the bottom of the zone, zone 3 represents a
quite patchy distribution with high and low volume of free water. Overall, the free oil volume in zone 3 is also not
considerable but there are some intervals which have substantial mobile oil. The estimated water volume in the two depth
intervals 1320-1335m and 1350-1362m are mainly bound water (i.e., irreducible) with large oil saturation. These intervals are
the main parts of the well that contain free hydrocarbon volume. To verify the results of the proposed saturation model, studies
on the saturation height function (i.e., capillary pressure) and reservoir fluid geochemistry are combined with the new
saturation model and other reservoir information subsequently.
SPE 141047 9

Scale : 1 : 400
DB : Phd_Mohammadlou_3.6 (1) DEPTH (1130M - 1228.02M) 28.06.2010 15:42

Caliper Zone AIT resistivity LLD/MSFL resistivity Porosity bin Resistivity, Rt, Ro.t Resistivity, Rxo, Ro.xo Modified saturation NMR
BS (IN) DEP AE90 (OHM.M) LLDC (OHMM) nmrPhiB1 (Dec) AE90 (OHM.M) MSFLC (OHM.M) BVW_NMRCPI T2_norm (V/V)
6. 16. (M) 0.2 2000. 0.2 2000. 0.5 0. 0.2 2000. 0.2 2000. 0.5 0.
HCAL (IN) Zone AE60 (OHM.M) MSFLC (OHM.M) nmrPhiB2 (Dec) Ro.t (Ohmm) Ro.xo (Ohmm) nmrPHIT (Dec) nmrT2cutoffds (ms)
6. 16. 0.2 2000. 0.2 2000. 0.5 0. 0.2 2000. 0.2 2000. 0.5 0. 0.3 3000.
HCGR (GAPI) AE30 (OHM.M) nmrPHIT (Dec) RT_BIN100 (OHMM) RXO_BIN100 (OHMM) nmrBF (frac)
0. 100. 0.2 2000. 0.5 0. 0.2 2000. 0.2 2000. 0.5 0.
AE20 (OHM.M)
Washed out 0.2 2000. Unchangable ions Oil Oil Bound water
AE10 (OHM.M)
Mud cake 0.2 2000. Changable ions Water Water Free water
MSFLC (OHM.M)
0.2 2000. Understimated oil Understimated oil Movable oil

Residual oil

1150

1200

3
Figure 4: Reservoir fluid saturation in zone-2. Track-8 shows fluid volume and movability.
10 SPE 141047

Scale : 1 : 500
DB : Phd_Mohammadlou_3.6 (1) DEPTH (1228.02M - 1436.01M) 28.06.2010 15:48

Caliper Zone AIT resistivity LLD/MSFL resistivity Porosity bin Resistivity, Rt, Ro.t Resistivity, Rxo, Ro.xo Modified saturation NMR
BS (IN) DEP AE90 (OHM.M) LLDC (OHMM) nmrPhiB1 (Dec) AE90 (OHM.M) MSFLC (OHM.M) BVW_NMRCPI T2_norm (V/V)
6. 16. (M) 0.2 2000. 0.2 2000. 0.5 0. 0.2 2000. 0.2 2000. 0.5 0.
HCAL (IN) Zone AE60 (OHM.M) MSFLC (OHM.M) nmrPhiB2 (Dec) Ro.t (Ohmm) Ro.xo (Ohmm) nmrPHIT (Dec) nmrT2cutoffds (ms)
6. 16. 0.2 2000. 0.2 2000. 0.5 0. 0.2 2000. 0.2 2000. 0.5 0. 0.3 3000.
HCGR (GAPI) AE30 (OHM.M) nmrPHIT (Dec) RT_BIN100 (OHMM) RXO_BIN100 (OHMM) nmrBF (frac)
0. 100. 0.2 2000. 0.5 0. 0.2 2000. 0.2 2000. 0.5 0.
AE20 (OHM.M)
Washed out 0.2 2000. Unchangable ions Oil Oil Bound water
AE10 (OHM.M)
Mud cake 0.2 2000. Changable ions Water Water Free water
MSFLC (OHM.M)
0.2 2000. Understimated oil Understimated oil Movable oil

Residual oil

1250

1300

1350

1400

Figure 5: Reservoir fluid saturation in zone-3. Track-8 shows fluid volume and movability.
SPE 141047 11

Saturation height function

The pressure gradient for the reservoir fluid phases is determined by the fluid densities. The water saturation distribution above
or below free water level (FWL) as a reference point for the zero capillary pressure, is controlled by buoyancy and capillary
forces. In the studied well, the depth point of 1462 m was used as the palaeo FWL to generate two extreme cases (brown and
red curves) of saturation height functions on the primary drainage state in the reservoir. This depth was used because of the
observation of the oil-water contact at 1410 m from the sidewall cores and oil-show descriptions, and the need for a 52 m
height above the FWL for the capillary entry pressure of the pore types at 1410 m. A comparison of the modelled reservoir
saturation at the present time (point data) with the two generalized primary drainage curves (red and brown curves) of the
reservoir is done in Figure 8.

SW.CAL / Ht_FWL
Sw / Height above Free Water Level Electrofacies Zone
LFacies:L_Facies4
400 8
1062

8
Two extreme palaeo‐capillary  pressure curves
360 A B 1
1102

7
320 1142

280 1182
6
2

1222
240

5
Ht_FWL (m)

Depth (m)

1262
200

160 1302

3
120 1342 3

80 1382
2

40 1422

1
4
FWL 1462
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
SW.CAL ( frac.)
Figure 6: Saturation height function of the two extreme palaeo-capillary pressure curves together with present water saturation
(SW.CAL) profile versus the height above FWL (Ht_FWL) and reservoir depth. The reservoir interval marked with 8 rock types is
shown in the z-axes labelled as Electrofacies. Facies characteristics are given in Figure 8.

Based on Leverett’s (1941) equation, the above mentioned FWL with various interfacial tension and pore-throat radius were
used to generate the two extreme cases (optimistic-A and pessimistic-B capillary pressure curves) of the palaeo-drainage
capillary pressure curves. These curves show a long transition zone of more than 200 meter from the FWL to the minimum
water saturation (connate water saturation) zone. The lowest and the highest connate water saturation from these curves are
estimated to be about 20 and 40 percent, respectively. However, these values can increase significantly where the rock is
12 SPE 141047

classified as fully microporous or shaly rock. In this analysis, the reservoir rock was classified into eight electrofacies. The
conventional wireline logs of neutron and density log together with the reservoir shale volume were used in cluster analysis
and reservoir rock typing (Figure 7). The reservoir clustering started with 15 clusters that eventually consolidated to 8 clusters
(electrofacies). The facies classification is illustrated in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Reservoir electrofacies (cluster) classification to 8 facies using conventional wireline logs.

According to Figure 6 and Figure 7, the porous facies of 5 and 6 are mainly located in zone 2 in the reservoir where the rock is
mainly brecciated carbonates. These facies show high water saturation much larger than the estimated connate water saturation
from the palaeo-drainage capillary pressure curves. In contrast, facies-3, which is below the depth of 1290 m shows a
significant amount of oil saturation in some intervals. This facies is mainly crystallized dolomite, minor breccias, less porous
and tight in many intervals with some vuggy pores randomly distributed. Based on the capillary pressure curves and saturation
profile of the well at present time, the reservoir zone-3 is located in the transition zone of the well and has considerable oil
volume compared to the other zones.
SPE 141047 13

Discussion
To verify the result and assess the heterogeneity in fluid saturation, the constructed saturation height model of the reservoir
and geochemistry of fluid samples were compared at the same time. An accepted idea about Barents Sea hydrocarbon reserves
is that the vast majority of the reservoirs have leaked hydrocarbons in the past due to different geological and tectonic events
(Wood et al., 1989; Dore and Jensen 1996; Rasmussen and Fjeldskaar 1996; Dore et al., 2002; Ohm et al., 2008). The studied
reservoir experienced multiple periods of uplifting and erosion through geological time which facilitated the oil to leak. The
leaking process is not the topic of this study, but its occurrence and extent in the area are important factors in the evaluation.
As a result of leakage, most of the volume of hydrocarbon, preferably the movable volume, escaped from the reservoir and the
formation brine flooded the reservoir. The reservoir observations help to explain the reservoir performance in which the
leakage and flooding processes has not fully developed in the whole reservoir intervals.

Selected geochemical data from the well are shown in Figure 8 for comparison with the saturation height model. The carbon
isotope data from methane show considerably lower δ13C values in zone 2 than in zone 3, and differences in 87Sr/86Sr pore
water isotopic ratios from zone 2 and 3 are also indicative of a discontinuity between the reservoir fluids of the two zones.
These differences correlate with the generalized palaeo saturation height function and the current reservoir saturation in the
reservoir shown in Figure 8.

SW.CAL / Ht_FWL LFacies:L_Facies4

Geochemistry  data; Carbon  400 8

isotope and Strontium  ratio 
8

Delta 13C-isotope values 360

87Sr/86Sr
13C-(o/oo PDB) C1

-52 -50 -48 0,712 0,714

7
1130 1130 320

Zone 2 280
1180 1180 6

240
1230 1230
5
Possible barrier between upper and 
Ht_FWL

lower reservoir 200
Depth (mD)

1280 1280
4

160

1330 1330

3
Zone-3 120

1380 1380

80
2

1430 1430
40

1480
1480
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
SW.CAL
Figure 8: Carbon isotope variation, Strontium 87/86 ratio and water saturation marked with classified electrofacies (dotted points)
versus height from the free water level. Possible barrier is predicted from the comparison of the petrophysical interpretation and
geochemistry data.

The most likely explanation for the results is that the upper section of the reservoir has been flooded with brine after reservoir
hydrocarbon accumulation and the movable hydrocarbon has moved out from the reservoir. The remnant is mostly residual
hydrocarbon, although some live oil may still exist in particular intervals. In contrast, the reservoir section below that depth
has not been wholly flooded with formation brine and thereby the leakage has not developed completely. This part of the
reservoir is located in the capillary transition zone of the well. In this section, the more water-wet intervals are invaded by the
14 SPE 141047

formation brine, but the oil-wet and mixed-wet pores have resisted against the water invasion and stayed totally or partially
intact within the transition zone. The geochemistry analysis of the reservoir hydrocarbon is also confirming that the upper
section of the reservoir oil has experienced some order of biodegradation which has been less developed in the lower part.
MDT pressure measurements clarified a water gradient in the whole reservoir section with some supercharging points in the
well. The water gradient, thus, is applicable based on the above discussion. However, the supercharging effect may develop
either due to the reservoir rock tightness or the interaction between rock wettability and drilling mud invasion.

Conclusion
Various saturation models are applied in the reservoir fluid saturation estimation, each of which is applicable for a particular
reservoir condition. Using the NMR log and resistivity measurements, a simple methodology is used to construct new
resistivity logs in a complex reservoir situation. Based on the new generated logs and the true log measurements fluid
saturation and movability are estimated. The model is applied on a very heterogeneous reservoir case from the Norwegian
Barents Sea area. Comparison of the results with other well observations, MDT measurements and fluid analysis approves that
the model works appropriately. A qualitative wettability investigation is also possible in this model. Based on this model,
some intervals of the well showed considerable oil volume, with possible live oil, in the reservoir transition zone mainly
within the oil wet rock intervals. However, the low porosity and permeability of those intervals may necessitate a particular
production strategy. It must be noted that the reservoir perforation in long intervals have to be avoided since the mobile water
and oil exist closely and the production intervals have to be accurately projected. The most likely explanation for the water
production of a nearby well with 2% of oil cut in the same structure seems to be a long interval perforation of the reservoir
interval within the transition zone.

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge Statoil for support and access to petrophysical and geochemical data.

Nomenclature
Name Description Unit
CBW clay bound water fraction
FFI  free fluid index fraction 
HCAL caliper log inch 
HCGR compensated gamma ray API 
HCGR_SHALE  shale volume from CGR log fraction 
LLDC deep laterolog ohmm 
MSFLC  micro-resistivity log ohmm 
nmrBF  NMR bound fluid fraction 
nmrPHIT NMR total porosity dec 
nmrT2cutoff  T2 cutoff millisecond 
Pc  capillary pressure bar 
PHIT  CPI total porosity dec 
Rmfapp   apparent mud filtrate resistivity ohmm 
Ro.t  modelled deep resistivity log assuming Sw=100% ohmm 
Ro.xo artificial microresistivity log ohmm 
Ro.xo  modelled micro resistivity log assuming Smf=100% ohmm 
RT_BIN100 artificial deep resistivity log based on the assumption in the paper ohmm 
Rw  formation water resistivity ohmm 
Rxo  flushed zone resistivity measurement ohmm 
RXO_BIN100 artificial micro resistivity log based on the assumption in the paper ohmm 
Sw water saturation fraction 
SW.CAL calculated water saturation  
Swirr irreducible water saturation fraction 
T2_norm  normalized T2 millisecond 
SPE 141047 15

T2bulkoil T2 bulk oil volume millisecond 

T2gm   logarithmic mean of T2 spectrum millisecond 
o
Temp  reservoir temperature C 
Vanhydrite  Anhydrite volume dec 
VLime  Limestone volume dec 
VDol  Dolomite volume dec 
VSand  Sandstone volume dec 
VWL  wet clay volume dec 
η  viscosity CP 
CMR combinable magnetic resonance
CPI Computer Processed Interpretation
EBW exchangeable bound water
m Archie’s cementation factor
MD measure depth
MDT modular dynamic tools
MRF magnetic resonance fluid characterization
n Archie’s saturation exponent
NMR nuclear magnetic resonance
SCAL Special core analysis
T2 transverse relaxation time
TZ transition zone
WFT wireline formation tester
zone reservoir zone

References:
Archie, G.E., 1941, The electrical resistivity log as an aid in determining some reservoir characteristics, Dallas meeting, October 1941.
Birchak, J., Gardner, L., Hipp, J., and Victor, J., 1974, High dielectric constant microwave probes for sensing soil moisture. Proceedings of
the IEEE, 62 (1), 93-98.
Brown, R., and Gamson, B., 1960, Nuclear magnetism logging, Journal of Petroleum Technology, 12, 199-207.
Chapman, R.E., 1983. Petroleum Geology. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, New York 415 pp.
Chilingarian, G.V., and Yen, 1978. Bitumens, Asphalts, and Tar Sands. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, New York, 331 pp.
Coates, G., Xiao, L., and Prammer, M.: NMR Logging Principles and Applications, Halliburton Energy Services, Houston (1999).
Donaldson, E. C., Elam, W., 2008, Wettability, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas, U.S.A. 329 pp.
Dore, A.G., and Jensen, L.N., 1996. The impact of late Cenozoic uplift and erosion on hydrocarbon exploration: offshore Norway and some
other uplifted basins. Global and Planetary Change, 12, 415-436.
Dore, A. G., Corcoran D. V., and Scotchman I. C., 2002. Prediction of the hydrocarbon system in exhumed basins, and application to the
NW European margin, in A. G. Dore , J. A. Cartwright, M. S. Stoker, J. P. Turner, and N. J. White, eds., Exhumation of the North
Atlantic margin: Timing, mechanism and implications for petroleum exploration: Geological Society (London) Special Publications
196, p. 401–429.
Fanchi, J.R., Christiansen, R.L., Heymans, M.J., 2002, Estimating oil reserves in oil-water transition zones, SPE 79210, SPE Reservoir
Evaluation and Engineering, 5 (4), 311-316.
Freedman, R., Lo,S., Flaum, M., Hirasaki, G. J., Matteson, A., and Sezginer, A., 2001, A New NMR Method of Fluid Characterization in
Reservoir Rocks: Experimental Confirmation and Simulation Results: SPE Journal, vol. 6, no. 4, p. 452-464.
Freedman, R., Heaton, N., Flaum, M., Hirasaki, G.J., Flaum, C., Hurlimann, M., 2003, Wettability, saturation, and viscosity from NMR
measurements, SPE 87340, 317-327.
Griffiths, R., Carnegie, A., Gyllensten, A., Ribeiro, M. T., Prasodjo, A., Sallam, Y., 2007. Evaluation of low resistivity pay in carbonate. A
breakthrough, SPWLA 47th annual symposium, Veracruz, Mexico.
Guy, W.J., Byrnes, A.P., Doveton, J.H., and Franseen, E.K., 1998, Influence of Lithology and Pore Geometry on NMR Prediction of
Permeability and Effective Porosity in Mississippian Carbonates, Kansas: AAPG Meeting, Salt Lake City, Utah, 5p.
Hunt, J.M., 1984. Generation and Migration of Light Hydrocarbons. Science, 226 (4680), 1265-1270.
Jadhunandan, P.P., and Morrow, N.R., 1995, Effect of wettability on waterflood recovery for crude-oil/brine/rock systems. SPE Reservoir
Engineering (Feb): 40-46.
16 SPE 141047

Kleinberg, R. L., and Vinegar, H. J., 1996, NMR properties of reservoir fluids, The Log Analyst, November/December, 20-32.
Larsen, J.A., Urkedal, H., and Lønøy, A., 2009, Fluid pressure gradients in tight formations, SPE EUROPEC/EAGE annual conference and
exhibition, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 8-11 June.
Leverett, M. C. 1941. Capillary behaviour in porous solids. Trans. AIME, 142, p. 152-169.
Masalmeh, S.K., 2000, High oil recoveries from transition zones, SPE 87291, presented at the 9th Abu Dhabi International Petroleum
Exhibition and Conference, U.A.E, 15-18 October.
Montaron, B., 2008, Connectivity theory – Anew approach to modeling ‘’non-Archie’’ rocks, presented at SPWLA 49th Annual Logging
Symposium, Edinburgh, Scotland, May 25-28.
Ohm, S.E., Karlsen, D.A., and Austin, T.J.F., 2008. Geochemically driven exploration models in uplifted areas: Examples from the
Norwegian Barents Sea. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists AAPG Bulletin, v. 92, no. 9, pp. 1191-1223.
Ramamoorthy, R., Boyd, A., Neville, T. J., Seleznev N., Sun H., Flaum, C., and Ma, J., 2008, A new workflow for petrophysical and textural
evaluation of carbonate reservoirs: SPWLA 49th Annual Logging Symposium, May 25-28, 2008.
Rasmussen, E., and Fjeldskaar W., 1996. Quantification of the Pliocene-Pleistocene erosion of the Barents Sea from present-day bathymetry:
Global Planet, Change, v. 12, p. 119–133.
Saha, S., 2003. Low-resistivity pay (LPR): Ideas for solution. Presented at the 27th annual SPE technical conference, Abuja, Nigeria, August
4-6.
Wood, R., Edrich, S. P., and Hutchison, I., 1989. Influence of North Atlantic tectonics on the large scale uplift of the Stappen High and
Loppa High, western Barents shelf, in A. J. Tankard and H. R. Balkwill, eds., Extensional tectonics and stratigraphy of the North
Atlantic margins: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 56, 559–566.
Xian, C., Dawoud, A., Carnegie, A., El Mahdi, A., Al Hajeri, S., Basioni, M., Raghurman, B., Fujisawa, G., Mullins O. C., 2006,
Identification and characterization of transition zones in tight carbonates by downhole fluid analysis, SPE 101257, presented at Abu
Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition and Conference, U.A.E, 5-8 November.
Zhang, Q., Lo, S.W., Huang, C.C., Hirasaki, G.J., House, W.V., 1998, Some exceptions to default NMR rock and fluid properties, SPWLA
39th Annual Logging Symposium Transactions.

View publication stats