16-09-2015

Metal Forming Four Important forming techniques are:

 Rolling

 Forging

 Extrusion

 Drawing

Terminology
Semi-finished product Terminology
 Ingot: is the first solid form of steel.
Mill product
 Bloom: is the product of first breakdown of ingot has square
cross section 6 x 6 in. or larger  Plate is the product with thickness > 5 mm
 Billet: is hot rolled from a bloom and is square, 1.5 in. on a
side or larger.  Sheet is the product with thickness < 5 mm and width > 600
 Slab: is the hot rolled ingot or bloom rectangular cross mm
section 10 in. or more wide and 1.5 in. or more thick.
 Strip is the product with a thickness < 5 mm and width <
600 mm

Ingot Bloom Billet slab

Plastic Deformation
 Deformation beyond elastic limits.

 As the metal is shaped during the forming process, its

internal grain deforms to follow the general shape of the
part. As a result, the grain is continuous throughout the
part, giving rise to a piece with improved strength
characteristics

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Recrystallisation Temperature (Rx)  Rx depends on the amount of cold work a material has
 “The minimum temperature at which the completed
already received. The higher the cold work, the lower
recrystallisation of a cold worked metal occurs within
a specified period of approximately one hour”. would be the Rx.
 Rx decreases strength and increases ductility.  Rx varies between 1/3 to ½ melting point.
 If working above Rx, hot-working process whereas
Rx = 0.4 x Melting temp. (Kelvin).
working below are cold-working process.
 It involves replacement of cold-worked structure by a  Rx of lead and Tin is below room temp.
new set of strain-free, approximately equi-axed grains to
 Rx of Cadmium and Zinc is room temp.
replace all the deformed crystals. Contd.
 Rx of Iron is 450oC and for steels around 1000°C

 Finer is the initial grain size; lower will be the Rx

Contd.

Grain growth
 Grain growth follows complete crystallization if the materials
left at elevated temperatures.
 Heating beyond recrystallization temperature range causes
the size of the recrystallized grains to increase, some of the
grains grow by consuming others.
 Grain growth lower the energy of solid because surface
energy is associated with grain boundaries.
 In practical applications, grain growth is not desirable.
 Incorporation of impurity atoms and insoluble second phase
particles are effective in retarding grain growth.
 Grain growth is very strongly dependent on temperature.

Strain Hardening
 When metal is formed in cold state, there is no
recrystalization of grains and thus recovery from
grain distortion or fragmentation does not take
place.
 As grain deformation proceeds, greater resistance
to this action results in increased hardness and
strength i.e. strain hardening.
Malleability
 Malleability is the property of a material whereby it can
be shaped when cold by hammering or rolling.
 A malleable material is capable of undergoing plastic
deformation without fracture.
 A malleable material should be plastic but it is not
essential to be so strong.
 Lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminium are
some materials in order of diminishing malleability.

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Cold Working Advantages of Cold Working

1. Better accuracy, closer tolerances
Working below recrystalization 2. Better surface finish
temp.
3. Strain hardening increases strength and hardness

4. Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable

directional properties in product

5. No heating of work required (less total energy)

Disadvantages of Cold Working

1. Equipment of higher forces and power required
2. Surfaces of starting work piece must be free of scale and
dirt
3. Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming
that can be done
4. In some operations, metal must be annealed to allow
further deformation
5. Some metals are simply not ductile enough to be cold
worked.

Hot Working Advantages of Hot Working

1. The porosity of the metal is largely eliminated.
2. The grain structure of the metal is refined.
3. The impurities like slag are squeezed into fibers and
distributed throughout the metal.
4. The mechanical properties such as toughness,
percentage elongation, percentage reduction in area, and
resistance to shock and vibration are improved due to
Working above
the refinement of grains.
recrystalization temp

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Micro-Structural Changes in a Hot

Dis-advantages of Hot Working
1. It requires expensive tools. Working Process (Rolling)
2. It produces poor surface finish, due to the rapid
oxidation and scale formation on the metal surface.
3. Due to the poor surface finish, close tolerance
cannot be maintained.

Annealing
•Annealing relieves the stresses from cold working – three Warm Forming
stages: recovery, recrystallization and grain growth.
 Deformation produced at temperatures intermediate to
•During recovery, physical properties of the cold-worked
material are restored without any observable change in hot and cold forming is known as warm forming.
microstructure. Transition

 Compared to cold forming, it reduces loads, increase

state

material ductility.

 Compared to hot forming, it produce less scaling and

decarburization, better dimensional precision and
smoother surfaces.

Isothermal Forming GATE-2003

 During hot forming, cooler surfaces surround a hotter Cold working of steel is defined as working
interior, and the variations in strength can result in non- (a) At its recrystallisation temperature
uniform deformation and cracking of the surface.
(b) Above its recrystallisation temperature
(c) Below its recrystallisation temperature
 For temp.-sensitive materials deformation is performed
(d) At two thirds of the melting temperature of the
under isothermal conditions. metal
 The dies or tooling must be heated to the workpiece
temperature, sacrificing die life for product quality.
 Close tolerances, low residual stresses and uniform metal
flow.

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GATE-2002, ISRO-2012 ISRO-2010

Hot rolling of mild steel is carried out Materials after cold working are subjected to
(a) At recrystallisation temperature
following process to relieve stresses
(b) Between 100°C to 150°C
(c) Below recrystallisation temperature (a) Hot working
(d) Above recrystallisation temperature
(b) Tempering

(c) Normalizing

(d) Annealing

IES – 2006 IES – 2004

Which one of the following is the process to refine Consider the following statements:
the grains of metal after it has been distorted by In comparison to hot working, in cold working,
hammering or cold working? 1. Higher forces are required
(a) Annealing (b) Softening 2. No heating is required
(c) Re-crystallizing (d) Normalizing 3. Less ductility is required
4. Better surface finish is obtained
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4

Ans. (b)

IES – 2009 IES – 2000

Consider the following characteristics: Assertion (A): To obtain large deformations by cold
1. Porosity in the metal is largely eliminated. working intermediate annealing is not required.
2. Strength is decreased. Reason (R): Cold working is performed below the
3. Close tolerances cannot be maintained. recrystallisation temperature of the work material.
Which of the above characteristics of hot working is/are (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
correct? correct explanation of A
(a) 1 only (b) 3 only (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true

Ans. (d) Ans. (d)

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IES – 1996
ISRO-2009 Consider the following statements:
In the metal forming process, the stresses When a metal or alloy is cold worked
encountered are 1. It is worked below room temperature.
(a) Greater than yield strength but less than 2. It is worked below recrystallisation temperature.
ultimate strength 3. Its hardness and strength increase.
(b) Less than yield strength of the material 4. Its hardness increases but strength does not
(c) Greater than the ultimate strength of the increase.
material Of these correct statements are
(d) Less than the elastic limit (a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 4
Ans. (a) Ans. (c)

IES – 1992 IAS – 1996

Specify the sequence correctly For mild steel, the hot forging temperature range is
(a) Grain growth, recrystallisation, stress relief (a) 4000C to 6000C
(b) Stress relief, grain growth, recrystallisation (b) 7000C to 9000C
(c) Stress relief, recrystallisation, grain growth (c) 10000C to 12000C
(d) Grain growth, stress relief, recrystallisation (d) 13000Cto 15000C

Ans. (c)
Ans. (c)

IAS – 2004 IAS-2002

Assertion (A): Hot working does not produce strain Assertion (A): There is good grain refinement in hot
hardening. working.
Reason (R): Hot working is done above the re- Reason (R): In hot working physical properties are
crystallization temperature. generally improved.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the
correct explanation of A correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the (b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the
correct explanation of A correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false (c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true (d) A is false but R is true
Ans. (a)
Ans. (b)