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Fractional Fourier Transforms-Moreno2010
Fractional Fourier Transforms-Moreno2010
Fractional Fourier Transforms-Moreno2010
Contents 1. Introduction 90
2. The ABCD Ray Transfer Matrix Method 91
2.1. Physical Meaning of the ABCD Elements 92
2.2. Basic Optical Components and Ray Transfer
Matrices 94
2.3. Cardinal Elements of the Optical System 96
2.4. Lenses and Imaging 99
2.5. Self-Focusing Graded Index Ducts 102
3. Extension to Anamorphic Optical Systems 104
4. Wave Optics Properties of Geometrical Systems:
Fourier Transform Systems 108
4.1. Connection between Wave and Ray Optics
Formalisms 108
4.2. Exact Fourier Transform Optical System 109
4.3. Scale of the Optical Fourier Transform 110
4.4. Basic Fourier Transform Optical Lens Systems 112
4.5. Ray Transfer Matrix Factorizations 113
4.6. Anamorphic Optical Fourier Transformers 117
5. Cascading Multiple Equivalent Systems:
The Fractional Fourier Transform 120
5.1. Heuristic Concept of the FRFT Optical System 120
5.2. Derivation of the Ray Transfer Matrix of an FRFT
System 121
5.3. Propetries of the FRFT Operation 123
5.4. Basic FRFT Optical Systems 126
Advances in Imaging and Electron Physics, Volume 161, ISSN 1076-5670, DOI: 10.1016/S1076-5670(10)61003-8.
Copyright # 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
89
90 Ignacio Moreno and Carlos Ferreira
1. INTRODUCTION
The ray transfer matrix method (Gerrard, 1975; Kloos, 2007) is a useful
method for tracing paraxial rays. We consider rotationally symmetric
optical systems under the paraxial approximation. In this case, the
properties of an optical system can be evaluated considering a planar
geometry as indicated in Figure 1. Rays are considered to travel close to
the optical axis (z-axis in Figure 1), and a ray crossing a traverse plane
(constant z) is described with two components—the height x(z) and the
angle s(z)—at which it crosses this plane.
The optical system is regarded as a set of optical components placed
between two traverse planes, located at z ¼ z1 and z ¼ z2, respectively. The
paraxial approximation applies to the ray that travels close to the z-axis
and, therefore s follows the small-angle approximation and can be con-
sidered as the slope of the ray, s ¼ dx/dz. For simplicity, we consider this
one-dimensional geometry (x-z), since it is directly applicable to usual
92 Ignacio Moreno and Carlos Ferreira
z = z1 z = z2
x
s1 x1 Optical z
y system
x2
Input ray s2
Output ray
lens systems because of their circular symmetry around the optical axis.
In addition, it also applies to anamorphic systems that can be factorized
into horizontal and vertical components.
The optical system changes the position and the angle of the ray.
An input ray with coordinates (x1, s1) at the input plane is changed to
an output ray with coordinates (x2, s2) at the output plane. In the paraxial
approximation, the relations among these coordinates are linear and they
can generally be written in the form
x2 ¼ Ax1 þ Bs1 ; (3.1a)
s2 ¼ Cx1 þ Ds1 ; (3.1b)
where A, B, C, and D are real numbers. These relations can be written in
the form of a 2 2 ray transfer matrix M, as follows:
x2 x1 A B x
¼M ¼ 1 : (3.2)
s2 s1 C D s1
Throughout this chapter we consider optical systems in air, where the
initial and end media are equal. In this situation, the determinant of the
ray transfer matrix is unity (Gerrard, 1975), that is,
detðMÞ ¼ AD BC ¼ 1: (3.3)
(a) (b)
Rear focal Front focal
plane
Optical plane Optical
system z system z
A=0 D=0
F⬘ F
Front focal s2
s1 Optical plane Optical
system x2 z system z
Rear focal x1
A=0 D=0
plane
F⬘ F
system with the same height, x2 ¼ Bs1. When s1 ¼ 0, input rays are
parallel to the optical axis (z) and they focus on axis (x2 ¼ 0).
Figure 2b shows the case corresponding to D ¼ 0. Now, a point source
at the input plane is converted into a set of parallel rays at the output
plane. Therefore, the input plane is the front or object focal plane (F). The
height (x1) of the point source determines the angular direction of the rays
leaving the system as s2 ¼ Cx1, and therefore a point source located on
axis (s2 ¼ 0) produces a collimated beam with rays parallel to the optical
axis.
When C ¼ 0, parallel rays at the input plane (constant s1) remain
parallel rays at the output plane (constant s2). In particular, input rays
parallel to the optical axis remain parallel at the exit (s1 ¼ s2 ¼ 0); then the
optical system is said to be afocal or telescopic (Figure 3a). On the contrary,
when C 6¼ 0, the system is said to be focal, because parallel rays at the input
plane are focused onto a plane located at distance d ¼ A/C from the
output plane (Figure 3b). The C parameter in the ray transfer matrix
represents the optical power (P ¼ –C) of the optical system, while the
focal length of the system is defined as f 0 ¼ –1/C.
An especially relevant situation is the imaging condition, which is
obtained when B ¼ 0. In this situation, any point source at the input
plane focuses at a corresponding point in the output plane, regardless of
the input angle (Figure 3c). Therefore, output and input planes are conju-
gated planes. Two other parameters of the ray transfer matrix adopt in
this case a relevant geometric physical meaning: Parameter A becomes
the lateral magnification (mx x2/x1), while parameter D becomes the
angular magnification (ms s2/s1 on axis):
94 Ignacio Moreno and Carlos Ferreira
(a) (c)
Optical Optical
system z system s2 z
s1
C=0 B=0
C 0 x1 B=0
(a) (b)
s2 = s1
} x1
s1
} x2
z
s1
}
s2
x2 = x1
z
d n1 n2
z = z1 z = z2
(c) (d)
s1 s2 s2
} x2 = x1 s1
}x =x
2 1
R z z
R
z1 z2
n1 n2
FIGURE 4 Ray transformation at some basic optical components. (a) Free propagation;
(b) planar reflection; (c) spherical refraction; (d) spherical mirror.
Since rays travel in free space along straight lines, free-space propaga-
tion of a distance d transforms the ray coordinates as x2 ¼ x1 þ s1 d and
s2 ¼ s1 (Figure 4a). Thus, the ray transfer matrix (MFP) of the free-space
propagation is
1 d
MFP ðdÞ ¼ : (3.8)
0 1
The ray transformation in a planar refraction between two media with
refractive indices n1 and n2 is governed by Snell’s law, n2sins2 ¼ n1sins1,
which under paraxial approximation can be written as n2s2 ¼ n1s1. It is
thus described by the ray transfer matrix MR given by
0 1
1 0
n1 B C
MR ; R ! 1 ¼ @ 0 n 1 A: (3.9)
n2 n2
where z1 and z2 now denote the coordinates of the object and image
conjugated points, and R denotes the radius of the spherical boundary
between the two media. Distances are referred to the boundary plane
(Figure 4c). In the point where the ray refraction is considered, the height
is maintained constant x2 ¼ x1 while the angular coordinate is transformed
according to
n1 n2 n1
s2 ¼ s1 x1 ; (3.11)
n2 n2 R
thus giving a ray transfer matrix:
0 1
1 0
n1 B n1 C
MR ; R ¼ @ n1 n2 A: (3.12)
n2 n2 R n2
where we adopted the sign convention in Saleh (1991), where the z axis
follows the general direction of the rays.
A F H H⬘ F⬘ A⬘
ABCD
system z
f f dH d⬘H f⬘ f⬘
dF d⬘F
dA d⬘A
while the propagation from the front focal plane (F) to rear principal plane
(F0 ) is characterized by the matrix:
0 1
0 f0
B C
MFF0 ¼ @ 1 :
0 0A
(3.22)
f
Finally, the propagation from the front antiprincipal plane (A) to the
rear antiprincipal plane (A0 ) is characterized by
Fractional Fourier Transforms and Geometrical Optics 99
0 1
1 0
B 1 C
MAA0 ¼ @ 1 A: (3.23)
f0
(3.24)
The parameter C in this matrix directly gives the thick lens optical
power and the focal length as follows:
1 1 1 ð n 1Þ 2
P ¼ 0 ¼ ðn 1Þ þt : (3.25)
f R1 R2 nR1 R2
R1 R2
A F H H⬘ F⬘ A⬘
n
dA d⬘A
dF dH d⬘H d⬘F
n=1 n=1
The direct application of Eqs. (3.15), (3.16), and (3.20) reveals that the
principal, focal, and anti-principal planes of the lens are located at dis-
tances from the lens surfaces given by
ðn 1Þt ðn 1Þt
dH ¼ f 0 ; d0H ¼ f 0 (3.26)
nR2 nR1
0 ðn 1Þt 0 0 ðn 1Þt
dF ¼ f 1 þ ; dF ¼ f 1 ; (3.27)
nR2 nR1
ðn 1Þt ðn 1Þt
dA ¼ f 0 2 þ ; d0A ¼ f 0 2 : (3.28)
nR2 nR1
The thin lens approximation is obtained in the limit t ! 0, thus leading
to the following expressions for the ray transfer matrix and its focal
length:
0 1
1 0
B C
MTL ð f Þ ¼ @ 1 1 A; (3.29)
f0
1 1 1
P ¼ 0 ¼ ð n 1Þ : (3.30)
f R2 R1
The location of the cardinal planes [Eqs. (3.26)–(3.28)] reveals that
the principal, focal, and anti-principal planes are located, respectively,
on the lens plane and at distances f 0 and 2f 0 from the thin lens plane; that is,
dH ¼ d0H ¼ 0; (3.31)
dF ¼ d0F ¼ f 0 ; (3.32)
dA ¼ d0A ¼ 2f 0 : (3.33)
Of note, as expected, the ray transfer matrix of the lens in the thin lens
approximation (Eq. (3.29) adopts exactly the same form as the propagation
between principal planes [Eq. (3.21)]. This indicates that the thin lens con-
cept plays a relevant role not only as an approximation for the real lens, but
also because any optical system can be regarded as an equivalent thin lens
when the principal planes are considered as the origin for distances.
As indicated in Section 2.1, the imaging condition is obtained whenever
the ray transfer matrix of the optical system fulfils the condition B ¼ 0.
Depending on the planes selected as the reference for the distances, the
imaging condition adopts different expressions. Figure 7 shows the two
most useful cases, which consider either the principal planes (thus leading
to the Gaussian imaging law) or the focal planes (thus leading to the Newto-
nian imaging law). Here O and O0 denote the object and image plane loca-
tions, and the figure shows the ray tracing between these two conjugated
planes.
Fractional Fourier Transforms and Geometrical Optics 101
(a)
O F H H⬘ F⬘ O⬘
z f⬘ f⬘ z⬘
a a⬘
(b)
A F H H⬘ F⬘ A⬘
z = f⬘ f⬘ f⬘ z⬘ = f⬘
a = 2f⬘ a⬘ = 2f⬘
FIGURE 7 Ray tracing for (a) a general imaging system, (b) propagation between
anti-principal planes.
and the magnification m is directly obtained from Eq. (3.4) through the A
parameter as
a0 a0
m¼1 ¼ : (3.36)
f0 a
An alternative expression for the imaging condition is the Newtonian
law, where distances are referred to the focal planes F and F0 . Let us define
102 Ignacio Moreno and Carlos Ferreira
0 1 1
cosðoLÞ sinðoLÞ
MGRIN ¼ @ o A; (3.41)
o sinðoLÞ cosðoLÞ
where L is the propagation length along the grin medium. Because the
grin media are used later in dealing with the FRFT, they are analyzed here
in detail.
The distance Lp ¼ 2p/o is defined as the pitch, which is the distance
corresponding to a complete oscillation of the rays. Depending on the
length L, a grin lens has different properties, which are summarized in
Figure 8. The quarter-pitch grin lens is characterized by a length L ¼ Lp/4
and the corresponding ray matrix adopts the form
0 1
1
1 0
MGRIN L ¼ Lp ¼ @ o A; (3.42)
4
o 0
that is, it adopts the form of the propagation between focal planes
[Eq. (3.22)] with o ¼ 1/f 0 . Rays describe a quarter oscillation and therefore
parallel rays are focused onto a point, while a point source is transformed
into a set of parallel rays (Figure 8a).
The half-pitch grin lens (L ¼ Lp/2) has a ray matrix MGRIN(L ¼ Lp/2) ¼ –1
where 1 denotes the identity matrix. Because B ¼ C ¼ 0, the grin lens
performs imaging between the input and output planes while simulta-
neously acting as a telescopic system. The minus sign indicates the inver-
sion produced in the output coordinates with respect to the input ones
(Figure 7b). Therefore, this case represents a particular case of a
(a)
Quarter pitch grin lens
(b)
Half pitch grin lens
z
FIGURE 8 Some ray trajectories in selfoc grin lenses with (a) quarter-pitch,
(b) half-pitch and (c) full-pitch lengths.
104 Ignacio Moreno and Carlos Ferreira
(a) (b)
y y
x x a x
z z
x a x
where M^ CL;0 ð f 0 Þ is the ray matrix in Eq. (3.49a), and R^ ðaÞ is a rotation-type
4 4 matrix defined as
^ ð aÞ cosðaÞ 1 sinðaÞ 1
R : (3.52)
sinðaÞ 1 cosðaÞ 1
Note that this is a 4 4 matrix since the sine and cosine terms multiply
the 2 2 identity matrix 1 in Eq. (3.46). The result of the matrix multiplica-
tion in Eq. (3.51) leads to the following ray matrix:
0 1
1 0 0 0
B 1 cos2 ðaÞ 1
1 0 sinðaÞ cosðaÞ 0 C
B 0 C
B f f C
^ 0 B
MCL;a ð f Þ ¼ B C: (3.53)
0 0 1 0 C
B 1 1 C
@ sinðaÞ cosðaÞ 0 sin 2
ð a Þ 1 A
f0 f0
Fractional Fourier Transforms and Geometrical Optics 107
where matrices R ^ and M ^ CL;0 are given by Eq. (3.52) and Eq. (3.49a), respec-
tively. The result of this multiplication is
0 1
1 0 0 0
B 1 cos ðaÞ2
sina cosa C
B 0 1 0C
B fa f 0 f 0 C
^ ¼B B
b b C
:
M
B 0 0 1 0CC
(3.55)
B sin ðaÞ
2 C
@ sina cosa 0 1A
f 0b f 0b
and
f 0a sinð2aÞ
tanð2’Þ ¼ (3.57)
f 0b þ f 0a cosð2aÞ:
108 Ignacio Moreno and Carlos Ferreira
and
sinð2aÞ
tanð2’Þ ¼ ¼ tanðaÞ: (3.59)
1 þ cosð2aÞ
In this situation, the rotation angle of the equivalent orthogonal doublet
is denoted as j ¼ a/2. The optical power is doubled in the x direction when
the two lenses are parallel, and is zero in the y direction. When the two
lenses are orthogonal (a ¼ 90 ), the focal length is equal to f 0 in both
directions. Thus, rotating the relative angle a between the cylindrical lenses
allows tuning of the two focal lengths of the equivalent orthogonal doublet.
(a) (b)
x f⬘
L s
s z
N
l
M
z
z = z0
FIGURE 10 Rays (continuous lines) and wave fronts (dotted lines). (a) A set of
parallel rays is equivalent to a linear phase in the plane x–z. (b) The effect of a lens is
to introduce a quadratic phase factor.
directly concluded that the set of parallel rays crossing the plane z ¼ z0
with angle s is equivalent to a phase distribution g(r) given by
h xsi
gðrÞ ¼ exp j2p : (3.60)
l
In addition, the action of a lens transforms a plane wave into a spheri-
cal wave whose center is in its rear focal point (Figure 10b). It is well
known that the transmittance tl(r) of a lens of focal length f 0 is a quadratic
phase factor (Goodman, 1996) given by
pr2
tl ðrÞ ¼ exp j 0 ; (3.61)
lf
where r ¼j r j is the radial distance from the optical axis. Equations (3.60)
and (3.61) provide simple relations useful to link ray and wave optics in
order to connect ray transfer matrices to Fourier optics. In particular, a ray
matrix in the form of a thin lens [Eq. (3.29)] can be directly interpreted as a
quadratic phase factor in the form of the term in Eq. (3.61), which multi-
plies the incoming wave front.
F⬘
Front focal s2 = –a/f ⬘
plane FT optical
system z
{ x1 = a
A=D=0
Rear focal
F plane
FIGURE 11 Relation between the location of a point source in the input plane and the
angle of the plane wave at the output plane, useful for obtaining the scaling relation.
The output angle s2 is constant equal to –a/f 0 , and therefore they are all
parallel rays. The equivalent phase distribution at the plane z ¼ z2 is
given, from Eq. (3.60), by
h
x2 s2 i x2 a
g2 ðx2 Þ ¼ exp j2p ¼ exp j2p 0 : (3.66)
l lf
The comparison of Eqs. (3.66) and (3.62a) leads to the relation between
the spatial frequency u of the input signal and the spatial coordinate x2 at
the plane z ¼ z2,
x2
u¼ 0: (3.67)
lf
This equation indicates the size of the optical Fourier transform
through the relation between the spatial coordinate x2 at the output
plane and the spatial frequency u of the function introduced at the input
plane.
We finish this subsection by explicitly writing the two-dimensional
Fourier transform link between the wave front amplitudes, g(r1) and g(r2),
at the input and output planes respectively. Now ri ¼ (xi, yi), with i ¼ 1, 2,
and ri ¼ jrij, and the two-dimensional Fourier transform link, except for a
constant factor, can be expressed as follows:
ð
þ1
where u ¼( ux, uy) is a vector in the spatial frequency domain, with ux and
uy as the spatial frequencies in the x and y directions, which are related to
the spatial coordinates of the output plane as
x2 y2
ux ¼ 0 ; u y ¼ 0 : (3.69)
lf lf
112 Ignacio Moreno and Carlos Ferreira
(a)
P1 P2
f⬘
d1 = f⬘ d2 = f ⬘
P1 P2
(b) f⬘ f⬘
d = f⬘
FIGURE 12 Two basic lens systems that perform an exact Fourier transform between
planes P1 and P2.
Fractional Fourier Transforms and Geometrical Optics 113
Next we use the two first relations to physically analyze two especially
important cases: the imaging systems and diffractive systems.
field amplitude at the object plane, with r1 ¼ (x1, y1) as the spatial coordi-
nates at this plane, the field amplitude g(r2) at the image plane is given by
pr22 1 1
gðr2 Þ ¼ exp j q r1 ; (3.75)
lmf 0 m m
where m1 q m1 r1 represents the scaled version of the input object. These
equations show that the image plane has, in general, a quadratic phase factor,
which is not important if only the intensity of the image plane is of interest
(Yariv, 1994).
Figure 13 shows two particular cases of imaging systems with magnifica-
tion m ¼ –1; in both cases the input and output planes correspond to the
front and rear anti-principal planes A and A0 . The first one uses a single lens
with the same object and image propagation distances equal to 2f 0 . In this
case, the ray matrix calculation is given by the following matrix cascade:
0 1 0 1
0
1 0 0
1 0
1 2f B C 1 2f B C
MIMAG ¼ @ 1 1A ¼ @ 1 1 A
0 1 f0 0 1 f0
0 1 (3.76)
1 0
B C 1 0
¼ @ 1 1A :
0 0 1
f
(a)
P1 f⬘ P2
A F H H⬘ F⬘ A⬘
d1 = 2f ⬘ d2 = 2f ⬘
(b)
P1 P⬘ P2
f⬘ f⬘
A A⬘
d1 = f ⬘ d2 = 2f d3 = f ⬘
FIGURE 13 Two imaging systems between planes P1 and P2. (a) Inexact imaging
configuration with a single lens. (b) Exact imaging with two lenses through two cascaded
Fourier transforms.
Fractional Fourier Transforms and Geometrical Optics 115
This result shows that the image plane contains a quadratic phase
factor exp(þjpr2/lf 0 ), which corresponds to an equivalent diverging
lens with focal length –f 0 located on the image plane.
Conversely, the second system in Figure 13 uses two equal lenses, and
the sequence of ray matrices to calculate the system matrix is given by
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
0
1 f0 B C 1 2f B C 1 f0
MIMAG ¼ @ 1 A @ 1 A
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
f f
1 0
¼ : ð3:77Þ
0 1
In this case, this result proves that there is a perfect exact imaging
condition (no quadratic phase term) between the input plane (P1) and the
final plane (P2). Note that the system in Figure 13b also can be viewed as
the cascade of two exact Fourier transform systems (as in Figure 12a). The
intermediate plane P0 shows the exact Fourier transform of plane P1, and
the plane P2 shows the exact Fourier transform of plane P0 . With this point
of view, the system can be regarded as producing a FRFT of order 2.
This result is known as the Collins diffraction formula since it was first
described by Collins (1970).
A case of particular interest is the interpretation of Fresnel diffraction
on the basis of the matrix factorization in Eq. (3.71) and the subsequent
generalized Collins diffraction formula. The application of this matrix
factorization to the matrix corresponding to a free-space propagation
(Eq. (3.8)) leads to
1 d 1 0 0 d 1 0
¼ : (3.79)
0 1 1=d 1 1=d 0 1=d 1
This equation shows that the free-space propagation (Fresnel trans-
form) is equivalent to a Fourier transform system, multiplied at both ends
by diverging lenses of focal length f 0 ¼ –d. Then, the decomposition in
Eq. (3.78) directly leads to the equation for the Fresnel diffraction approx-
imation (Goodman, 1996):
2 3 8 2 3 9
1 pr 2 < pr 2 =
g2 ðr2 Þ ¼ exp4j 2 5FT exp4j 1 5g1 ðr1 Þ
jld ld : ld ;
u¼r2 =ld
2 3 þ1 2 3 2 3 (3.80)
ð
1 pr 2
pr 2
r r
exp4j 2 5 gðr1 Þ exp4j 1 5 exp4j2p
1 25
¼ dr1 :
jld ld ld ld
1
Note that the exact Fourier transform system shown in Figure 12b is
obtained by adding two converging lenses with focal lengths f ¼ þd on
either side of the free propagation that exactly compensate the diverging
lenses in Eq. (3.79).
Finally, let us note that the Fraunhofer approximation is obtained
when the propagation distance d is large enough so the quadratic phase
factors corresponding to the two matrices in the end in Eq. (3.79) can be
considered as constant or, in other words, the free-space propagation
matrix can be approximated by the central Fourier transform type matrix
in Eq. (3.79). Then Eq. (3.80) can be approximated as
ð
þ1
h
1 1 r1 r2 i
g2 ð r 2 Þ ffi FTfg1 ðr1 Þgu¼r2 =ld ¼ gðr1 Þ exp j2p dr1 : (3.81)
jld jld ld
1
0 B 1 0 0 B
¼ : (3.82)
C D D=B 1 1=B 0
This factorization shows that the optical system is equivalent to an
exact Fourier transform system characterized by a focal length f 0 ¼ B, but
the output amplitude must be multiplied by the quadratic phase factor
corresponding to a thin lens of focal length f 0 ¼ B/D. Again, if only the
intensity of the Fourier transform pattern is of interest, this quadratic
phase factor can be ignored.
As an example, we consider a system similar to the 2f shown in
Figure 7a but with the frontal distance between the object and the lens
d1 d ¼ f 0 . This system has the following ray matrix:
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 f0
0
1 f B C 1 d B dC
M¼ @ 1 1A ¼@ 1 A
0 1 0 1 1
f0 f0 f0
0 1 0 1 (3.83)
0
1
1
0 0 f0
B C B C
¼B C
@ 1 @ 1 d A 1 A @ 1 0 A:
f0 f0 f0
f ⬘x
y
Object f ⬘y
plane x
y
x
z
Inexact
anamorphic
f ⬘y FT plane
d
f ⬘x f ⬘y
the Fourier plane oriented along the coordinate that does not match the
Fourier condition (the x direction in Figure 14).
The analysis of this situation is straightforward with the ray matrix
formalism. Since the lenses are orthogonal, we can treat the system as two
standard 2 2 matrices. The two matrices from the object to the Fourier
plane, for the x and y directions are, respectively,
0 1
0 f 0x
B C
Mx ¼ @ 1 1 d A (3.85a)
0
fx 0
fx
and
0 1
0 f 0y
B 1 C
My ¼ @ 0 A: (3.85b)
f 0y
f 0y
c¼ : (3.87)
f 0x
Intermediate
y image plane
y f ⬘y1
⬘
f y2
Object f ⬘x
plane x
f ⬘y
x
z
⬘
f y1 f y⬘ + f
1 y⬘2 Exact
f ⬘y2 anamorphic
f ⬘y FT plane
f x⬘
f y⬘
f x⬘
(a)
P0 P1/2 P1
F F⬘
(b)
P0 f⬘ P1/2 f⬘ P1
F F⬘
d d d d
FIGURE 16 Two optical systems producing the Fourier transform of the plane P0 on the
plane P1, and producing the FRFT of order p ¼ 1/2 in plane P1/2.
where now cos(y) ¼ A ¼ D. These two last relations lead to the condition
cos(qy) ¼ 0, which has the nontrivial solution
p p
y¼p ¼ ; (3.96)
2 2q
where the fractional order p is given by the angle y through Eq. (3.96), and
the parameter s acts as a scaling factor. This parameter is sometimes also
referred to as the standard or generalized focal length, although we note that
the focal length of the FRFT system is given by s/sin(y).
The application of the Collins formula to this specific ray transfer
matrix provides the output FRFT field g2(r2) as a function of the input
field g2(r1) as
Fractional Fourier Transforms and Geometrical Optics 123
pr2
ð pr2
1 2pr1 r2
ejls tanðfÞ g1 ðr1 Þe jls tanðfÞ ejls sinðfÞ dr1 ;
2 1
g2 ðr2 Þ ¼ Ip ðg1 ðr1 ÞÞ ¼ (3.98)
jls sinðfÞ
which corresponds exactly to Eq. (3.97), where the total fractional angle
is y ¼ y1 þ y2, and therefore the FRFT orders add: p ¼ p1 þ p2.
3. Identity, Fourier, and imaging property: Ip reduces to the identity, the
ordinary Fourier transform, the inverse operation, and the inverse
Fourier transform operation for FRFT orders p ¼ 0, 1, 2, and 3 respec-
tively. This is again easily demonstrated through the ray transfer
matrix in Eq. (3.97).
For p ¼ 0 the FRFT ray transfer matrix collapses to the identity matrix:
1 0
MFRFT ðp ¼ 0; sÞ ¼ : (3.101)
0 1
Note that the identity matrix corresponds to the exact imaging con-
dition between principal planes.
For p ¼ 1, the FRFT ray transfer matrix adopts the following anti-
diagonal form:
0 1
0 s
B C
MFRFT ðp ¼ 1; sÞ ¼ @ 1 0 A; (3.102)
s
(a) (b)
P1 P2 P1 P2
z z
d d d
FIGURE 17 Lohmann lens systems that perform FRFT between planes P1 and P2.
(a) Propagation-lens-propagation. (b) Lens-propagation-lens.
Fractional Fourier Transforms and Geometrical Optics 127
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
B 1 C 1 d B 1 C
MLohII ¼ @ 1A 0 1
@ 1A
f0 f0
0 1
d
B 1 0 d C
B f C
B 0 1 C
¼B C: (3.107)
B 1 d d C
@ @2 A 1 A
f 0 f 0 f 0
In both cases, the ray matrix fulfills the requirement that A ¼ D ¼ 1 – d/f 0 .
Therefore both systems perform an FRFT of order p ¼ 2y/p, where cos(y) ¼
1 – d/f 0 . Consequently, if an FRFT of order p is desired, the relation between
f 0 and d is given by
d p
¼ 1 cos p : (3.108)
f0 2
Again, this equation coincides with the formula derived using diffrac-
tion integrals (Dorsch, 1995) and is obtained here from the simple inspec-
tion of the ray matrix. We note that, for p ¼ 1/2, Eq. (3.91) is recovered.
In both cases, the two perfect Fourier transform systems shown in Figure 12
are recovered when d ¼ f 0 , which correspond to an FRFT order p ¼ 1.
Figure 18 shows the evolution of the order p and the scaling factor s as
a function of the quotient d/f 0 in the range p 2 (0,2), which includes
imaging and Fourier transforming systems. Two interesting aspects are
the nonlinear behavior of the FRFT order and the fact that the scaling
factor tends to be zero at the limits d ¼ 0 and d ¼ 2f 0 in the propagation-
lens-propagation system proposed by Lohmann (1993).
1.2 1.2
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Ratio d/f ⬘
(b)
2.0 2.0
1.8 1.8
1.6 1.6
1.2 1.2
1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Ratio d/f ⬘
FIGURE 18 FRFT order (p) and normalized scaling factor (s/f 0 ) as a function of
the ratio d/f 0 in the two FRFT lens systems proposed by Lohmann in (1993). (a) System I:
propagation-lens-propagation; (b) system II: lens-propagation-lens.
(a) (b)
Central symmetry plane
I I
Lens system Lens system Mirror image
lens system
Planar –1
M0 mirror M0 M⬘ = GM0 G
O O
M0 ¼ G M1
0 G; (3.109)
and M10 indicates the inverse matrix of M0. Using the unimodular prop-
erty of the matrix M0, the result in Eq. (3.109) is
0 D B
M ¼ : (3.111)
C D
Therefore, the matrix MR describing the propagation from I to O in this
system, which is a symmetrical system, is given by
AD þ BC 2BD
MR ðI ! OÞ ¼ M0 M0 ¼ : (3.112)
2AC AD þ BC
This matrix describes a generic optical system that is symmetric with
respect to the central plane. The comparison between Eqs. (3.112) and
(3.97) reveals that the symmetrical lens system is always an FRFT optical
system, with the FRFT order (p) and scaling (s) parameters given by the
relations
p
cos p ¼ AD þ BC and (3.113)
2
BD
s2 ¼ : (3.114)
AC
Whenever the right-hand side of Eq. (3.113) lies in the range (1, þ1),
the system provides a FRFT with real order p. When this is not the case,
the FRFT order p becomes complex.
that is, the inexact FRFT optical system is composed of an exact FRFT
system, plus a perfect imaging system with magnification m, plus a
quadratic phase factor equivalent to a thin lens of focal length f 0 . The
explicit calculation of Eq. (3.115) leads to the following result:
0 1
m cosðyÞ ms sinðyÞ
MIFRFT ¼ @ cosðyÞ
m 1 ms 1 A
sinðyÞ 0 sinðyÞ þ cosðyÞ : (3.116)
f0 ms f m
The results presented up to this point reveal a close connection between the
geometrical parameters of the optical systems and the FRFT order. Next,
we explicitly review it by locating the cardinal planes of the lens systems
proposed by Lohmann (1993) and show how this point of view can lead to
the design to other FRFT optical systems with alternative properties.
I O
z f f⬘ z⬘
d d
A F H H⬘ F⬘ A⬘
zz0 ¼ ( f 0 )2 presented in Eq. (3.38). It can be shown directly from Eq. (3.37)
that the FRFT condition is obtained if
z0 ¼ z: (3.121)
We defined in Moreno (2007) a normalized Newtonian image distance
as x0 z0 /f 0 , so the relation that determines the FRFT order p [Eq. (3.108)]
becomes
p z0
cos p ¼ x0 ¼ 0 : (3.122)
2 f
When x0 is in the range (–1,þ1), the FRFT order is real. When x0 ¼ 0, the
FRFT order is p ¼ 1 (Fourier transform), while the limits x0 ¼ –1, and þ1
correspond to FRFT orders p ¼ 0 and 2, respectively (imaging cases).
Outside this range, the FRFT order is complex.
The importance of these conclusions is related not only to the Lohmann
type I system. Since any lens system can be treated as an equivalent thin
lens when measuring distances from the principal planes, the above-
mentioned characteristics can be extended to a generic lens system; that is:
1. Any optical system provides an FRFT link between input and output
planes whenever the condition z0 ¼ z is fulfilled;
2. The order of the FRFT is given by Eq. (3.122) and it is real valued if the
input plane lies between the object principal and the object anti-principal
planes (and therefore the corresponding output FRFT plane lies in the
symmetrical location between the image principal plane and the image
anti-principal plane).
These conditions can be written in terms of the normalized Newtonian
distances as
x0 ¼ ð1; þ1Þ: (3.123)
Finally, in order to be a useful FRFT optical system, both input and
output planes must be real (not virtual). These conclusions are general
and are not only valid for symmetrical systems.
We note that in the limiting cases p ¼ 0 (d ¼ 0) and p ¼ 2 (d ¼ 2f 0 ), the
two Lohmann FRFT systems in Figure 15 do not provide an exact FRFT
system but an inexact FRFT system with a quadratic phase factor, accord-
ing to the discussion in Section 5.6. This is why we explicitly omitted these
limits in Eq. (3.123).
S F⬘1 dO = 0 z⬘ = –f ⬘/2
(a) d=0 f ⬘/2 dH⬘ = 0 f S⬘ = f ⬘/2
I O dF⬘ = f ⬘/2 x⬘ = –1
dA⬘ = f ⬘ p=0
z⬘
A F HH⬘ F⬘ A⬘
z⬘
A F H⬘H F⬘ A⬘
S F⬘1 dO = f ⬘/2
(c) z⬘ = 0
d=f⬘ dH⬘ = –f ⬘/2 f S⬘ = f ⬘
I O
dF⬘ = f ⬘/2 x⬘ = 0
dA⬘ = 3f ⬘/2 p=1
z⬘ = 0
A FH⬘ F⬘H A⬘
FIGURE 21 Cardinal planes in a Lohmann type I FRFT lens system. The distance between
the two lenses is (a) d ¼ 0; (b) d ¼ f 0 /2; (c) d ¼ f 0 ; and (d) d ¼ 3f 0 /2.
the propagation of an input parallel ray to show the locations of the image
principal and focal planes of the complete system. Since the system is
symmetrical, the locations of the object principal and focal planes are also
symmetrical with respect to the central plane. The anti-principal planes
are located in planes symmetrical to the principal planes with respect to
the focal planes. Finally, for each case we also give the values of the focal
length of the composed system ( f 0 S), the distance z0 , the normalized
Newtonian distance x0 ¼ z0 /f 0 S, and the FRFT order p.
Figure 21a shows the case when d ¼ 0, the normalized Newtonian
distance is x0 ¼ –1, and therefore p ¼ 0. This is equivalent to the Lohmann
type I system. The planes I and O coincide respectively with the principal
planes H and H0 . The figure indicates, shaded on the left part, the range of
planes between A and H, where the input object could be placed and,
shaded on the right part, the FRFT-related range of planes between
A0 and F0 .
Figure 21b shows the case when d ¼ f 0 /2. Now the principal planes are
between the two lenses (they are virtual). The object and FRFT planes,
I and O, are between F and H, and F0 and H0 , respectively. Now the focal
length of the system is f 0 S ¼ 2f 0 /3 (f 0 is the focal length of a single lens),
and the output plane distance z0 ¼ –f 0 /3, thus leading to a normalized
distance of x0 ¼ –0.5 and an FRFT order of p¼2/3. We show again the
planes between A and H that could be used to obtain other FRFT systems
with real values of the FRFT order p if the symmetrical output plane is
selected. However, part of this range is behind the first lens (they are
virtual input planes) and therefore is not useful.
Figure 21c shows the case when d ¼ f 0 , which corresponds to x0 ¼ 0 and
p ¼ 1, the Fourier transform system. Now the input and output planes
coincide with the object and image focal planes of the system. The range
of real planes that lie between A and H is further reduced compared with
the previous cases. This effect is further shown in Figure 21d, which
corresponds to the case with d ¼ 3f 0 /2, which leads to x0 ¼ þ0.5 and
p ¼ 4/3. In the limiting case when d tends to 2f 0 , the principal and the focal
planes move to infinity (the optical system becomes afocal), and the
anti-principal planes are undefined.
Efforts have been made to improve two drawbacks of the Lohmann lens
systems: (1) the scaling of the FRFT distribution changes when changing
the FRFT order, and (2) the requirement that changing the FRFT order
means the input and output planes must be changed.
The scaling properties of FRFT systems have been analyzed exten-
sively (Liu, 1997; Sharma, 2006; Sheppard, 1998). In general, in most
Fractional Fourier Transforms and Geometrical Optics 135
7.1. FRFT Lens System with Fixed Input and Output Planes
The two Lohmann FRFT lens systems require that the input and output
(FRFT) planes change when the FRFT order is changed. In practical
experiments, however, it is convenient to design a FRFT lens system
that maintains fixed planes but permits a change of the FRFT order.
Here we apply the above-described point of view, in the design of a
FRFT system that maintains fixed input and output planes, and permits
the change of the FRFT order in the range p 2 (2, 4) only by moving the
lenses in a simple manner.
The idea is to design an optical system in which the fixed input and
output planes transit from the principal to the anti-principal planes by a
simple displacement of the lenses. Figure 22 shows the proposed optical
system. It is a symmetrical lens system with three convergent lenses, the
two extremes with focal length f 0 and the central one with focal length 2f 0 .
The input (I) and output (O) planes located are at distances 4f 0 from the
central plane. The variation in the FRFT order is produced by shifting the
two lateral lenses from the central one. In Figure 22a the two lateral lenses
are placed at distance d ¼ 2f 0 from the central plane. A ray trajectory is
drawn to show that input and output planes are the principal planes (they
are conjugated with þ1 magnification). Therefore, this optical system
performs the limiting imaging case corresponding to the FRFT order is
p ¼ 0 or equivalently p ¼ 4 (there is an additional quadratic phase term).
In Figure 22b the two lateral lenses are shifted to be at d ¼ 3f 0 from the
central plane. The ray trajectory shows that now the output plane is
the image focal plane and, for symmetry considerations, the input plane
is the object focal plane. In this case, the FRFT order becomes p ¼ 3.
(We remark that in this system, the input parallel ray with positive height
136 Ignacio Moreno and Carlos Ferreira
(a) S
f⬘ 2f ⬘ f⬘
O dO = 4f ⬘ z⬘ = 2f ⬘/3
I
dH⬘ = 4f ⬘ f ⬘S = 2f ⬘/3
dF⬘ = 10f ⬘/3 x⬘ = –1
d = 8f ⬘Ⲑ3 p = 0
A⬘
H F A A⬘ F⬘ H⬘
d = 2f ⬘
(b) S
f⬘ 2f ⬘ f⬘
I O dO = 4f ⬘ z⬘ = 0
dH⬘ = 9f ⬘Ⲑ2 f ⬘S = f ⬘/2
dF⬘ = 4f ⬘ x⬘ = 0
dA⬘ = 7f ⬘Ⲑ2 p=1
H F A A⬘ F⬘ H⬘
d = 3f ⬘
(c) S
f⬘ 2f ⬘ f⬘
I O dO = 4f ⬘ z⬘ = −2f⬘/3
dH⬘ = 16f ⬘Ⲑ3 f ⬘S = 2 f ⬘/3
dF⬘ = 14f ⬘Ⲑ3 x⬘ = +1
dA⬘ = 4f ⬘ p=2
H F A A⬘ F⬘ H
d = 4f ⬘
FIGURE 22 FRFT lens system proposed in Moreno (2007), with fixed input and output
planes. FRFT order p is changed in the range (0,2) when shifting the lateral lenses distance
x in the range (2f 0 ,4f 0 ) from the central symmetry plane S. I, O are the input and output
(FRFT) planes. H, H0 are the principal planes. F, F0 are the focal planes. A, A0 are the anti-
principal planes. Distances dO, dH0 , dF0 and dA0 are measured with origin at S. f 0 S is the
focal length of the optical system and x0 is the normalized Newtonian distance.
to real-valued FRFT orders. We can see that they are always real (not
virtual).
To further analyze the FRFT condition of the above lens system, we
compute the ray matrix from the input to the output plane. We calculate
the following ray matrix multiplication:
0 1 0 1
1 0 ! 1 0
1 4f 0 d B C 1 d B C
MIO ¼ @ 1 1A @ 1 1A
0 1 0 0 1 0
f 2f
0 1
1 0 !
1 d B 1 C 1 4f 0 d
@ A ; (3.124)
0 1 0 1 0 1
f
where d denotes the distance between the lateral lenses with the central
lens. The result of this matrix product is an FRFT ray matrix in the form
0 1
9 2 1 3 0 1 4
B 9 þ 12x 2 x þ 2 x f ð32 þ 48x 26x þ 6x x Þ C
2 3
B 2 C
B 0 1 C
MIO ¼ B C;
B1 5 1 9 1 C
@ @ x þ 3x x A2 3
9 þ 12x x þ x
2 3 A
d 2 2 2 2
(3.125)
where x d/f 0 . We see that the diagonal elements of the matrix are equal,
confirming the FRFT nature of the proposed lens system. The comparison
of Eqs. (3.97) and (3.125) leads to the following analytical expressions for
the FRFT order (p) and the normalized scaling factor (s/f 0 ):
p 9 1
cos p ¼ 9 þ 12x x2 þ x3 ; (3.126)
2 2 2
s 32 þ 48x 26x2 þ 6x3 12 x4
¼ q ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi: (3.127)
f0 81 216x þ 225x2 117x3 þ 129 x4 9 x5 þ 1 x6 4 2 4
in the right side of Eq. (3.126) takes values between –1 and þ1, thus
leading to real values of the FRFT order p.
Figure 23 shows the evolution of these parameters as the distance d
between the lateral lenses and the central lens changes from 2f 0 to 4f 0 . It is
also interesting to note that, in addition to the advantage of fixed input
and output planes, this FRFT system provides a linear function p(d).
The nonlinear behavior of the polynomial at the right side of Eq. (3.126)
is canceled by the arccosine function, leading to linear behavior of the
function p(d) shown in Figure 23. Finally, it is also remarkable that the
138 Ignacio Moreno and Carlos Ferreira
4.0 2.0
3.8 1.8
3.6 1.6
3.2 1.2
3.0 1.0
2.8 0.8
2.6 0.6
2.4 0.4
2.2 0.2
2.0 0.0
2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0
Ratio d/f ⬘
FIGURE 23 FRFT order (p) and normalized scaling factor (s/f 0 ) in the optical system in
Figure 22 versus the ratio d/f 0 , being d the distance from the lateral lenses to the
central lens, which takes values in the range (2f 0 ,4f 0 ).
d2
I O
d1 d1
FIGURE 24 FRFT optical system proposed in Cai (2002) to provide a fixed scaling
factor s.
system does not present divergences in the scaling factor. All these prop-
erties can make this simple optical system very useful for FRFT
applications.
(3.128)
which has the following result:
0 1
2d1 þ d2 d1 d2 2d1 ðd1 þ d2 Þ d21 d2
B þ þ d þ
f 02 C
1 2d 1 2
B f0 f 02 f0 C
MIO ¼ BB C: (3.129)
d2 2f 0
2d1 þ d2 d1 d2 C
@ 1 þ A
f 02 f0 f 02
Therefore, this matrix verifies the FRFT condition (A ¼ D), and the
corresponding order ( p) is given by
p 2d1 þ d2 d1 d2
cosðfÞ ¼ cos p ¼1 þ 02 : (3.130)
2 f0 f
The scaling parameter (s) is given by
f 02 ð2d1 þ d2 Þ 2f 0 ðd1 þ d2 Þ þ d21 d2
s2 ¼ : (3.131)
2f 0 d2
If the following condition is fulfilled,
d1 ðd1 f 0 Þ þ f 02
d2 ¼ 2f 0 ; (3.132)
ð f 0 d1 Þ2 þ f 02
(a) (b)
I f⬘ O 2f ⬘
I O
f⬘ f⬘
A A⬘
F F⬘
FIGURE 25 Two particular cases of the Cai-Wang system. (a) Propagation between
focal planes (p ¼ 1). (b) Propagation between antiprincipal planes (p ¼ 2).
(a) (b)
y f⬘y
y f x⬘ Input f⬘x
f y⬘ plane x y
Input
plane x f⬘y
y
x
x
z
Anamorphic Anamorphic
FRFT plane FRFT plane
d
d d
d
!
2 d 2 d
px ¼ arccos 1 0 py ¼ arccos 1 0 : (3.136)
p fx p fy
However, according to the discussion at the end of Section 5.3, the two
systems in Figure 26, although yielding equal values of the fractional
orders px and py, provide different scaling factors in the y direction.
We proposed another interesting anamorphic FRFT system (Moreno,
2006a) by using the nonorthogonal doublet described in Figure 9c. In that
doublet, rotating the relative angle a between the two cylindrical lenses
permits tuning of the two focal lengths of the equivalent orthogonal
doublet. Therefore, this simple system permits obtaining anamorphic
FRFTs with different fractional orders without having to move the input
or the output planes. For that purpose the Lohmann system I can be used,
with this anamorphic doublet in between. Figure 27 shows some calcu-
lated results corresponding to this anamorphic fractional Fourier trans-
former. We select the propagation distance d equal to the focal distance f 0 b
of the second cylindrical lens. We show two cases: when f 0 a ¼ f 0 b and
when f 0 a ¼ 2f 0 b. The images in Figure 27a and 27c show the evolution of
the orientation j of the equivalent orthogonal doublet as a function of the
relative angle a between the two cylindrical lenses. The angle j changes
continuously and therefore the equivalent doublet rotates with a accord-
ing to Figure 27a and 27c. The two focal lengths f 0 x and f 0 y of the equiva-
lent doublet also change according to Eq. (3.56), and their action is
produced along angles j and j þ 90 . Therefore, for each angle a two
different fractional orders px and py are obtained in orthogonal orienta-
tions at angles j and j þ 90 . For each value of the propagation distance d
there is a tunable range of the fractional Fourier orders, with the rotation
angle a as the tuning parameter.
The system does not provide a complete set of independent anamorphic
fractional orders, as, for instance, could be obtained with a programmable
(a) (b)
90 2.0
d = f⬘
AnFRFT orders
60
d = 0.6f⬘
45 1.0
d = 0.5f⬘
30
0.5
15 px
0 0.0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Relative angle a (degrees) Relative angle a (degrees)
(c) (d)
90 2.0
Doublet orientation (degrees)
75
1.5
d = f ⬘b
AnFRFT orders
60 py
d = 0.8f ⬘b
45 1.0 d = 0.6f ⬘b
30 d = 0.5f ⬘b
0.5
px
15
0 0.0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Relative angle a (degrees) Relative angle a (degrees)
FIGURE 27 Orientation j of the equivalent anamorphic doublet (a)–(c) and anamorphic fractional orders (AnFRFT orders) px and py (b)–(d), as
a function of the relative angle a between the two cylindrical lenses. For images (a) and (b): f 0 a ¼ f 0 b f 0 . For images (c) and (d) f 0 a ¼ 2f 0 b.
Fractional orders are calculated for propagation distances d ¼ f 0 , d ¼ 0.8f 0 , d ¼ 0.6f 0 , and d ¼ 0.5f 0 .
Fractional Fourier Transforms and Geometrical Optics 143
anamorphic liquid crystal lens (Moreno, 2003) or within the frame of other
more complete transformation systems (Rodrigo, 2007) (Rodrigo, 2009). In
addition, the object should be oriented with a rotation angle j to be aligned
with the two anamorphic axes of the equivalent doublet (or alternatively,
rotate the complete doublet to maintain a fixed equivalent orthogonal
doublet). However, its simplicity and the fact that it does not require
programmable lenses can make its use interesting for applications requir-
ing certain degree of tunability of anamorphic fractional orders without
moving the input and output planes. The selection of the distance d and the
focal lengths f 0 a and f 0 b of the cylindrical lenses defines the degree of
tunability of the anamorphic fractional orders provided by the system.
8. CONCLUSIONS
In summary, we have presented a review of some topics on optical Fourier
transform and FRFT systems on the basis of geometrical optics. For that
purpose, we presented a self-consistent derivation based on the ray trans-
fer matrix method. With this formalism we avoid the use of more compli-
cated diffraction integrals in the resolution of problems, such as the
location of Fourier or fractional Fourier–related planes, the scaling para-
meters, or the order of an FRFT. We presented the close connection of the
FRFT optical systems with the location of the corresponding cardinal
planes (principal, focal, and anti-principal planes). Finally, we included
several examples from the literature with various characteristics and
presented the extension to anamorphic optical systems.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank our colleagues, Jeffrey A. Davis, Felipe Mateos, and Marı́a M. Sánchez López, for
useful discussions. This work was developed with the financial support from the Spanish
Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia through grants No. FIS2009-13955-C02-02 and
No. FIS2007-60626.
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