Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dark Tourism: Understanding The Concept and Recognizing The Values
Dark Tourism: Understanding The Concept and Recognizing The Values
Dark Tourism: Understanding The Concept and Recognizing The Values
Death is an inevitable terminal point of individual life, the point of the ontological cessation of
individual extreme;
There is no afterlife either as eternal life or rebirth;
Hence, death is meaningless; there is no hope.
Mortality mediation is a complex and challenging theory. It suggests that visitors to sites associated with
death and suffering may reflect upon (and contemplate) death in a multitude of ways (which will often be
incidental, unintended, or implicit) and some visitors may not engage in such reflection at all. The nature
of reflection will also vary according to the social and cultural background of visitors. Best and Kellner
(2001, p. 16) note that present-day society ‗is in the midst of a tempestuous period of transition and
metamorphosis, propelled principally by transmutations in science, technology, and capitalism‘ and,
perhaps more recently, by geopolitical turmoil in a post 9/11 world. Hence, that the ‗secularisation of life
should be accompanied by the secularization of death should come as no surprise: to live in the modern is
to die in it also‘ (Tercier, 2005, p. 13).
Role of Media
‗Disasters are unusual, dramatic, and often have great impact upon people‘s lives. This combination
makes disasters newsworthy and creates the expectation that news outlets, which are driven by
commercial imperatives will report them‘ (van Belle, 2000, 250; in Sharpley & Wright, 2018, p. 335). In
other words, as Cockburn (2011; in Sharpley & Wright, 2018, p. 335) observes ―the media generally
assume the news of war, crime, and natural disasters will always win an audience‖, hence the well known
adage in journalism – ‗if it bleeds it leads‘ (Sharpley & Wright, 2018, p. 335). In other words, once a
disaster has been publicized, it becomes an attraction to those who, for whatever reason, wish to travel to
gaze upon it (Rojek, 1997; in Sharpley & Wright, 2018, p. 336). Seaton (1996; in Stone, 2006, p. 150)
suggest that the role of the media has been central to this growth in tourism to sites, attractions and
exhibitions associated with death, principally through increasing the geographical specificity of murder
and violent death and, more recently through global communication technology that televises events
almost as they happen into people‘s ‗living rooms‘ around the world (Seaton & Lenon, 2004; in Stone,
2006, p.150).
Media Interest is growing: but a fundamental question with respect to dark tourism remain unanswered,
whether it is actually possible or justifiable to categorize collectively the experience of sites or attractions
that are associated with death or suffering as ‗dark tourism‘. Since the collective umbrella term includes a
variety of sites, attractions and experiences its meaning has been diluted and fuzzy. More specifically, it
remains unclear whether dark tourism is tourist-demand or attraction-supply driven as a (post) modern
propensity for ‗mourning sickness‘ (West, 2004).
The media generally provide the first impressions of a place or origin. In morbid tourism the media plays
a crucial role by focusing on describing places, regions, events and phenomena, the media create an
image or symbol, which produces associations in the individual. These images or symbols function as a
kind of ‗clothes hanger‘ on which the individual can hang their experience and feelings (Blom, 2000).
The news media love a disaster (Tarlow, 2011; in Sharpley & Wright, 2018, p. 335). ‗Disasters are
unusual, dramatic and often have great impact on people‘s lives. This combination makes disaster
newsworthy and creates the expectation that news outlets which are driven by commercial imperatives,
will report them‘ (van Belle, 2000, p. 50; in Sharpley & Wright, 2018, p. 335). In other words, as
Cockborn (2011; in Sharpley & Wright, 2018) observes, ‗the media generally assume that news of war
crime and natural disasters, will always an audience‘, hence the well-known adage in journalism- ‗if it
bleeds, it leads‘. Moreover many of the myths are created by the media industry more generally ; books
and films, for example have used the crucible of disaster as a setting for the espousal of tales of tragedy,
chaos, suffering, love, and courage acted out by a menagerie of heroes, villains, fools, cowards, and
scoundrels (Wenger, 1985, p.2; in Sharpley & Wright, 2018,p.336), such tales being the source of myths
that persists both in disaster reporting and public conscientiousness (Sharpley & Wright, 2018, p.
336).…once a disaster has been published, it becomes an attraction to those who, for whatever reason
wish to travel to gaze upon it (Rojek,1997; in Sharpley & Wright, 2018, p. 336).
Emotion and Experience
Emotion can be defined as felt short-lived responses to external stimuli (Reeve, 2008; in Asworth &
Isaac, 2015, p. 4). According to Tarlow (2005), there are four basic emotions which interact on a dark
Kunwar & Karki: Dark Tourism...| 55
tourist psychological state: insecurity, gratitude, humility and superiority. Visiting a dark attraction can
raise multiple feelings as well as dark tourism can be seen in various ways. Plutchik (1980; in Asworth &
Isaac, 2015, p. 4) described eight primary emotions namely: joy, sadness, acceptance, disgust, fear, anger,
surprise and anticipation. He categorized this into positive (joy, acceptance, anticipation and surprise) and
negative (anger, fear, disgust and sadness) emotions. Nawijn and Fricke (2015; in Asworth & Isaac,
2015, p. 4) expanded the list to ten, divided into five positive (relief, pleasure, fascination, joy, positive,
surprise) and five negative (anger, sadness, scare, shock, negative surprise). Asworth and Isaac have
listed emotions most usually experienced at dark tourism sites that include curiosity, shame, empathetic
grief, psychotic disturbance, offence/ anger and fear. Emotional experiences undoubtedly vary over time
and between individuals an individual visitor, whose visit was motivated by a number of reasons, may
then experience, during their visit, a spectrum of emotions from curiosity about the unusual and
unfamiliar through empathetic grief and sorrow to offence and anger wherever directed.
An experience is something that happens to somebody because of exposure to an external circumstance.
The study of the experience as dark leads to a focus upon human sentiment as a response to this
experience. Few would disagree with a statement such as, ‗a visit to a dark tourism requires emotion on
the part of the visitor‘ (Miles, 2002, p. 175). The meaning of ‗experience‘ is essentially synonymous with
‗psychological outcome‘ to bespeak the specific response that is supplied by dark tourism sites,
frequently referring to emotion and cognition (Shin, Jaakson & Kim, 2001; in Yan et al., 2016, p. 110).
As Desmond (1999; in Robb, 2009, p. 56) has argued effectively the notion of touristic experience should
be expanded to include a wide range of embodied aspects.
Desmond agrees that tourism is important in generating knowledge, where in an event, history, or a
famous person‘s life and death can be internalized and inscribed within the being of the visitor. At the
same time, in the case of dark tourism, this experience makes the suffering of the other just that -radically
other (Robb, 2009, p. 56).Dark tourism provides not only an emotional (Cheal & Griffin, 2013; Mowatt
& Chancellor, 2011; Podoshen, 2013; Rittichainuwat, 2008; Stone, 2012; in Yan et al., 2016, p. 110) or
cognitive space (Stone, 2012; Yan et al., 2016, p. 110) through which tourists can acquire ‗dark‘
experiences that differ from routine experiences but also a physical space through which one can relate
desired psychological outcomes with actual psychological outcomes (Shin et al., 2001). Thus, in dark
tourism, the tourist host (i.e., tourist) and object (i.e., destination) are distinguished as follows:
Dark tourism is a psychological consumption process that offers tourists desired psychological
outcomes and actual psychological outcomes to satisfy tourists' emotional demands.
Dark tourism is a symbolic consumption process that supplies emotional and cognitive
experiences to tourists who have an interactive relationship with a dark tourism product,
including either man-made or natural disaster destinations.
Tourist Experience
In the age of postmodernity, the experience of consumers plays an increasingly important role in
economic and social life. In social science literature on the tourist experience, most researchers focus on
the experience in sharp contrast to the daily experience. The tourist experience is thus understood as the
‗‗pure‘‘, ‗‗net‘‘ or ‗‗peak‘‘ experience, usually derived from the attractions, rather than ‗‗mixed‘‘,
‗‗gross‘‘ or ‗‗supporting‘‘ experience such as eating, sleeping and so on. The relationship between the
two (Peak experience and daily experience) can thus characteristically summarized by a series of
"opposition" between the daily and the peak experiences, such as "the ordinary" vs. "the extraordinary",
"routine" vs. "usual", the "familiar" vs. "novel", "the profane" vs. "the sacred" and so on (Quan & Wang,
2004, p. 300).Those experiences that are regarded as the extension of the daily experience to the tourist
journey, such as the experience of accommodation and transport, are mostly either ignored or taken for
granted (Quan & Wang, 2004, p. 297).
There are two general approaches to the study of the tourist experience, namely, the social science
approach and the marketing/management approach. This refers to the experience of the attractions that
constitute the major motivations to tourism. The latter treats the tourist experience as supporting
consumer experience, which refers to the experiences of gratifying basic consumer needs on the journey,
such as eating, sleeping and transport, which do not constitute the major motivations to tourism whereas
the former regards the tourist experience as peak experience being in sharp contrast to the daily
experience. Both approaches catch important and essential dimensions of the tourist experience, which is
56 | Journal of APF Command and Staff College
conceptually different, but constitute an organic whole through structural model such as extension –
intensification – contrast, which helps to better understand. Such a structural model clarifies the loci and
the structure of the components of "familiarity" and "novelty" in the total tourist experience and has
practical implications for tourism management (Quan & Wang, 2004, p. 301).
Ethical Dilemma of Dark Tourism
Significant debate surrounds on whether is it ethical to develop, promote or offer the dark sites for
touristic consumption or not i.e. viewing platform at Ground Zero, enabling voyeuristic visitors to stand
alongside those mourning the loss of loved ones (Lisle, 2004). The rights of those whose death is
commoditized through dark tourism represent an important ethical dimension deserving consideration.
Dark tourism in some cases, result in the transformation of violence into one more attraction, wedged in
between more typical tourist activities. When atrocity becomes a recreational attraction, visitors are
themselves inflicting further violence as they search out unique and authentic experiences. Ethically one
must question whether tours undertaken in the name of social justice or global awareness are actually
experienced as such or whether they might instead work to mask the recreational, voyeuristic allure of
violence. At times dark tourism can produce ―recreational grief‖ (West, 2004, p. 11; in Robb, 2009, p.
55) a form of grief in which mourning the deaths or afflictions of others becomes an enjoyable past time.
In terms of supply- there has been increasing number of people keen to promote or profit from ‗dark‘
events as tourist attractions. At the same time, there is evidence of greater willingness on the part of
tourist to visit dark attractions.
Criticism
Although dark tourism research prompts important discussions about the intersections of touring and
death, Sharpley (2005: 216) rightly notes that ‗dark tourism literature remains eclectic and theoretically
fragile, raising more questions than its answers‘. Likewise, Keil (2005: 481; in Bowman & Pezzullo,
2009, p. 188) argues that ‗[the dark tourism] phenomenon has so far been inadequately described, and
lacks a theoretical relationship to wider studies of violence and by-standing‘. Even so, many who have
questioned the term thus far have exacerbated the problem by trying to identify different ‗shades‘ of or
umbrella terms for ‗darkness‘ without challenging the term itself (e.g. Miles, 2002; Strange & Kempa,
2003; Sharpley, 2005: 224–26; Stone, 2006; Bowman & Pezzullo, 2009, p. 188).Lennon and Foley
(2000: 11) offer no explanation for their choice of terms and state that they ‗do not wish to enter into any
philosophical debates‘ over its use. However, the negative valence of the term is unmistakable in western
cultures: ‗dark‘ is understood as a place devoid of light. In tourist studies, we might assume the label
serves as a contrast to the trifecta of Sun, Surf, and Sex that many narrowly associate with a holiday
vacation. ‗Dark‘ also could allude to the ‗dark deeds‘ (e.g. genocide, assassination, murder, war) that
animate such sites and the ‗dark mood‘ or morose tones such events might invite. Lennon and Foley link
dark tourism with the contemporary (post-World War I) historical period and there is perhaps a
suggestion that dark tourism is a sign that the postmodern, post-Enlightenment world augurs a new ‗Dark
Ages‘. Finally, we find in the range of connotations of ‗dark‘ a suggestion that such sites are devoid of
actors and performances: ‗The theatre has gone dark‘. In contrast, we suggest that remembering and
attending to the performances at sites associated with death might undo or at least help trouble the
troubling nomenclature of ‗dark tourism‘ to reclaim space for different approaches (Bowman & Pezzullo,
2009, p. 188).
Conclusion
For Dann and Seaton (2001; in Ryan & Kohli, 2006, p. 214), any travel to sites associated with death,
disaster, acts of violence, tragedy, scenes of death and crimes against humanity may be defined as ―dark
tourism‖. Increasing academic attention has been paid over the last two decades to the phenomenon of
dark tourism in general (e.g., Johnston & Mandelartz, 2015; Lennon & Foley, 2000; Sharpley & Stone
2009; Stone, 2013), including disasters (Coats & Ferguson, 2013; Gould & Lewis, 2007) and motives for
participating in dark tourism in particular (e.g., Isaac & Cakmak, 2014; Raine, 2013; Seaton, 1996; in
Sharpley & Wright, 2018, p. 337). Though this phenomenon has been sufficiently criticized by number of
scholars, it became popular not only in the West but also it is gradually extending towards other parts of
the world, to justify this statement. The study of dark tourism is both justifiable and important for a
number of reasons… all dark tourism sites or attractions require effective and appropriate development,
management, interpretation and promotion. These in turn require a fuller understanding of the
Kunwar & Karki: Dark Tourism...| 57
phenomenon of dark tourism within social, cultural, historical and political context (Sharpley, 2009, pp.
7-8). Dark tourism is both supply and demand driven, and it is important to understand both in order to
gain a fuller understanding of the phenomenon of dark tourism (Raine, 2013, p. 243). The values of dark
tourism are four shades of dark tourism; dark tourism spectrum framework; and seven dark suppliers‘
categorization with varying degree of darkness. Tourism and death may seem an odd conjunction. This
entered tourism discourse as thanatourism in 1996 and dark tourism in 2000.
Cohen (2018, p. 168; Cohen & Cohen 2015b) distinguishes between two major thanatourist sites in Asia.
Firstly, memorial sites to popular non-kin deceased person and, secondly, memorials of war, atrocities
and disaster. The philosophy of death has been distinguished between theology (Western regions) and
soteriology (Asian regions) (Cohen, 2018, P. 168). Dark tourism has been characterized by contemplation
of death. Dark tourism brings to life the history of the tragedies once occurred, reason why, the
innumerable sites/attraction that it offers; permit the individuals to have further contact, in a safe
ambience with death (Fonseca et al., 2016, pp. 3-4). Dark tourism as an alternative type of tourism is
gaining and increasingly interest and needs to be designed more profoundly. Dark tourism cannot be
perceived as an expression of tourist demand only, but rather needs to be considered in conjunction with
tourism supply (Fonseca et al., 2016, pp. 3-4). When this discourse came in existence in 1990s, many
people from different countries were encouraged to visit battlefields, celebrity death sites, graveyards,
cemeteries, atrocity and disaster sites, murder location, memorials, museums of war, torture, horror and
conflicting zones. The consensus between the literature researchers is that dark tourism has a typology
depending on the visitors‘ motivations and sites. Though the term dark denotes devoid of light, dark
tourism as a new tourism product tends to provide awareness, education and entertainment on several
cases of history and heritage, tourism and tragedies. Overall the prime focus of dark tourism is grief after
death caused by fatality of ‗Others‘ (Seaton,2009).Therefore, scholars of various disciplines, in course of
studying dark tourism brought many different concepts such as ― sensation sites‖ (Rojek,
1997),―repressed sadism‖ (Krostanje, 2018), ―sadist spectacle‖ (Blom, 2000), ―dartainment‖ (Roberts,
2018), ―deathscapes‖ (Maddrell & Sidaway, 2012; in Yan et al., 2016, p. 110) ―memorialscapes‖
(Fridrich, Stone, & Rukesha, 2018), ―blackpackers‖ (Podoshen, 2013), ―recreational grief‖ (West, 2004;
in Robb, 2009, p. 54), ―mortality mediation‖ (Stone & Sharpley 2012; Walter, 2009), ― thanacapitalism‖
(Krostanje, 2017), ―everyday dark‖ (Hepburn, 2017). Multidisciplinary and Postdisciplinary approaches
have become major methodological concern in dark tourism studies. Until 2016, Light (2017) has shown
that 58 out 139 studies followed qualitative research methodology in the study of dark tourism. Much of
the literatures on dark tourism invariably defines the phenomenon in the context of post-modernism.
Overall, dark tourism has been promoted as commercialization of grief and commodification of death
which has become the centre of attraction. This study identifies several scopes of dark
tourism/thanatology tourism in Nepal.
References
Ashworth, G. J. & Isaac, R.K. (2015). Have we illuminated the dark? Shifting perspectives on dark
tourism.Tourism Recreation Research,1-17.
Biran, A., Poria, Y., & Oren, G. (2011).Sought experiences at (dark) heritage sites.Annals of Tourism
Research, 38(3), 820-841.
Bird, G., Westcott, M., &Thiesen, N. (2018). Marketing dark heritage: Building brands, myth-making and
social marketing. In Stone,P.R., Hartmann, R., Seaton, T., Sharpley, R. & White, L.(Eds. )The
Palgrave Handbook of Dark Tourism,(pp.645-665), Palgrave macmillan
Bird, G.R. (2013). Place identities in the Normandy landscape of war: Touring the Canadian sites of memory.
In White, L. &Frew, E. (Eds.) Dark Tourism and Place Identity :Managing and Interpreting Dark
Places (pp.167-185), London: Routledge.
Blom, T. (2000).Morbid tourism - a postmodern market niche with an example from
Althorp.NorskGeografiskTidsskrift - Norwegian Journal of Geography, 54(1), 29–36.
Bowman, M. S. & Pezzullo, P. C. (2009). What‘s so ―Dark‖ about ―Dark Tourism‖?: Death, Tours, and
Performance. Tourist Studies, 9(3), 187–202.
Byran, A.& Hyde,K.F.(2013). Guest Editorial: New perspectives on dark tourism.Internationa Journal of
Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 7(3),191-198.
Causevic, S. & Lynch, P. (2011). Phoenix tourism: Post-conflict tourism role. Annals of Tourism Research,
38(3), 780-800.
58 | Journal of APF Command and Staff College
Cohen, E. & Cohen ,S.A.(2015b). Beyond Eurocentrism in tourism: A paradigm shift to mobilities. Tourism
Recreation Research, 40(2), 157-168.
Cohen, E. (2018). Thanatourism: A comparative approach. In Stone, P.R., Hartmann, R., Seaton, T., Sharpley,
R., & White, L. (Eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Dark Tourism Studies(pp.157-171), Palgrave
Macmillan , U.K.
Coles, T. Hall, C. M., & Duval, D.T. (2009). Post-disciplinary tourism. In Tribe, J. (Ed.) Philosophical Issues
in Tourism (pp.82-100), Bristol: Channel View Publications.
Dale, C. & Robinson, N. (2011).Dark Tourism. In Robinson, P, Heitmann, S. &Dieke, P.(Eds.) Research
Themes for Tourism (pp.205-217), Wallingford : CABI.
Farmaki, A. (2013). Dark tourism revisited: A supply/demand conceptualization. International Journal of
Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 7(3), 281-292.
Foley, M. & Lennon, J. (1996). Editorial: Heart of darkness. International Journal of Heritage Studies,
2(4),195-197.
Fonseca, A.P., Seabra, C.&Silva.C.(2016). Dark tourism: Concepts, typologies and sites. Journal of Research
and Hospitality, S2,1-6.
Fridrich, M., Stone, P.R., & Rukesha, P. (2018). Dark tourism, difficult heritage, and memorialization : A case
of the Rwandan genocide. In Stone, P.R., Hartmann, R., Seaton, T., Sharpley, R., & White, L. (Eds.)
The Palgrave Handbook of Dark Tourism Studies(pp.261-289), Palgrave Macmillan, U.K.
Hepburn,S.J. (2017).Everyday darkness and catastrophic events: Riding Nepal‘s buses through peace,war, and
an earthquake. In Hooper, G.& Lennon.J.J.(Eds.)Dark Tourism : Practice and Interpretation(pp.147-
159), London : Routledge.
Hooper, G. & Lennon, J. J. (Eds.) (2017). Dark tourism: Practice and interpretation, London :Routledge.
Knudsen, B. T. (2017).Experiencing dark heritage live. In Hooper, G. and Lennon,J.J (Eds.)Dark Tourism :
Practice and Interpretation (pp.174-186), London : Routledge.
Korstanje, M.E. & Ivanov, S.(2012). Tourism as a form of new psychological resilience : the inception of dark
tourism. Cultur,56-71.
Korstanje, M.E. (2011). Detaching the elementary forms of dark-tourism.Anatolia:An International Journal of
Tourism and Hospitality Research,22,424-427.
Krostanje, M.E.(2017). The Rise of Thana-Capitalism and Tourism, London: Routledge.
Kunwar, R.R. &Limbu, B.(2015). Tourism and earthquake : A case study of Nepal and Turkey. NATTA
Souvenir, Kathmandu.
Kunwar, R.R. (2016a). Tourism crisis and disaster management.The Gaze Journal of Tourism and Hospitality,
7(1), 1-36.
Kunwar, R. R. (2016b).Tourism and the natural disaster : A study of Nepal‘s earthquake. Voice of Himalaya,
Kathmandu : Nepal Mountain Academy.
Kužnik, L. (2015). Typology of dark tourism heritage with its implications on Slovenian future dark tourism
products. RSC, 7(3),318-348.
Light,D.(2017).Progress in dark tourism and thana-tourism research an uneasy relationship with heritage
tourism.Tourism Management: 61,275-301.
MacCannell, D. (1976). The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class, London: Macmillan.
Miles, W.F.S. (2002). Auschwitz: museum interpretation and darker tourism. Annals of Tourism Research,
29(4), 1175-8.
Olsen, K. (2002). Authenticity as a concept in tourism research: The social organization of the experience of
authenticity. Tourist Studies 2(2), 159-182.
Podoshen, J.S.(2013). Dark tourism motivations, simulation, emotional contagion and topographic
comparision.Tourism Management, 35,263-271.
Quan, S., & Wang, N. (2004). Towards a structural model of tourist experience: An illustration from food
experience in tourism. Tourism Management, 25, 297-305.
Raine, R. (2013). A dark tourist spectrum.International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
Research, 7(3), 242–256.
Rittichainuwat, B., Nelson, R., & Rahmafitria, F. (2018).Applying the perceived probability of risk and bias
toward optimism: Implications for travel decisions in the face of natural disasters.Tourism
Management, 66, 221–232.
Kunwar & Karki: Dark Tourism...| 59
Robb, E.M.(2009).Violence and recreation: Vacationing in the realm of dark tourism. Anthropology and
Humanism, 34(1), 51-60.
Roberts, C. (2018). Education the (dark) masses: dark tourism and sensemaking. In Stone, P.R., Hartmann, R.,
Seaton, T., Sharpley, R., & White, L. (Eds.)The Palgrave Handbook of Dark Tourism Studies(pp.606-
637), Palgrave Macmillan , U.K.
Robinson, M. & Novelli, M. (2005). Niche tourism:An introduction. In Novelli, M. (Ed.) Niche Tourism :
Contemporary Issues, Trends and Cases.(1-11).
Rucińska, D. (2016). Natural disaster tourism as a type of dark tourism.International Journal ofHumanities
and Social Science, 10(5)1458-1462.
Ryan, C.&Kohli, R.(2006). The Buried Village, New Zealand- An example of dark tourism? Asia Pacific
Journal of Tourism Research, 11(3),211-226.
Seaton, T. (2009). Purposeful otherness: Approaches to the management of thanatourism. In Sharpley, R. &
Stone, P.R. (Eds.).The Darker Side of Travel (pp. 75-108). Bristol: Channel View Publications.
Sharpley, R. & Wright, D. (2018). Disasters and disaster tourism; The role of the media. In Stone, P.R.,
Hartmann, R., Seaton, T., Sharpley, R. & White, L. (Eds.) The Palgrave Handbook of Dark Tourism
Studies (pp.335-354), Palgrave macmillan.
Sharpley, R. (2009). Shedding light on dark tourism. In Sharpley, R. & Stone, P.R. (Eds.) The Darker Side of
Travel (pp. 3-22),Bristol : Channel View Publications.
Sharpley, R.& Stone, P.R.( Eds.) (2009). The Darker Side of Travel,Bristol : Channel View Publications.
Sharpley, R., & Stone, P.R., (2009). (Re)presenting the macabre : interpretation, kitschification and
authenticity. In Sharpley, R. & Stone, P.R. (Eds.).The Darker Side of Travel (pp. 109-127). Bristol:
Channel View Publications.
Stone, P. (2006). A dark tourism spectrum: Towards a typology of death and macabre related tourist sites,
attractions and exhibitions. Tourism, 54(2)145-160.
Stone, P.R. (2012). Dark tourism (also Thanatourism). In Robinson, M.(ed.) Tourism the Key Concepts
(pp.46-49), London: Routledge.
Stone, P. R., Hartmann, R., Seaton, T., Sharpley, R., & White, L. (Eds.) (2018).The Palgrave Handbook of
Dark Tourism Studies, Palgrave Macmillan , U.K.
Tang, Y. (2014). Dark touristic perception: Motivation, experience and benefits interpreted from the visit to
seismic memorial sites in Sichuan province. Journal of Mountain Science, 11(5), 1326-1341.
Tang, Y. (2018). Contested narratives at the Hanwang earthquake memorial park : Where ghost industrial
town and seismic memorial. GeoHeritage, Author‘s personal copy.
Tarlow, P.E. (2005). Dark tourism: The appealing ‗dark‘ side of tourism and more. In Noveli, M.(Ed.). Niche
Tourism: Contemporary Issues, Trends and Cases, London, Routledge.
Tita, N. (2010). Bachelor‘s Thesis in Nature and Soft Adventure, Submitted to the Lahti University of Applied
Sciences.
Walter, T. (2009). Dark tourism: Mediating between the dead and the living. In Sharpley, R.& Stone, P.R.(
Eds.) (2009). The Darker Side of Travel (pp.39-55), Bristol: Channel View Publications.
Wang, N. (1999). Rethinking authenticity in tourism experience.Annals of Tourism Research,26(2), 349-370.
White,L.& Frew, E.(Eds.) (2013).Dark Tourism and Place Identity: Managing and Interpreting Dark Places,
London: Routledge.
Williams, P. (2010). Educational tourism: understanding the concept, recognising the value.
https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/20103311195
Yan, B.-J., Zhang, J., Zhang, H.-L., Lu, S.-J., & Guo, Y. R. (2016). Investigating the motivation–experience
relationship in a dark tourism space: A case study of the Beichuan earthquake relics, China. Tourism
Management, 53, 108–121.
Yousaf, A., Amin, J., & Santos, J. A. (2018). Tourists‘ motivation to travel: a theoretical perspective on the
existing literature. Tourism and Hospitality Management 24 (1), 192-211.
Yull, S.M. (2003).Dark tourism: understanding visitor motivation at sites of death and disaster, An
Unpublished Master‘s Thesis Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University.