GSU 07315:

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

LECTURERS: DR. LETICIA RWABISHUGI(PhD)

DR. HENRY G. MUNG’ONG’O(PhD)
DR. PAUL SALIA(PhD)
 DEGREE PROGRAMMES
BA, BIT, BCS, BFB BBM, BEF, BPLM II
MAIN REFERENCE BOOK:

KOTHARI, C.R. (2016) RESEARCH METHODOLOGY, (METHODS

AND TECHNIQUES), 7TH EDITION, NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL
PUBLISHER; NEW DELHI.
 MODULE DESCRIPTION

o Research Methodology is a prerequisite module for all

Bachelor Degrees students in the Second Year.

o The module introduces students to basic concepts and

techniques applied in academic research.

o Essentially, the module is intended to equip students with

knowledge about how to;
▪ Prepare research proposals,
▪ Collect data,
▪ Analyse quantitative and qualitative data, and
▪ Prepare research report
RESEARCH DESIGNS, SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND DATA
COLLECTION METHODS
RESEARCH DESIGN
❖ Conceptualize on Research design
❖ Types of research designs
❖ Research approaches

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
❖ Sampling and Sampling techniques

DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

❖ Types of data
❖ Data sources
❖ Methods and techniques of data collection

BOOKS
I. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed
Methods Approaches (4th edition). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc
II. Bryman, A. (2006). Integrating quantitative and qualitative research: how is3
it done? Qualitative Research, 6; (97), DOI: 10.1177/146879410605887
HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION AND
TESTING

4
 Hypotheses are statements proposing possible
relationships or associations among phenomena
being studied.

 Itis a statement not yet accepted as true. It is

something that needs o be tested.

A hypothesis is put to be tested on its

truthfulness, means establish its truth on the
basis of empirical data.
 It is a statement that proposes possible
relationship/association between variables
(multiple variables).

 It is the statement which proposes possible

relationship or association among phenomena
A hypothesis is a provisional statement that
guides empirical work.

A hypothesis suggest that when some

attributes or quantity of one phenomena
exists, a specific attribute/guantity of
another phenomena is also likely to occur.
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation that
accounts for a set of facts and can be tested by
further investigation.

 For example, one may want to test whether

poverty causes low achievement, or test if there
is a relationship between pupils’ self-esteem and
the amount of time they spend watching
television.

 Acceptinga hypothesis is always provisional as

new data may emerge that reject it later on
 Hypothesis is a provisional statement by
researcher which guide the researcher's work for
statistical testing.

 Itassume if variable A exist also variable B should

exist. Hence need /requires testing to get the
truth.

A hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be

proven or disproven by valid and reliable data
 Itis in order to obtain these data that we perform
our study. (Grinnell 1988: 200)

❑ From the above definitions it is apparent that a

hypothesis has certain characteristics:
1) It is a tentative proposition.
2) Its validity is unknown.
3) In most cases, it specifies a relationship
between two or more variables
 A hypothesis should be simple, specific and
conceptually clear (There is no place for ambiguity in
the construction of a hypothesis, as ambiguity will
make the verification of your hypothesis almost
impossible)
➢ A hypothesis should be capable of verification
(Methods and techniques must be available for data
collection and analysis)
➢ A hypothesis should be related to the existing body
of knowledge (it emerges from the existing body of
knowledge, and that it adds to it)
➢ A hypothesis should be operationalisable ( This
means that it can be expressed in terms that can be
measured. If it cannot be measured, it cannot be
tested and, hence, no conclusions can be drawn)
 The formulation of a hypothesis provides a
study with focus. It tells you what specific
aspects of a research problem to investigate.

1. A hypothesis tells you what data to collect

and what not to collect, thereby providing
focus to the study.
2. As it provides a focus, the construction of a
hypothesis enhances objectivity in a study.
3. A hypothesis may enable you to add to the
formulation of theory. It enables you to
conclude specifically what is true or what is
false.
 Forstatistical test to be undertaken, we set
out propositions in precise terms by
formulating two hypotheses

1) The Null hypothesis(HO)

2) The alternative
hypothesis(Hi)
 The Null hypothesis
 It is a starting point of the most statistical tests.
 It is a negative type of proposition

 It is formulated for the purpose of applying a statistical

test to a problem under investigation.

 The anticipation is that H0 Will be rejected as false

 It is therefore, the opposite of what the researcher would

like to believe.

 It is a hypothesis that assumes that no differences exist

between two data sets.

 It states that there is a high probability that the observed

differences are due to chance variations.
 Example, where the analysis is on differences
between two or more sets of data, the null
hypothesis is in the form.

 ‘’Thereis no significance difference between X

and Y data sets’’.

 ‘’There
is no relationship between age and
perfomance of students’’
 There are no significant differences in job effectiveness
between teachers’ that have professional training and
those without.

 There are no significant differences in the effectiveness

of professional and non-professional teachers towards
their methodological competencies.

 It makes a prediction that in the general population no

relationship or no significant difference exists between
groups on a variable. The wording is, "There is no
difference (or relationship)" between the groups.

 On the contrary, alternative hypotheses were raised in

case the null hypotheses were rejected or not
confirmed. The alternative hypotheses are:
 This hypothesis states that the apparent
relationship in the sample data does accurately
reflects a relationship in the population.

 It predicts the relationship exist between the

independent and dependent variables which are
testable and measurable.
 ‘’There is a significance difference between X
and Y data sets’’.

 ‘’There is a significance relationship between

age and perfomance of students’’
 There are significant differences in job effectiveness
between teachers that have professional training and
those without.

 There are significant differences in the effectiveness

of professional and nonprofessional teachers towards
their methodological competencies.

 The investigator makes a prediction about the

expected outcome. basing this prediction on prior
literature and studies on the topic that suggest a
potential outcome
❖ Note:
 HO = Null hypothesis
 Hi = Alternative hypothesis
 This is the method of testing whether the
claims/hypothesis regarding a particular
phenomena is likely to be true.

 The aim of inferential statistical test is to

calculate the probability that the null hypothesis
is true.
 Significance level testing in hypothesis is the
criterion we use to decide whether the value
stated in the null hypothesis is likely to be true.
 In behavioral science, the criterion or level of
significance is typically set at 5%
 Totest a hypothesis you need to go through a
process that comprises three phases:

(1) Constructing a hypothesis/assumption

(2) Gathering appropriate evidence/collect the

required data

(3) Analysing evidence to draw conclusions

as to its validity/true or false.
 Statistical testing for significance is then
undertaken to enable decision making;
whether one should accept or reject the null
hypothesis.

 IfHO is rejected, then necessarily the inverse

of it, that is the Hi must be accepted.
 Probability is frequently referred on a SCALE of
0 to 1.

 Thisis used to indicate the level of significance

of a test.

 Thesignificance levels correspond to confidence

levels.
 CONFIDENCE LEVES SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS

95% .05
99% .01

Generally .05 level of significance is

regarded as sufficiently rigorous

Rejection level is the level of significance at

which we decide HO may be rejected
1) State the hypothesis, to begin we identify a
hypothesis or claim that we feel should be
tested.

1) Compute the test statistics to get the coefficient

of relationship. This is a mathematical formula
that allows researchers to determine the
likelihood of obtaining sample outcomes if the
null hypothesis were true.

2) Specify level of suitable significance level. To

set the criteria for a decision to get the critical
value. levels set are 95% or 99%
 The confidence with which an experiment accept
or reject the null hypothesis depends on
significance level adopted/was set out.

 Levelof significance is rejection region(which is

outside the confidence or acceptance region
 Compare the calculated value/obtained value
with the critical value/tabulated value.

 The obtained value, is the value of a test

statistic. This value is compared to the critical
values of a hypothesis test to make a decision.

 Acritical
value is a cut off value that defines the
boundaries beyond which less than 5% of a
sample means can be obtained if the null
hypothesis is true.
 For
❖ Pearson’s Product moment correlation
❖ Spearman’s Rank correlation

❖ Kendall’s Rank correlation

❖ Chi-square test

 If the calculated/obtained value is greater than

the critical/tabulated value at chosen
significance level, reject null hypothesis in favor
of alternative hypothesis.

❑ Finally,
State the correct hypothesis(the
accepted hypothesis)
 As already mentioned, a hypothesis is an
assumption that may prove to be either correct
or incorrect.

 It is possible to arrive at an incorrect conclusion

about a hypothesis for a variety of reasons.

 Incorrect conclusions about the validity of a

hypothesis may be drawn if:
❖ The study design selected is faulty

❖ The sampling procedure adopted is faulty

❖ The method of data collection is inaccurate

❖ The analysis is wrong

❖ Thestatistical procedures applied are

inappropriate

❖ The conclusions drawn are incorrect

 Hence, in drawing conclusions about a
hypothesis, two types of error can occur:

1. Rejection of a null hypothesis when it is

true. This is known as a Type I error.
2. Acceptance of a null hypothesis when it is
false. This is known as a Type II error.
A hypothesis differs from a research question in
a number of ways:
i. It is a declarative, rather than an
interrogative, sentence.
ii. It is usually "directional"; that is, it typically
constitutes a claim (actually a guess) rather
than being a non-commital query.
iii. It often emerges from some sort of theory.
❖ Note:
 HO = Null hypothesis
 Hi = Alternative hypothesis

 Youwant to establish the statistical

association between amount of fertilizers
used by farmers and quantify of potato
produced .
 State the hypotheses
 RESEARCH DESIGN

Decisions regarding on;

❑ What
❑ Where
❑ When
❑ How much
❑ by What means

Concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute the so

called A RESEARCH DESIGN

51
 CONT.........

❖ According to Ogula (2009) a research design is a strategy

for planning and conducting a study.
❖ Research design is a plan, structure and strategy of
investigation to obtain answers to research questions or
problems.

❖ The plan is the complete scheme or programme of the

research.

❖ It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from

writing the hypotheses and their operational implications to the
final analysis of data. (Kerlinger 1986: 279)
52
 CONT.......

In brief, research design must at least contain;

❖ A clear statement of the research problem

❖Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering

information

❖The population to be studied

❖Methods to be used in processing and analysing data. 53

CONT......

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for

collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims
to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure.”

A study design is a specific plan or protocol for

conducting the study, which allows the investigator to
translate the conceptual framework into an operational
one. 54
CONT...

research design is a plan, structure and strategy of

investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to
research questions or problems.

Research designs are plans and the procedures for

research that span the decisions from broad
assumptions to detailed methods of data collection
and analysis(Cresswell,2009)

55
IMPORTANT FEATURES OF A RESEARCH DESIGN

➢ It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information

relevant to the research problem.

➢It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for

gathering and analysing the data.

➢ It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies
are done under these two constraints.

56
 CONT........

In brief, research design must at least contain;

o A clear statement of the research problem

o Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering

information.

o The population to be studied.

o Methods to be used in processing and analysing

data. 57
CRITERIAS FOR RESEARCH DESIGN SELECTION
The overall decision involves which design should be used
to study a topic.

❖Based on the nature of the research problem or issue

being addressed. A research problem, more thoroughly
an issue or concern that needs to be addressed (e.g., the
issue of racial discrimination). Certain types of social
research problems call for specific approaches

❖The researchers' personal experiences. Researchers'

own personal training and experiences also influence their
choice of approach(The mixed methods researcher is an
individual familiar with both quantitative and qualitative 58
CONT........

❖The audiences for the study, means for whom the report
will be written.

❖The experiences of these audiences with quantitative,

qualitative, or mixed methods studies can shape the
decision made about this choice

59
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS

• The research study design should be clearly stated in

conducting a scientific research.
1) Survey design,
2) Case study design
3) Cross-sectional design
4) Mixed methods design etc.
5) Longitudinal design
6) Correlation survey designs
7) Descriptive study design
8) Exploratory study design
60
 SURVEY STUDY DESIGN

❖ The survey design is used when one wants to study large

populations by studying samples drawn from it.
❖ Survey researchers usually describe characteristics of
respondents for the purpose of building theories or
generalizations about the population they represent
❖ Survey research involves random selection of research
subjects, getting their views and generalizing to the
population from which the samples are drawn
❖ It provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends,
attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample
of that population. 61
 CASE STUDY DESIGN

❖ Merriam,(1988) and Creswell (1998) defines a case study as

an exploration of a bounded system over time through a
detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources
of information.
❖ A case study consists of the intensive observation of a single
unit. This may be an individual person, school, district etc.
❖ The main purpose of the case study is to conduct an in-depth
study to produce a conclusive finding.
❖ Sources of data are the individual or institution to be studied,
document like books on the individual or institution, audio
and print materials including radio and TV speeches and
documentaries on the person.
62
CONT..........

❖ Instruments used to collect data on a case study include interview

guides and Focus Group discussion guides.

❖The case study design is different from other qualitative techniques

because they offer intensive descriptions and analysis of a single
unit or a bounded system such as an individual, programme, event
, group or country.

❖Cases are bounded by time and activity.

❖Case study method enables a researcher to closely examine the

data within a specific context.

❖In most cases, a case study method selects a small geographical

area or a very limited number of individuals as the subjects of
study 63
 CORRELATION SURVEY STUDY DESIGN

❖ Correlational study is to discover or establish the

existence of a relationship/association/interdependence
between two or more aspects of a situation.

❖ This design is used when the researcher wants to describe

in quantitative terms the degree to which two or more
variables are related.

❖ Correlation studies involve the collection of data on two

or more variables on the same group of subjects then
computing the correlation coefficient

64
 CONT.............

❖ What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the

sale of a product?

❖ What is the relationship between stressful living and the

incidence of heart attack?

❖ What is the relationship between technology and

unemployment?

These studies examine whether there is a relationship

between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon
and, therefore, are called correlational studies.
65
 CROSS - SECTIONAL STUDY DESIGN

❖ Cross-sectional studies, also known as one-shot or status studies,

are the most commonly used design in the social sciences.

❖ This design is best suited to studies aimed at finding out the

prevalence of a phenomenon, situation, problem, attitude or issue, by
taking a cross-section of the population.

❖ This kind of survey is appropriate when the researcher needs to get

information at one point in time so as to describe the current
characteristics of a sample.

❖ In this kind of study, the researcher identifies the essential

components of the population and randomly samples the research
subjects from each of the components at the same time. 66
 LONGITUDINAL SURVEY STUDY DESIGN

❖ Longitudinal studies are also useful when you need to

collect factual information on a continuing basis.

❖ You may want to ascertain the trends in the demand for

labour, immigration, changes in the incidence of a disease
or in the mortality, morbidity and fertility patterns of a
population.

❖ In longitudinal studies the study population is visited a

number of times at regular intervals, usually over a long
period, to collect the required information

. 67
CONT..........

❖ These intervals are not fixed so their length may vary

from study to study.
❖ This involves collection of data from the sample at
several points in time.
❖ It is appropriate when the researcher wants to observe
changes over a long period of time on the subjects.
❖ In longitudinal survey, data about a research subject is
collected at several points with the aim of
understanding the changes that are taking place o the
subjects over time.
68
 MIXED METHODS RESEARCH DESIGN

❖ Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry that

combines or associates both qualitative and quantitative
forms.

❖ It involves philosophical assumptions, the use of

qualitative and quantitative approaches, and the mixing of
both approaches in a study. Thus it is more than simply
collecting and analyzing both kinds of data;

❖ It also involves the use of both approaches in tandem so

that the overall strength of a study is greater than either
qualitative or quantitative research (Creswell & Plano
Clark. 2007). 69
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH STUDY DESIGN

❖ It seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an

outcome.
❖ This impact is assessed by providing a specific treatment
to one group and withholding it from another and then
determining how both groups scored on an outcome.
❖ Experiments include true experiments, with the random
assignment of subjects to treatment conditions, and quasi-
experiments that use nonrandomized designs (Keppel.
1991).
❖ Included within quasi-experiments are single-subject
designs.
70
 DESCRIPTIVE STUDY DESIGN

❖ They are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas
diagnostic research studies determine the frequency with which
something occurs or its association with something else.

❖ The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated

are examples of diagnostic research studies.

❖ As against this, studies concerned with specific predictions, with

narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group
or situation are all examples of descriptive research studies.

❖ Most of the social research comes under this category.

71
 EXPLORATORY STUDY DESIGN

❖Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research

studies.

❖The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem

for more precise investigation or of developing the working
hypotheses from an operational point of view.

❖The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and

insights.

❖As such the research design appropriate for such studies must be
flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different
aspects of a problem under study

72
 RESEARCH APPROACHES
1)QUANTITATIVE APPROACH (Numerical data
sets)the use of closed ended questionnaires and
other statistical/software tools like GIS
2)QUALITATIVE APPROACH
(Descriptive/description/words)the use of interview,
observation, FGD, Open ended questionnaires

3)MIXED METHOD APPROACH(Both quantitative

and Qualitative data sets)the use of both closed-
open ended questionnaires, interviews, observation
and FGD
73
 MAIN CONCLUSION

There are several research designs and the researcher must

decide in advance of collection and analysis of data as to which
design would prove to be more appropriate for his research
project.
He must give due weight to various points such as
o The type of universe and its nature,
o The objective of his study,
o The resource list or the sampling frame,
o Desired standard of accuracy and
o The like when taking a decision in respect of the design for
his research project. 74
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Sample and Sampling Techniques

75
 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
SAMPLE

Sample: Refers to the representatives selected for a study

whose characteristics exemplify the larger group from which
they were selected.
This refers to a group of individuals/subjects/units that will
participate in a research study carefully selected from a
population.
A sample is considered representative if the analysis made
using the researcher’s sample units produce results similar to
those that would be obtained had the researcher analyzed the
information from the entire population.
76
 SAMPLING

❑ Sampling is the process of selecting a small number

of elements from a larger defined target group of
elements such that the information gathered from the
small group will allow judgments to be made about
the larger groups.
❑ Sampling means picking part of the entire population
for the study which saves time and money (Kothari,
2004).
❑ Sampling The process of selecting a number of
individuals for a study in such a way that the
individuals represent the larger group from which they
were selected 77
 CONT...........

❖ Sampling bias: This involves problems in your

sampling, which reveals that your sample is not
representative of your population.

❖ Sampling error: is any type of bias that is attributable to

mistakes in either drawing a sample or determining the
sample size.

❖ Sampling frame: This is the list of the elements in your

population and from this your sample is drawn.

78
 POPULATION AND SAMPLE SIZE
Researchers usually cannot make direct observation of every
individual in the population they are studying.

Instead they collect data from a few individuals in the

population and use observations from the few individuals to
make inferences about the entire population.

Population refers to the larger group from which individuals

are selected to participate in a study.

It is important to describe which would be the study

population.
79
CONT..........

A population is a collection of all possible objects,

individuals or values whose properties are to be examined.
A target population is the complete group to whom the
researcher applies the results of the study.

Study population – is the number of members of a target

population that eventually participated in the investigation.

Eligibility criteria - are characteristics that delimit the

population for inclusion in a study

How the study subjects would be selected, randomization

process and other details should be given.
80
 POPULATION/SAMPLE FRAME

❖ The selection of a sample from a defined target population

requires the preparation of a sample frame.
❖ It is normally prepared in the form of a physical list of
population elements.
❖ Sampling frame is defined as a complete list of all units of
analysis in the study in which the sample is drawn (Nachmias
and Nachmias, 1992).
❖ Sampling frame. This is the list of the elements in your
population and from this your sample is drawn.
❖ Sampling frame may list schools according to a number of
variables, such as size, programmes, region etc.
81
 CONT.......

It is important to mention in the protocol what would

be the minimum sample required and how it is arrived
Describe the sample size and the characteristics of the
participants in the sample size
Describe how you would determine how many people
to include in the study and what attributes they have
which make them uniquely suitable for the study
Determination of sample size is a bargain between
precision and the price (Resources & expenses
involved)

82
 SAMPLE SIZE

According to Donald Ary (1996), other things being equal,

a larger sample is more likely to be a good representative
of the population than a smaller sample.

However the most important characteristic of the sample is

its representativeness not its size, a random sample of 200
is better than a random sample of 100, but a random
sample of 100 is better than a biased sample of 2500! Size
alone then will not guarantee accuracy.

83
CONT........

A sample may be large and still contain a bias.

Representativeness must remain the prime goal in sample

selection, however should be with clear criterias.

NB: The size of the sample is supposed to match

with the size of the population, of which the
results are considered to be representative
(Cohen et al., 2006: Kombo and Tromp, 2006;
Kothari, 2004).
84
85
 THE PURPOSE FOR SAMPLING

To gather data about the population in order to make

an inference that can be generalized to the
population.

86
 WHY SAMPLE?

Impossible to research whole populations because

of:
oFinite time
oMoney
oResources

87
88
89
 STEPS IN SAMPLING

1)Define population (N) to be sampled

2)Determine sample size (n)
3)Control for bias and error
4)Select sample

90
 DEFINE POPULATION TO BE SAMPLED

Identify the group of interest and its characteristics to

which the findings of the study will be generalized.

called the “target” population (the ideal selection)

oftentimes the “accessible” or “available” population

must be used (the realistic selection)

91
 DETERMINE THE SAMPLE SIZE

The size of the sample influences both the

representativeness of the sample and the statistical
analysis of the data.

larger samples are more likely to detect a difference

between different groups.

…..............smaller samples are more likely not to be

representative.

92
 SELECT THE SAMPLE

o A process by which the researcher attempts to

ensure that the sample is representative of the
population from which it is to be selected.

o It requires identifying the sampling method that

will be used.

93
 QUALITIES OF A GOOD SAMPLE
1) Representative i.e. consists of essential characteristics of
the population.
2) Sufficiently large

3) Unbiased i.e. members are randomly selected.

4) Accessible for adequate coverage

5) Analyzable

6) Inter-homogeneous i.e. subjects in the sample and each stratum must

be reasonably similar in relation to he problem at hand.

7) Intra-heterogeneous – subjects in the sample but in different strata

should be easily differentiated. 94
95
The aim of sampling is to produce a miniature copy of
the population.

• Each member of the population has an equal

likelihood of being selected into the sample.

• Hence we can make inferences about the larger

population based on the sample.
96
97
98
99
100
CONT.....

101
 DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE

➢ How many completed questionnaires do we need to

have a representative sample?

➢ Generally the larger the better, but that takes more time
and money.

Answer depends on:

o –How different or dispersed the population is.

o Desired level of confidence.

o Desired degree of accuracy. 102

 DETERMINING SAMPLE SIZE

Sample size is important for three main

reasons:
❖ Economic reason
❖ Ethical reasons
❖ Scientific reasons

103
ECONOMIC REASONS:

104
105
106
TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

107
 A SAMPLE DESIGN
❖ A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from
a given population.
❖ It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would
adopt in selecting items for the sample.
❖ Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be
included in the sample i.e., the size of the sample. Sample
design is determined before data are collected.
❖ There are many sample designs from which a researcher can
choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to
apply than others.
❖ Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should
be reliable and appropriate for his research study.
108
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN
❑ From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a
good sample design as under:

❖ Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.

❖ Sample design must be such which results in a small

sampling error.

❖ Sample design must be viable in the context of funds

available for the research study.

❖ Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be

controlled in a better way.

❖ Sample results of the sample study can be applied, in general,

for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence. 109
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS

Thus, sample designs are basically of two types

1) Probability sampling

2) Non-probability sampling and

We take up these two designs separately

110
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

❖In probability sampling, each an every unit in the

population is given an equal chance of selection.

❖Elements of a population, such as individuals, events or

objects, have an equal chance of being included in the
final sample.

❖Characterized by the use of random selection to obtain

sample members

❖Reduces sampling errors and bias and increases sample

representativeness.
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CONT...........

❖ Probability sampling is also known as ‘random

sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’.
❖ Under this sampling design, every item of the
universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the
sample.
❖ It is, so to say, a lottery method in which individual
units are picked up from the whole group not
deliberately but by some mechanical process.
❖ Here it is blind chance alone that determines
whether one item or the other is selected
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 CONT.......

❖Often used in quantitative approaches.

❖Probability sampling techniques are primarily used in

quantitatively oriented studies and involve ‘‘selecting a
relatively large number of units from a population, or from
specific subgroups (strata) of a population, in a random
manner where the probability of inclusion for every
member of the population is determinable’’.

❖Probability samples aim to achieve representativeness,

which is the degree to which the sample accurately
represents the entire population
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 NON – PROBABILITY SAMPLING

❖ The method means that the selected sample is not

representative of the population from which it is drawn
because the units in the population are not given an equal
chance of selection

❖ The procedure does not call for any systematic sampling.

The researcher decides to take what he or she thinks is
the representative unit in the group.

❖ The procedure is useful in so far as the researcher knows

the area and is aware of the objectives of the study.

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 CONT..........

❖ Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure

which does not afford any basis for estimating the
probability that each item in the population has of being
included in the sample.

❖ Non-probability sampling is also known by different

names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling
and judgement sampling.

❖ In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected

deliberately by the researcher; his choice concerning the
items remains supreme
115
 TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

❖ SRS takes into account the fact that all elements in the
population get an equal chance of selection.
❖ The basic assumption underlying SRS is that the elements or
individuals in the population are judged to be homogeneous.
❖ The first thing a researcher does in this case is to determine
the sample size. A sample size of 30% is normally
acceptable.
❖ The next step is to give each an every element in the
population a number. These numbers are written in small
pieces of paper, folded and placed in a container and mixed.
❖ An assistant is blind folded and instructed to pick randomly
the numbers in the container until the sample size is reached.
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117
 2. STRATIFIED SAMPLING

❖ In stratified sampling the sampler divides the population into

homogeneous units because the population is
heterogeneous. Similar elements are placed in the same group
like education level, gender, marital status. for example, males
in one group and females in another group.

❖ In each homogeneous unit, each an every element is given an

equal chance of selection. Then the researcher determines the
sample size which is supposed to be not less than 30% of the
elements in the population.

❖ SRS is used to select the sample size from each

homogeneous unit and these are added to give the right
sample size for that population.
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 CONT........

❖ Proportional Stratified sampling is a type of sampling

which enables the researcher to achieve even
greater representativeness in the sample.

❖ This technique requires selection of units at random

from each stratum proportion to the actual size of the
group in the total population.

❖ Hence if 20% of the voting population are college

graduates, 20% of the sample is taken from this
stratum.

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120
 3. SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

The character of systematic sampling is that the units in the

population must be arranged serially then the selection of the
sample is started by finding a random number.

For example if the researcher decides to study the background of

students of education at Meru district, he/she calls at the registry
to examine the files before he selects the sample. The files of the
students are then numbered serially. Then the sample size is
determined.

The sample size is not supposed to be less than 30%. Then the
researcher selects the random number which he does by cutting
pieces of paper and writing on them number one to ten. These
are then folder, placed in a tin and shaken
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 CONT.........
If a blind folder assistant picks five, then every fifth file is
picked until the sample size is reached.
When a frame of a given population is available, a sample
is sometimes drawn from fixed intervals list. To select a
sample of 50 names from a list of 500 school children, one
first divides 500 by 50 to determine the interval which is 10
in this case.
Then picks the starting number at random from 1 to 10
(assume the number is 9) and selects each tenth name
thereafter (thus 9,19,29……..) until the desired 50 names
have been drawn.
The starting number should be lower than the interval
number.
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 4. CLUSTER SAMPLING

❖ In this type of sampling the researcher selects a group of

units as a first stage in sampling.

❖ By definition the term cluster means a number of units or

elements of the same kind.

❖ For example in a large scale survey, the researcher may

identify areas inhabited by people from the same socio-
economic backgrounds.

❖ After the selection of a specific area, the researcher may

decide to use all the households in the area or resort to the
systematic sampling method to select some of the houses. 123
❖ Another simpler example is selecting school pupils by
using their classes as cluster units.

❖ Then the researcher may use SRS or Systematic

sampling techniques depending on the characteristics of
the population.

❖ This is one reason why some authors argue that in

cluster sampling procedure we go through a multi-stage
sampling technique.

❖ This is because sampling is done through two stages.

In the first stage, sampling areas are identified.
124
125
TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

126
127
128
 1. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

❖ This technique is referred to as grab or

opportunity sampling.
❖ It involves the sample being drawn from that
part of the population that is easy to get.

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130
131
 2. SNOWBALL SAMPLING

❖ In this method, the researcher identifies people who

meet the criteria for inclusion into the study.

❖ After which each one of them is asked to

recommend others who meet those criteria.

❖ In other words the participants are asked to help

recruit additional participants.

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133
 3. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

❖ In purposive sampling, the researcher chooses the

sample based on who they think would be
appropriate for the study.

❖ This is used primarily when there are a limited

number of people that have expertise in the area
being researched.

❖ The researcher selects only those who have expert

knowledge in the area being studied.

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135
 4. QUOTA SAMPLING

❖ The chief aim of a quota sample is to select a

sample that is as similar as possible to the
sampling population.

❖ For example if it is known that the population has

equal number of males and females, the
researcher selects equal proportion of males and
females.

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137
 DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND
TECHNIQUES

o The task of data collection begins after a research

problem has been defined and research design/plan
chalked out.
o Measurement tools used by the researcher to
collect data from the sample that has been selected
to participate in the study
o There are different data collection instruments used
under qualitative and quantitative research designs.
138
 CONT...........

o According to Kerlinger, (1973, P42)

measurement is the assignment of numbers
to objects or events according to rules.

o Objects include physical things such as

classrooms, computers, textbooks, teachers,
students etc.
139
CONT.....

❖What is data
❖Types of data
❖Data sources
❖Methods and techniques of data
collection

140
RESEARCH DATA

141
CONT........

142
CATEGORIES OF DATA

143
QUALITATIVE DATA

144
QUANTITATIVE DATA

145
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUANT AND QUAL

146
DATA COLLECTION

147
SOURCES OF RESEARCH DATA

148
TYPES OF RESEARCH DATA

149
CONT...

150
151
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA

152
153
 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS/TOOLS

Common tools/ Instruments under quantitative

design
❖Questionnaire
❖Interview schedule
❖Attitude scales

154
COMMON TOOLS/INSTRUMENTS UNDER QUALITATIVE
DESIGNS

o Observation Guide
oFocus group discussion guide
o In-depth Interview
o Wealth ranking
oDocument analysis guide

155
 Common Qualitative Methods

Focused Group Discussions (FGD)

 This allows the researcher to consult with
a range of stakeholders (selected from
local groups, local government, etc).
 In a focus group interview, you explore
the perceptions, experiences and
understandings of a group of people who
have some experience in common with
regard to a situation or event.
 For example, you may explore with
relevant groups such issues as domestic
violence, physical disability or refugees.

 They are effective in eliciting data on the

cultural norms of a group and in
generating broad overviews of issues of
concern to the cultural groups or sub-
groups represented.
 Key informant interviews

 Field staff, NGOs, select local

community leaders, village workers
or persons with special knowledge
or experience about the subject
matter.
 Cont...
In-depth interviews
 Are optimal for collecting data on
individuals’ personal histories, perspectives,
and experiences, particularly when sensitive
topics are being explored.
 According to Taylor and Bogdan, in-depth
interviewing is ‘repeated face-to-face
encounters between the researcher and
informants directed towards understanding
informants’ perspectives on their lives,
experiences, or situations as expressed in
their own words’ (1998: 77).
This definition underlines two essential
characteristics of in-depth interviewing:

(1) it involves face-to-face, repeated interaction

between the researcher and his/her informant(s);
and

(2) it seeks to understand the latter’s perspectives

 Observation method

 Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of

watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes
place
 There are two types of observation:
1. participant observation;
2. non-participant observation

 Participant observation is when you, as a researcher, participate in the activities

of the group being observed in the same manner as its members, with or without their
knowing that they are being observed.

 Non-participant observation, on the other hand, is when you, as a researcher,

do not get involved in the activities of the group but remain a passive observer,
watching and listening to its activities and drawing conclusions from this
161
❖ Direct observations/transect walks
Field observations on status of the
agricultural landscape or settlements.
Participant observation is appropriate
for collecting data on naturally
occurring behaviors in their usual
contexts.
 Community public meetings

 Open public meetings at settlement sites

to elicit information about performance of
various socio-economic activities in the
settlement.

 The types of data these three methods

generate are field notes, audio (and
sometimes video) recordings, and
transcripts.
 Mapping of livelihoods landscape

 Participants are asked to develop a map of

their livelihoods’ landscape.
 They identify places of importance with
charcoal or chalk on the floor (e.g. this
village, neighboring villages, road, stream,
etc).
 The researcher asks the participants to
draw places and resources that are
important to their set of livelihood
activities.
 These should be limited to the spaces in
which they are physically present on a
regular basis.
 Cont……

 They may include farms or bomas, water

sources, sources of fuelwood & wild
plants,
 Areas of non-farm activities, such as
markets, etc.
 Participants may label the names of the
main wet and dry season grazing areas,
and the type of vegetation in the local
language.
 Wealth Ranking

 Used to determine or assess wealth or

social status of community members or
villagers;

 Ownership of various assets is used as a

criterion for assessing wealth or social
status of community members or
villagers.

 Normally performed by teams of selected

villagers from a village categorized by
age, gender, knowledgeability of the
community, etc.
 Common Quantitative data
collection Methods
⚫ A questionnaire is a research instrument for
the purpose of gathering information from
respondents.
⚫ Simply a ‘tool’ for collecting and recording
information about a particular issue of
interest.
⚫ It is mainly made up of a list of questions and
other prompts/ instructions and space for
answers or administrative details.
A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the
answers to which are recorded by respondents.

In a questionnaire respondents read the questions,

interpret what is expected and then write down
the answers.
A.Open-ended questionnaires (open questions)

B.Closed-ended questionnaires(close questions)

 The Questionnaire…
⚫ Are often designed for statistical analysis of
the responses, though this is not always the
case.
⚫ Questionnaires can be used in a variety of
survey situations, e.g. postal, electronic,
face-to-face and telephone, mailed paper
questionnaires, and internet.
⚫ Increasingly, the use of Personal Digital
Assistants, Smartphones, and other
handheld computerized devices.
Designing a questionnaire
Five major issues arise when designing a questionnaire:

⚫ The need for the data: data should be critical to any

analysis and irrelevant questions excluded

⚫ The ability of the question to produce data: questions

should be unambiguous

⚫ The ability of the respondent to answer accurately

⚫ The willingness of the respondent to answer

accurately

⚫ The potential for external events to bias the answer.

Interview Schedule
The interview schedule is one of the most used techniques
of obtaining information.

It is a way of obtaining data about a person by asking

him/her rather than by watching him or her behave.
A personal interview helps the researcher measure what a
person knows.
In a standard interview schedule, the questions and their
sequence are fixed. An interviewee may be allowed some
liberty to ask some questions as asked by the researcher,
but relatively little.
 Attitude and value scales

Attitude scales have no wrong or right answers.

Attitude scales assume that subjective attitudes of
people can be measured by quantitative scores.
Likert attitude scales
Likert scales consist of a series of attitude statements about
a person, group or a thing.

Respondents indicate the extent to which they agree

or disagree with each statement and the overall
score then suggests whether the individual’s attitude
is favourable or unfavourable
In order to score the scale, weights are assigned to each
letter depending on whether the item is worded positively
or negatively. It is standard practice to have
o Strongly Agree (5)
o Agree (4)
o Undecided (3)
o Disagree (2)
o Strongly disagree (1).
For negatively worded the scoring is reversed.
 INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

➢ The interview schedule is one of the most used

techniques of obtaining information.
➢ It is a way of obtaining data about a person by
asking him/her rather than by watching him or her
behave.
➢ A personal interview helps the researcher measure
what a person knows.
➢ In a standard interview schedule, the questions
and their sequence are fixed.
➢ An interviewee may be allowed some liberty to ask
some questions as asked by the researcher, but
relatively little. 175
 !
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QUESTIONS?

COMMENTS?