Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access

method utilized by various radio communication

technologies. CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology
and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is
assigned a code) to allow multiple users to be multiplexed
over the same physical channel. CDMA is a form of "spread
-spectrum" signaling, since the modulated coded signal
has a much higher data bandwidth than the data being
communicated.
Time division multiple access (TDMA) allows several users to share the same
frequency channel by dividing the signal into different time slots. The users
transmit in rapid succession, one after the other, each using his own time slot.
TDMA is used in the digital 2G cellular systems such as Global System for
Mobile Communications (GSM), Personal Digital Cellular (PDC). It is also used
extensively in satellite systems.
In Frequency Division Multiple Access, the frequency band is divided in
slots. Each user gets one frequency slot assigned that is used at will. It
could be compared to AM or FM broadcasting radio where each station
has a frequency assigned.

CDMA is different than those traditional ways in that it does not allocate
frequency or time in user slots but gives the right to use both to all users
simultaneously. For this , CDMA uses Spread Spectrum Technology. In
effect, each user is assigned a code which spreads its signal bandwidth in
such a way that only the same code can recover it at the receiver end.
 Spread spectrum techniques use a transmission bandwidth that is several orders of
magnitude greater then the minimum required signal bandwidth. One of the initial
reasons for doing this was military applications including guidance and
communication systems. These systems were designed using spread spectrum
because of its security and resistance to jamming.

 Asynchronous CDMA has some level of privacy built in because the signal is
spread using a pseudorandom code; which makes the spread spectrum signals
appear random or have noise-like properties.

 CDMA is also resistant to jamming.

 The jammer can either spread its energy over the entire bandwidth of the signal or
jam only part of the entire signal.

 CDMA can also effectively reject narrowband interference.

 CDMA systems have the ability to perform soft handoffs. Soft handoffs allow the
mobile telephone to communicate simultaneously with two or more cells. Soft
handoff is undetectable and provides a more reliable and higher quality signal.
 In 1940s, Hollywood actress turned inventor, Hedy
Lamarr, and co-inventor George Antheil, co-patented a
way for torpedoes to be controlled by sending signals
over multiple radio frequencies using random patterns.
The idea was named frequency-hopping, and later as
frequency-hopping spread-spectrum technology
(FHSS).

Hedy Lamarr George Antheil

 CDMA became the early choice for personal communication
because it could allow multiple users to communicate within the
spectrum, avoiding interference or blocking among users.

 Commercially introduced in 1995 by QUALCOMM, CDMA quickly

became one of the world's fastest-growing wireless technologies.

 In 1999, the International Telecommunications Union selected

CDMA as the industry standard for new "third-generation" (3G)
wireless systems.

 CDMA is widely used today for voice communication and data

services. It has given a new face to mobile telephony.

 Today, more than 517 million consumers worldwide rely on CDMA

for clear, reliable voice communications and leading-edge data
services.
 Later on “Direct-sequence spread-spectrum” was
developed.

 Direct-sequence spread-spectrum transmissions multiply the data

being transmitted by a "noise" signal.
 This noise signal is a pseudorandom sequence of 1 and −1 values,
at a frequency much higher than that of the original signal, thereby
spreading the energy of the original signal into a much wider band.
 Direct-sequence spread-spectrum became the basis for the code
division multiple access (CDMA).
 CDMA, incorporating spread-spectrum, works by digitizing multiple
conversations attaching a code known only to the sender and
receiver, and then dicing the signals into bits and reassembling
them.
 At that time military used CDMA because coded signals with
trillions of possible combinations resulted in extremely secure
transmissions.
The Qualcomm standard IS-95,marketed as
cdmaone
Interim Standard 95 (IS-95), is the first CDMA-based digital
cellular standard pioneered by Qualcomm. The brand name
for IS-95 is cdmaOne. It is a 2G Mobile Telecommunications
Standard that uses CDMA technology for digital radio, to send
voice, data and signaling data (such as a dialed telephone
number) between mobile telephones and cell sites.

Uplink Frequency 869-894 MHz

Downlink Frequency 824-849 MHz
Number of Channel 64
Channel Bit Rate 1.25 Mbps (chip rate)
Speech Rate 8~13 kbps
Data Rate Up to 14.4 kbps
The Qualcomm standard IS-2000,known as
CDMA2000:
CDMA2000 is a hybrid 2.5G / 3G technology of mobile
telecommunications standards that use CDMA for digital
radio, to send voice, data, and signaling data (such as a dialed
telephone number) between mobile phones and cell sites.
CDMA2000 is considered a 2.5G technology in 1xRTT and a
3G technology in EVDO. CDMA2000 remains compatible with
the older CDMA telephony methods (such as cdmaOne). The
CDMA2000 standards CDMA2000 1xRTT, CDMA2000 EV-DO,
and CDMA2000 EV-DV are approved radio interfaces for the
ITU's IMT-2000 standard and a direct successor to 2G CDMA,
IS-95 (cdmaOne).
CDMA2000 1xRTT
CDMA-2000 1xRTT is a 2.5G wireless technology based on the
CDMA platform. The 1x in 1xRTT refers to 1x the number of
1.25MHz channels. The RTT in 1xRTT stands for Radio
Transmission Technology.
• It supports both voice and data services.
• it provides up to twice the capacity of earlier CDMA systems.
• It provides peak data rates of up to 153 kbps.

CDMA2000 1xRTT Devices

CDMA2000 EV-DO(Evolution-Data Optimized)
  CDMA2000 1x EV-DO cell phone system is a standard that has evolved
from the CDMA2000 mobile phone system and it is now firmly
established in many areas of the world. The letters EV-DO stand for
Evolution Data Only or Data Optimized.

 CDMA2000 1xEV-DO introduced high-speed packet-switched transmission

techniques that are specifically designed and optimized for broadband
services that can deliver peak data rates beyond 2 Mbps in a mobile
environment.

 CDMA2000 1xEV-DO was approved as an IMT-2000 standard (cdma2000

High Rate packet Data Air Interface, IS-856) at the ITU Stockholm
Conference in 2001.
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Release 0
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Release 0 (Rel 0) offers high-speed data access
of up to 2.4 Mbps and it was the first mobile broadband technology
deployed worldwide.
 Provides a peak data rate of 2.4 Mbps in the forward link and 153 kbps
in the reverse link.

CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Rel 0 Devices

CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Revision A (Rev A)
Rev A is an evolution of CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Rel 0 that increases
peak rates on reverse and forward links to support a wide-variety
broadband data applications.

 Improved broadband speeds : Provides a peak data rate of 3.1 Mbps

in the forward link and 1.8 Mbps in the reverse link .
 Increased Capacity – On both the forward and reverse link, Rev A
allows operators to support more users.

CDMA2000 1xEV-DO Rev a Devices

 CDMA2000 3x (also known as EV-DO Rev B)
EV-DO Rev B is a multi-carrier evolution of the Rev A
specification. It maintains the capabilities of EV-DO Rev A, and
provides many more enhancements

 Higher rates per carrier (up to 4.9 Mbit/s on the downlink per carrier).
 Increased talk-time and standby time.
 Efficient support for services that have asymmetric download and upload
requirements

CDMA2000 EV-DV (Evolution-Data/Voice)

EV-DV is a 3G high-speed digital wireless service. EV-DV
standard supports up to 3.1 Mbps forward link throughput. One of
the advantageous of EV-DV is its ability to give carriers both voice
and broadband data on a single channel, using the same legacy
digital voice technology operating over current 1x networks.
W-CDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) is a
type of 3G cellular network. W-CDMA is the higher speed
transmission protocol used in the Japanese FOMA system
and in the UMTS system, a third generation follow-on to the
2G GSM networks deployed worldwide.

It runs in a 5 MHz bandwidth. In W-CDMA systems the

CDMA air interface is combined with GSM based networks.
It has the property that a user can leave a W-CDMA cell and
enter a GSM cell without losing the call.
 WCDMA system

The above diagram shows that the WCDMA system includes various types
of mobile communication devices (called user equipment - UE) that
communicate through base stations (node B) and a mobile switching
center (MSC) or data routing networks to connect to other mobile
telephones, public telephones, or to the Internet via a core network (CN).
This diagram shows that the WCDMA system is compatible with both the 5
MHz wide WCDMA radio channel and the narrow 200 kHz GSM channels.
This example also shows that the core network is essentially divided
between voice systems (circuit switching) and packet data (packet
switching).
 CDMA is a spread spectrum multiple access technique. In CDMA a locally
generated code runs at a much higher rate than the data to be transmitted.
Data for transmission is simply logically XOR (exclusive OR) added with
the faster code.

 Each user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their

signal. Choosing the codes used to modulate the signal is very important
in the performance of CDMA systems.
 The best performance will occur when there is good separation between
the signal of a desired user and the signals of other users.
 The separation of the signals is made by correlating the received signal
with the locally generated code of the desired user.
 If the signal matches the desired user's code then the correlation function
will be high and the system can extract that signal.
 If the desired user's code has nothing in common with the signal the
correlation should be as close to zero as possible (thus eliminating the
signal); this is referred to as cross correlation.
The given figure shows how spread spectrum signal is
generated. The data signal with pulse duration of Tb is XOR
added with the code signal with pulse duration of Tc.
(Bandwidth is proportional to 1/T where T = bit time).
Therefore, the bandwidth of the data signal is 1/Tb and the
bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is 1/Tc. Since Tc
is much smaller than Tb, the bandwidth of the spread
spectrum signal is much larger than the bandwidth of the
original signal.
Synchronous CDMA exploits
mathematical properties of
orthogonality between vectors
representing the data strings. For
example, binary string "1011" is
represented by the vector (1, 0, 1,
1). If the dot product is zero, the
two vectors are said to be
orthogonal to each other. Each
user in synchronous CDMA uses
orthogonal codes to modulate their
signal. Orthogonal codes have a
cross-correlation equal to zero; in
other words, they do not interfere
with each other.
 Each user is associated with a different code, say v. If the data to be
transmitted is a digital zero, then the actual bits transmitted will be –v, and if
the data to be transmitted is a digital one, then the actual bits transmitted
will be v. For example, if v=(1,–1), and the data that the user wishes to
transmit is (1, 0, 1, 1) this would correspond to (v, –v, v, v) which is then
constructed in binary as ((1,–1),(–1,1),(1,–1),(1,–1)).

Let sender0 has code (1,–1) and data (1,0,1,1), and sender1 has code (1,1) and
data (0,0,1,1), and both senders transmit simultaneously. The table describes the
coding steps:

Step Encode sender0 Encode sender1

vector0=(1,–1), vector1=(1,1),
0 data0=(1,0,1,1)=(1,-1,1,1) data1=(0,0,1,1)=(–1,–1,1,1)
1 encode0=vector0.data0 encode1=vector1.data1
2 encode0=(1,–1).(1,–1,1,1) encode1=(1,1).(–1,–1,1,1)
3 encode0=((1,–1),(–1,1),(1,–1),(1,–1)) encode1=((–1,–1),(–1,–1),(1,1),(1,1))
4 signal0=(1,–1,–1,1,1,–1,1,–1) signal1=(–1,–1,–1,–1,1,1,1,1)

Because signal0 and signal1 are transmitted at the same time into the air, they
add to produce the raw signal:
(1,–1,–1,1,1,–1,1,–1) + (–1,–1,–1,–1,1,1,1,1) = (0,–2,–2,0,2,0,2,0)
 The raw signal is called an interference pattern. The receiver then
extracts an intelligible signal for any known sender by combining the
sender's code with the interference pattern, the receiver combines it
with the codes of the senders. As a result the signals do not interfere
with one another :

Step Decode receiver0 Decode receiver1

vector0=(1,–1), pattern= vector1=(1,1), pattern=
0 (0,–2,–2,0,2,0,2,0) (0,–2,–2,0,2,0,2,0)
1 decode0=pattern.vector0 decode1=pattern.vector1
decode0=
2 ((0,–2),(–2,0),(2,0),(2,0)).(1,–1) decode1=((0,–2),(–2,0),(2,0),(2,0)).(1,1)

decode0= Decode1
3 ((0+2),(–2+0),(2+0),(2+0)) =((0–2),(–2+0),(2+0),(2+0))
4 data0=(2,–2,2,2)=(1,0,1,1) data1=(–2,–2,2,2)=(0,0,1,1)
 We can also consider what would happen if a receiver tries to decode a signal
when the user has not sent any information. Assume signal0=(1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1,-
1) is transmitted alone. The following table shows the decode at the receiver:

Step Decode receiver0 Decode receiver1

vector0=(1,–1), vector1=(1,1),
0 pattern= (1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1,-1) pattern=(1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1,-1)
1 decode0=pattern.vector0 decode1=pattern.vector1
decode0= decode1=
2 ((1,–1),(–1,1),(1,-1),(1,-1)).(1,–1) ((1,–1),(–1,1),(1,-1),(1,-1)).(1,1)
decode0= decode1=
3 ((1+1),(–1-1),(1+1),(1+1)) ((1–1),(–1+1),(1-1),(1-1))
4 data0=(2,–2,2,2)=(1,0,1,1) data1=(0,0,0,0)

When the receiver attempts to decode the signal using sender1’s code, the
data is all zeros, therefore the cross correlation is equal to zero and it is
clear that sender1 did not transmit any data.
 Sequence Generation
To generate chip sequences, we use a
Walsh Table, which is a two-dimensional
table with an equal number of rows and
columns
Basic Rule:
W 2N = wN wN
wN wN
19.2ksps × 64 cps = 1.228Mcps
IS-95 Forward Transmission
 Asynchronous CDMA
Asynchronous CDMA systems use unique "pseudo-random"
or "pseudo-noise" (PN) sequences. A PN code is a binary
sequence that appears random but can be reproduced in a
deterministic manner by intended receivers. These PN codes
are used to encode and decode a user’s signal in
Asynchronous CDMA in the same manner as the orthogonal
codes in synchronous CDMA.

The mobile-to-base links cannot be precisely coordinated,

particularly due to the mobility of the handsets, and require a
somewhat different approach. Since it is not mathematically
possible to create signature sequences that are orthogonal
for arbitrarily random starting points, unique "pseudo-
random” sequences are used in Asynchronous CDMA
systems.
 Asynchronous CDMA's main advantage over CDM (Synchronous CDMA),
TDMA and FDMA is that it can use the spectrum more efficiently in
mobile telephony applications.

 Asynchronous CDMA offers a key advantage in the flexible allocation of

resources i.e. allocation of a PN codes to active users. In the case of
CDM, TDMA and FDMA the number of simultaneous orthogonal codes,
time slots and frequency slots respectively is fixed.

 In a bursty traffic environment like mobile telephony, the advantage

afforded by Asynchronous CDMA is that the performance (bit error rate)
is allowed to fluctuate randomly, with an average value determined by the
number of users times the percentage of utilization.

.
 The purpose of the encoding and interleaving is to build redundancy into
the signal so that information lost in transmission can be recovered.

The type of encoding done at this stage is called "convolutional encoding”.

A simplified encoding scheme is shown here. A digital message consists of four
bits (A, B, C, D) of data. Each bit is repeated three times. These encoded bits
are called symbols. The decoder at the receiver uses a majority logic rule.
 Interleaving is a method of shuffling the coded symbols or
message bits out of their naturally occurring order prior to
transmission for the purpose of making the distribution of symbol
errors in the deinterleaved stream of symbols.
In the example shown here the symbols from each group are interleaved (or
scrambled) in a pattern that the receiver knows. De-interleaving at the receiver
unscrambles the bits, spreading any burst errors that occur during transmission.
 Handoff is the process of transferring a call from one cell to another. This
is necessary to continue the call as the phone travels. CDMA is unique
in how it handles handoff.

 A soft handoff establishes a connection with the new BTS prior to

breaking the connection with the old one. This is possible because
CDMA cells use the same frequency and because the mobile uses a
rake receiver.

 The CDMA mobile assists the network in the handoff. The mobile detects
a new pilot as it travels to the next coverage area. The new base station
then establishes a connection with the mobile. This new communication
link is established while the mobile maintains the link with the old BTS.

 Soft handoffs are also called "make-before-break“.

  CDMA's features result in coverage that is between 1.7 and 3
times that of TDMA.
 Power control helps the network dynamically expand the
coverage area.
 Coding and interleaving provide the ability to cover a larger
area for the same amount of available power used in other
systems.

CDMA capacity is ten to twenty times that of analog systems,

and it's up to four times that of TDMA. Reasons for this include:
 CDMA's universal frequency reuse
 CDMA users are separated by codes, not frequencies
 Power control minimizes interference, resulting in maximized
capacity.
 Often CDMA systems can achieve "wire line" clarity because of
CDMA's strong digital processing. Specifically:
 The rake receiver reduces errors
 The soft handoff also reduces power requirements and
interference.
 Power control reduces errors by keeping power at an optimal level.
 CDMA's wide band signal reduces fading.
 Encoding and interleaving reduce errors that result from fading.

CDMA's better coverage and capacity result in cost benefits:

 Increased coverage per BTS means fewer are needed to cover a
given area. This reduces infrastructure costs for the providers.
 Increased capacity increases the service provider's revenue
potential.
 CDMA costs per subscriber has steadily declined since 1995 for both
cellular and PCS applications.
 CDMA phones are usually dual mode. This means they can work
in both CDMA systems and analog cellular systems.
 Some CDMA phones are dual band as well as dual mode. They
can work in CDMA mode in the PCS band, CDMA mode in the
cellular band, or analog mode in an analog cellular network.

CDMA results in greater customer satisfaction because CDMA

provides better:
 Voice quality
 Longer battery life due to reduced power requirements
 No cross-talk because of CDMA's unique coding

 Privacy--again, because of coding.

Self-jamming:
Self-jamming arise because the PN sequence are not
exactly orthogonal, non-zero contributions from
other users in the system arise.

Near-far effect:
Signals closer to the receiver are received with less
attenuation than signals farther away.

Network complexity:
Complex network support is needed to support soft
handoffs and also for countering multipath fading.
 CDMA is based on spread spectrum technology.
 Unique code is used to encode & decode the data.
 QUALCOMM patented CDMA for commercial use and
introduced it in 1995.
 Besides voice communication it is also used in high
speed data services.
 Provides more security to data than any other
technology.
 CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice
and data communications than other commercial
mobile technologies, allowing more subscribers to
connect at any given time.
Thanks….