Social constructs develop within a society or group.

They don't represent

objective reality but instead are meaningful only because people within the society
or group accept that they have meaning. Simply put, social constructs do not have

inherent meaning. The only meaning they have is the meaning given to them by
people.

 marriage - The concept of marriage is a social construct that is not perceived

the same by all groups. Some groups view it as a contract while others see it
as a religious sacrament. Within some groups, marriages are arranged while
in others the decision of who to marry and whether to marry is a choice.

 money - Currency used as money is made of paper and metal. It only has
value because people in society assign value to it. Before paper money and
coins existed, people used other items that had value to exchange for goods
and services.

 religion - Aspects of religious practices can represent social constructs

specific to a certain denomination or faith. For example, in Catholicism,
women are not allowed to serve as priests. However, in many other faiths,
women are allowed to serve as priests or the equivalent (pastor, preacher,
rabbi, etc.).

 time - Time is a social construct. It is meaningful only in the context of the

human-created systems that are used to describe time (seconds, minutes,
hours, etc.) and make it meaningful. In some places, Daylight Savings Time
is not observed; the concept of seasonal time changes does not exist where
they are not practiced.
 The theory behind how social constructs develop is called social
constructionism theory. Just as construction workers would build (construct a
building), the theory of social constructionism posits that society is a social
construct that is made (constructed) and accepted by people. Social constructs
will cease to exist if people stop viewing them as valid. People who subscribe to
this theory hold that reality itself is a social construct created by the people
within a society.

Sociologists can use the scientific method not only to collect but to interpret and
analyze the data. They deliberately apply scientific logic and objectivity. They
are interested in but not attached to the results. Their research work is
independent of their own political or social beliefs. This does not mean
researchers are not critical. Nor does it mean they do not have their own
personalities, complete with preferences and opinions. But sociologists
deliberately use the scientific method to maintain as much objectivity, focus,
and consistency as possible in a particular study. With its systematic approach,
the scientific method has proven useful in shaping sociological studies. The
scientific method provides a systematic, organized series of steps that help
ensure objectivity and consistency in exploring a social problem. They provide
the means for accuracy, reliability, and validity. In the end, the scientific
method provides a shared basis for discussion and analysis (Merton 1963).

Probability sampling methods

Types of Probability sampling methods

1.      Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

This method of sampling is the easiest and most basic method of probability
sampling. It uses the “lottery method” or “random number tables”, for example, to
choose elements from a population. Each element is given a number and
softwares/processes that give random outputs are used to pick the number of
elements defined by the sample size.

For example, if my target population is the adult population in Las Vegas, then I
must have a list of each element in this population. I can then use certain softwares,
Excel for instance, to input every element in the list and use commands that pick a
certain number (sample size) of participants to be selected in the sample group
randomly.

    2. Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling is where a researcher selects an interval and random starting

point in order to choose their sample. The fixed interval can be calculated by
dividing the target population by the chosen sample size.

For example, if I’m conducting a study on students between grade 9-12 from XYZ
school, I can use stratified sampling to select a sample group. Assuming there are
300 students in the target population, and the sample size is 10, the interval will be
30 (300 divided by 10). Then, I will pick a number between 1 and 30 (random
starting point), after which I will pick every 30th element on my list until I have 10
students for my sample group.

    3. Stratified Random Sampling

This is a method of probability sampling that involves dividing the population into
subsets, or strata, based on shared characteristics. These subsets are mutually
exclusive and collectively exhaustive, so as to eliminate the overlapping of
elements in subgroups. The variables used to define these subsets can be age,
occupation, vicinity, gender etc. After the subgroups of the population are defined,
the researcher selects elements from each of these subsets using SRS. Being a
crucial social research method, systematic sampling is used when a researcher
wants to ensure certain groups of the population are properly represented in the
study. 

For example, if a study is trying to determine differences in spending habits of

adults of different age groups, stratified sampling can be used to select the sample
group. First, the population will need to be broken down into subgroups according
to their age. Then SRS can be used to select elements from each of these strata.

    4. Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is a method of probability sampling where populations are

divided into clusters defined by predetermined variables. These clusters are
mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive, hence there is no overlap of
elements in clusters. After these subpopulations are formed, certain clusters are
then eliminated to narrow down the population before SRS or stratified random
sampling is used to select elements. The predetermined variable in cluster
sampling is usually geographical area.

For example, if I’m conducting a study across the United States, I can consider
each city to be a cluster/subpopulation in my target population. To narrow down
this population, I will eliminate certain clusters (or cities, in this case) before I use
SRS to select elements from the narrowed down American population.