Writing

Writing is a skill that is required in many contexts throughout life,

eg:

 email to a friend

 personal diary etc.

the aim may be to communicate the events that have happened

in your life to someone close to you, or to yourself.

Writing versus Academic Writing

Academic writing does many of the things that personal writing

does not:

1.Some kind of structure is required, such as a beginning,

middle, and end.

This simple structure is typical of an essay format, as well as

other assignment writing tasks, which may not have a clearly
articulated structure.

 Another type of structure, common in university assignments

is that of a report, often organised around the identification
of problems or difficulties and corresponding solutions.
 Unlike most essays, a report is divided according to clearly
labelled sections, such as:

Introduction

Discussion

Conclusions and

Recommendations.

 Further, unlike an essay, reports allow for bulleted points

with respect to the Conclusions and Recommendations
sections.

2. Another difference between academic writing and

other writing genres is based on the citation of
published authors.

 If you make judgements about something in academic

writing, there is an expectation that you will support your
opinion by linking it to what a published author has
previously written about the issue.

 citing the work of other authors is central to academic

writing because it shows you have read the literature,
 understood the ideas, and have integrated these issues and
varying perspectives into the assignment task.

3. Academic writing tasks require you to look beneath the

surface for:

underlying principles,

theories,

and concepts that can offer mainstream as well as

alternative explanations for common practices, processes, and
procedures.

Purpose of writing

 Writing provides a permanent record of information for

future use and reference.

 Written documents are usually more carefully planned and

therefore elaborate, focused and logically sequenced.

Characteristics of Academic Writing

 Academic Communication is by nature;

1. Formal: The use of formal language is expected.

Colloquialism/slang/street lingo is not accepted.

 In general, this means you should avoid:

a) colloquial words, e.g. stuff, sort of, yeah

b) abbreviated forms , e.g. can‟t, doesn‟t, shouldn‟t

c) two word verbs, e.g. put off, bring up

d) sub-headings, numbering and bullet points in formal essays

but these can be used in reports.

 Various disciplines have specialised language use and in this

regard, writers in a particular field should therefore
demonstrate the use of formal academic language in their
respective discipline, that is, Planning, Law, Economics,
Sociology, Psychology and so on.

2. Impersonal/ Objective

 It is not emotional in tone.

 It takes care to use „neutral‟ words.

 It is cautious about the use of the first person ‘I’ and other
personal pronouns such as you and we.

Examples:
 In my opinion, this is a very interesting study. No

This is a very interesting study. Yes 3.

You can say that… No.

One can say that… Yes.

It can be said that… Yes.

 Academic writing is objective rather than subjective

because reason and logic take centre stage rather than
emotions and one avoids personalising issues by avoiding
the use of personal pronouns.

4. Logical

The basic principle in academic writing is: X is possible given

Z and Y - or ; X follows given the position of Y.

 This means that in academic writing, reasoning, research

and evidence are important. Connections between ideas are
logical and connections are made explicit. Use of logical
connectives such as therefore, however, for example is
necessary.
 5. Supported

Your writing must be supported –

 By established facts

 By examples

 By references

 By logical deduction

6. Cautious about scope of application

 Academic writing is characterised by the use of Hedging

devices as writers strive to present a moderate and
informed view on a topic as there is always an alternative to
a position and therefore nothing is absolute.

Careful use is made of:

 Quantifiers-e.g. most, many, some, a few

 Adverbs- e.g. usually, possibly, probably, sometimes, may,
might, will

7. Accurate

 There is need for accuracy of information particularly when

dealing with statistical data- a „wishy-washy‟ vague approach
is not appreciated, particularly statements such as:

“its like, you know…”

“… or something like that…”

 In academic writing you need to be accurate in your use of

vocabulary:

Choose the correct word:

a) meeting/assembly/gathering/conference?

b) money/cash/currency/capital/finance/funds?
  Accuracy of information, dates, facts and figures is required
in academic writing.

Example:

A lot of people in Zimbabwe are directly dependant on

agriculture.

Six million people in Zimbabwe are directly dependant on

agriculture.

8. Analytical
 A thorough discussion of situations, behaviour, actions,
cause and effect is expected were abstract ideas are
exemplified, simplified, classified and categorised for the
benefit of the reader (i.e. lecturer/examiner).

9. Explicit

 Any assumptions are clearly stated so that the reader knows

exactly under what assumptions/conditions your argument is
proceeding based on.
 Stages in your argument are stated and made clear- in
creative writing, one may create suspense by with-holding
vital information or clues. In academic writing this approach
 does not work. Clarity of expression and ideas is expected
and reasons for conclusions are stated.
 Any assumptions are clearly stated (e.g. ceteris paribus in
Economics) so that the reader knows exactly under what
assumptions/conditions your argument is proceeding based
on.
 Stages in your are argument are stated and made clear- in
creative writing, one may create suspense by with-holding
vital information or clues.
 In academic writing this approach does not work. Clarity of
expression and ideas is expected and reasons for
conclusions are stated.

Example:

We know that HIV is not spread by mosquitoes because

infection is most common in the young adult age group.

10. Argumentative

 Arguments are the cornerstone of academic writing.

Anything short of an argument is mere waffling.
 Argumentation involves clear and logical thinking
because as one writes, s/he needs to convince others
of the soundness of his/her position/claim(s).
  It is vital that the argument should be well supported
as academic writing is highly inter-textual thus the
need to cite different authors to support one‟s
argument.

 Most people think of a verbal dispute or angry exchange of

words (and insults) when they hear the word argument.

 In academia, argument involves the use of clear thinking

logic and evidence to convince others of the soundness of
one‟s opinion or position, especially on a controversial issue.

 It is defined as making clear to oneself and others the

truths one is making claim to (Crussius and Channel,2000).

----------------------------------------------------------------------

DO NOT:

 Just repeat the Question

 Give too much background

 Tell the reader you are writing an essay

 Inform the reader of any challenges you may have faced or

are facing…e.g. word limit, unavailability of material
 THE WRITING PROCESS

 Writing is a long and winding process. In managing this

process, there are certain steps that you can take every time
you begin an assignment. These steps will help to maximise
your efforts and make meaning out of the chaos and
disorder that often appears when first embarking on any
assignment.

 Assignments are not last minute tasks.

• They require thought and planning.

• They are activities that allow you to form your own

opinions, often guided and based on the literature.

• They also require you to turn your opinions into a clearly

presented argument.

• They require you to make sure your sentences are as clear

as possible because written language can be easily
misunderstood.

 Here are some guidelines on how to go about essay

writing.

1. Think about the topic

 It is essential that you interpret the topic correctly.
This can be achieved by brainstorming to generate ideas, and
then formulating a point of view, even if it is a very rough one.
Some people have found that reading around the assignment
topic, by looking up some of the key words in their course
materials and textbooks or glancing through relevant readings in
their study guide, is helpful in familiarising themselves with the
question.

Key words

Common Key Task Words in Assignments

 Account for: To give reasons, explain why something has

happened.

 Analyse: To break the subject up into its main ideas, and

evaluate them.

 Assess: To judge the value of a subject critically.

 Key words (instruction words)

 Comment on: To discuss, explain, and give your opinion on

the ideas expressed.
 Compare: To show the similarities and differences between
two or more subjects.

 Criticise: To make your judgement about the views

expressed and support your judgement with evidence.

 Define: To give the meaning of a word term, distinguishing

it from closely related subjects, sometimes by examples and
illustrations.

 Describe: To give a detailed account of the characteristics

of a subject.

 Discuss: To investigate and present the different aspects of

a problem or subject and come to some conclusion.

 Evaluate: To appraise or estimate the worth of something,

to some extent an explained personal opinion.

 Examine: To inquire into, and consider a problem carefully.

 Explain: To account for a subject‟s character, causes,
results, implications, etc., by clearly stating and interpreting
the relevant details.

 Illustrate: To explain or clarify a problem using concrete

examples, diagrams, or figures.

 Integrate: To draw together in a logical related way two or

more subjects not previously related.

 Interpret: To explain the meaning of something, to make it

clear and explicit, and to evaluate it in terms of your own
knowledge.

 Justify: To provide the reasons for your conclusions or for

the statement made in the question.

 Outline: To give the main features or general principles of a

subject leaving out minor details.

 Prove: To show the truth of a statement by argument,

experiment, or test.
 Relate: To establish the connection between one thing and
another.

 Review: To survey and critically examine a subject.

 State: To describe the subject in precise terms, or set down

an exact meaning.

 Summarise: To make a concise account of the main ideas

of a subject or argument, omitting explanatory details and
examples.

2.Research topic

 Start your research by reading your study guide, text

book, and lecture notes (if lectures are available). Then
look in the library, or access the online catalogue, to see if
there are other useful materials, but only look at information
relevant to the topic.

 However, to do well in an assignment, it is not always

necessary to have references outside your course materials.
Sometimes, course co-ordinators may specify the
 minimum number of references expected in the
assignment instructions.

 Note that you will be marked on what you write, not

what you read. So try to look at everything you read in
terms of whether it is worthy of summarising on paper.
Simply writing something down in your own words will help
clarify your understanding of the topic.

3. Plan your essay

 Now that you have made notes and summaries on the essay
topic, you should be in a much better position to decide on
the type of position or argument you are going to
back up or argue in your essay. With your argument in
mind, write down the main points that support it. Make sure
they are in complete sentences, and arrange them in the
order that best supports your stance. These sentences can
function as an essay plan. Each sentence represents a
paragraph in your essay.

4.Write your essay

i) Start with getting your ideas down on paper. After the

first draft, you can work on refining them. If you have already
made summaries and notes, the process of writing your essay
may be easier.

ii)Try writing some headings that are relevant to the

essay topic – perhaps they summarise each of the main points
you want to make – or perhaps they are just words that have
some relevance to the topic. Under each heading start
summarising information from one book or study guide reading.

iii)Suspend the need to connect your writing to other readings or

parts of the essay. Just write. Trying to control the way your
essay will look and its structure early on can waste time because,
as you write more and read more, you end up developing groups
of information that you can link together due to similar features
they have in common.

iv)Uncertainty at the beginning is perfectly acceptable and

normal. Once you are more familiar with the issues, it becomes
easier to work out the main themes or sections and even the
order to place them. What is important though is writing
down information in your own words, so that you have
something to show at the end of your reading and analysis.

5.Revise your essay. Look over your essay to make sure

that you have answered the essay question.
  Have you stuck to the topic?

 Have you left out anything vital?

 You may have to revise your essay several times before it

effectively addresses the topic and question.

 Try to leave yourself at least 24 hours between

finishing your first draft and revisions.

 This will allow you time to distance yourself from the topic
and reflect on it with a critical eye. It is also really useful if
you can access someone independent who is not doing
the course to read your assignment to see if it makes
sense. If they understand it, then your marker should
understand it.

 Take note of anything this external person does not

understand, because it may suggest that you need to clarify

and explain details further. Providing such extra detail can

only reinforce what you know and understand to the marker.

 Write 2nd/3rd and FINAL draft

6.Edit your essay

 You should check for errors (punctuation, spelling,
grammar), bad sentence structure,

 jargon, slang etc.

 Is your presentation acceptable? Can it be improved?

 Is the referencing correct?

 Editing: Spelling

British:

 Colour

 Labour

 Theatre

 Centre

 Fibre

 Specialise

 Realise

 Equalise

American:

 Color
 Labor

 Theater

 Center

 Fiber

 Specialize

 Realize

 Equalize

Editing: Spelling…which one is correct?

 Analogue

 Catalogue

 Dialogue

 Equalling

 Kidnapping

 Traveller

 Analog

 Catalog

 Dialog
 Equaling

 Kidnaping

 Traveler

 Encyclopaedia

 Gynaecologist

 Anaesthesia

 Programme

 Defence

 Pretence

 Encyclopedia

 Gynecologist

 Anesthesia

 Program

 Defense

 Pretense
 Editing: Punctuation

 The meaning of a statement can be distorted as in the

example below:

Truly I say to you, today you will be with me in paradise.

 Dialog: Truly I say to you today, you will be with me in

paradise.

PARAGRAPHING

 Paragraphs represent the basic unit of essay writing-one

idea , one paragraph.

 Clear communication depends on good paragraphing.

 Paragraphing

1. What is a paragraph?

 A paragraph is a sentence or group of sentences

expressing one central/main idea.
  It is complete in itself but is part of a unified whole that
effectively communicates its message. A good
paragraph is unified, coherent and adequately
developed.

2. How long is a paragraph?

 A paragraph should neither be so short that the

subject of the paragraph is under developed and
insufficiently explained, nor so long that it tends to
break down into too many sub-topics that would be
better organised into separate paragraphs.
 NB: The length of a paragraph varies according to
place and purpose. Newspapers, novels, textbooks and
essays each have particular purposes and use
paragraphs accordingly.

3. What is the structure of a paragraph?

 A paragraph consists of a topic sentence, a number of

support sentences and a concluding sentence.

 The topic sentence

In most cases, the first sentence of a paragraph is the topic

sentence. The topic sentence tells you what the paragraph will be
about. From a good topic sentence, you should be able to predict
the content of the paragraph.

 Topic sentence: Example

Today’s university student must cope with many

different influences.

 The expectation is that the paragraph is going to focus

on many different influences students must cope
with. The main idea of the paragraph is the different
influences.

The support sentences

 The topic sentence is followed by the support sentences.

Support sentences expand on the topic sentence. The
material in the support sentences should be presented in a
systematic way. Order of importance, chronological order,
order of operations or space order are most frequently used.

 Supporting sentences: Example

 Influences for good or bad come from peers while
parents and the university are on-going strong influences
demanding success at his/her academic studies. A
student can also find his/her time too short as he/she
tries to pack many activities into the day.

 The supporting sentences then itemise the main idea of

different influences into peer pressure, academic demands
and time constraints.

The concluding sentence

 The concluding sentence summarises the main point of the

paragraph. It often re-states the idea in the topic sentence
using different words. Not all paragraphs have a concluding
sentence.

 Concluding sentence: Example

Like it or not, the student must learn to juggle all

these demands in their variety.
  The main idea of different influences is rounded off in the
concluding sentence a slightly different way.

 Full example:

Today’s university student must cope with many

different influences. Influences for good or bad come
from peers while parents and the university are on-going
strong influences demanding success at his/her academic
studies. A student can also find his/her time too short as
he/she tries to pack many activities into the day. Like it
or not, the student must learn to juggle all these
demands in their variety.

PARAGRAPH TRANSITIONS

 To present a clear, unified train of thought to your

readers(lecturers), you must make sure each paragraph
follows the one before it and leads to the one after it
through clear logical transitions.

 Example:
 Today‟s university student must cope with many different
influences. Influences for good or bad come from peers while
parents and the university are on-going strong influences
demanding success at his/her academic studies. A student can
also find his/her time too short as he/she tries to pack many
activities into the day. Like it or not, the student must learn to
juggle all these demands in their variety.

Consequently, the university student has to find ways to

cope with these various demands.

 The sentences that follow must support the idea of coping.

At the same time, note that the preceding paragraph and
the one that follows are united by use of a conjunctive
adverb or simply , a conjunction consequently.

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS AND TRANSITIONAL PHRASES

 Accordingly

 Also

 Anyway

 Besides
 Certainly

 Consequently

 Finally

 Furthermore

 Hence

 However

 Incidentally

 Indeed

 Instead

 Likewise

 Meanwhile

 Moreover

 Nevertheless now otherwise

 Similarly

 Still

 Connections can be made between sentences and

between paragraphs by transitional words/
 conjunctions and phrases to indicate change, comparison, or
agreement.

 What is important is to use conjunctions correctly as you link

ideas and paragraphs together in a clear and logical way.
The idea is not to memorise these conjunctions and use
them haphazardly to show that you know them, but to
communicate ideas in a way in which the reader is able to
make sense of your argument.

 NB. Some devices/conjunctions can be used for more than

one function.

 Addition

 Comparison

 Cause and Effect

 Examples: Again, also, and then, first, second, next

furthermore, in addition to, finally, last, lastly.

 Also, in the same way, likewise, similarly.

 As a result, consequently, in the end, subsequently,

thereafter.

Contrast:
 Although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even so,
even though, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead,
nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other
hand, otherwise, regardless, still.

 Although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even so,
even though, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead,
nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other
hand, otherwise, regardless, still.

 Emphasis

 Example or Illustration

 Certainly, indeed, in fact, of course

 As an illustration, to illustrate, for example, for instance, in

fact, in other words, that is, specifically.

 Summary

 Time sequence

 All in all, altogether, as has been stated, finally, in brief, in

conclusion, in short, on the whole, in summary, to
summarise.
 After, again, also and then, before, besides, earlier,
eventually, finally, meanwhile, since, simultaneously, still,
subsequently, thereafter.

Review of paragraphing

 As you build upon each paragraph developing into an essay,

keep the following in mind:

 Unity and Coherence- your paragraph should all be about

the same idea, without wandering around discussing many
things. You should be as coherent as possible, using simple
language instead of :

This essay makes a hortatory exposition…

 Development – make sure your topic sentence is

adequately discussed in the paragraph. While it is
possible to have a one-sentence paragraph, you will
need support sentences to develop the topic. Use facts,
statistics and details. Cite what other people have said
about the topic. As you write, define terms, explain
similarities and differences and describe causes and
effects.
 Transitions/conjunctions- you can use words and phrases to
alert your readers(lecturers) and let them know what‟s going
on in your paragraphs (and essay). Transition words and
sentences help your ideas „flow‟ from one paragraph to
another with words such as, to add on, another point is,
nevertheless, however etc.

INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

 Most lecturers are able to judge an assignment by reading

the introduction and conclusion. If the two are at variance,
chances are the assignment has not been well planned and
argued.

 There is need to think about how to introduce your essay,

particularly what not to say.

Introductions

 Engage your reader(lecturer) on an academic level.

 Demonstrate your understanding of the question, issues

and views as well as your line of argument as early as
possible.

 Avoid formulaic and fairytale introductions

 Avoid being apologetic in the intro or any part of the essay:

 Eg. Although I am not an expert in Real Estate Management,

I would like to argue that…

 I am sorry to argue that…

Conclusions

 Write a concluding paragraph that clearly signals you have

come to the end of your argument.

 The lecturer should not look for any „missing‟ papers as your
essay „feels‟ rather incomplete.

 For essays, the conclusion should be a concluding

paragraph, not a concluding page.

 It should summarise your argument.

 The conclusion should be a logical end to the argument

presented, not the complete opposite of what you have
argued.

 Though there are some lecturers who demand more

innovative conclusions, it is still effective to end with the
following:

 To conclude…
  In conclusion…

 To draw the argument to an end…

ESSAY/ASSIGNMENT COVER PAGE

 Name

 Reg No.

 Programme

 Lecturer

 Course

 Topic/Question

 Due Date

CITING AND REFERENCING

 The sources of information you can document in university

assignments are typically those from an authority.

 In an academic setting, an authority is usually someone who

has been the author of published material. This material may
come in the form of……
 • Books

•Journal articles

• Published reports

 This kind of information is useful in that it provides evidence,

which may be in the form of –

theoretical ideas,

critical evaluations,

research findings, and

scholarly opinions

- to back up the points you are making.

Citing sources

 There is therefore need to demonstrate evidence of your

literature exploration by including authors you have read in
your writing and mentioning their points of view.

 This technique of referring to authors in your writing is often

termed

citing,

documenting,

or in-text referencing.

Example
In the body of a sentence:
  According to Masey University (2006), an Agriculture
student should be armed with the sound theoretical and
practical knowledge in agriculture.

 In brackets

An Agriculture student should be armed with the sound

theoretical and practical knowledge in agriculture (Masey
University, 2006).
 To avoid relying on the same verbs when introducing
authors into your sentence, as in the case of “McDonald
(1992) says that…” or “Anderson (2003) states that…”, a
list of verbs is provided to add variety to your sentence
embedded citations.

 agrees; asserts that; believes

 claims; comments; concedes that; challenges; concludes;

compares

Simple and direct language

 Always choose the simplest way of saying something.

Choose a simple word rather than a difficult one, a concrete
word in preference to an abstract one, a familiar word
instead of a rare one.

 Complex, hard-to understand sentences are rarely good

sentences. Good scientific writing communicates in simple
terms, even though the subject may be complicated.
Repeated use of unnecessarily difficult, abstract words and
phrases makes the subject hard to understand.
  'Verbosity' means to say a thing in a complicated way, with
lots of words, usually to make it sound more important. This
is poor style. For example, you might say:

'The efficacy of the soil restorative agent utilized was

undeniable.'

This is verbose. Much better if you write exactly what you

mean in a direct and simple way:

“The fertilizer used was effective.”

REFERENCING

 What is referencing?

Referencing is a standardised way of acknowledging the

sources of information and ideas that you have used in your
document.

 Why reference?

Referencing is important to avoid plagiarism, to verify

quotations and to enable readers to follow up what you have
written and locate the cited author‟s work.

 Referencing Styles

There are many different styles of Referencing which are

specific to a Discipline, Faculty or University.

Some of these styles are:

 American Psychiatrist Association-APA

 Harvard
  Modern Languages Association

For Agriculture at the University of Zimbabwe, focus is on

the APA system.


APA referencing guide

Journal articles

Huffman, LM. 1996, „Processing whey protein for use as a

food ingredient‟, Food Technology, vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 49-52.

 Daniel, TT 2009, 'Learning from simpler times', Risk

Management, vol. 56, no. 1, pp. 40-44,Available on
<http://proquest.umi.com/>.[Accessed 19 N0vember 2012].

 For an article retrieved from a database, it is

sufficient to give the URL of the database site.

 List of References

 At the end of your essay, place a list of the references you

have cited in the text.

 Arrange this in alphabetical order of authors' surnames, and

chronologically (earliest publication date first) for each
author, where more than one work by that author is cited.

 The author's surname is placed first, followed by initials or

first name,

 and then the year of publication is given.

  If the list contains more than one item published by the
same author in the same year, add lower case letters
immediately after the year to distinguish them (e.g. 1983a).

 These are ordered alphabetically by title disregarding any

initial articles (a, an or the).

 A reference list is defined as a list of resources actually

used and cited by you, the writer, in any submission; this
is the preferred resource list in APA Style.

 The Reference List begins a new page.

 Reference List entries should be indented five to seven

spaces on the second and subsequent lines of the Reference
List for every entry - a hanging indent is the preferred
style. (i.e. entries should begin flush left, and the second
and subsequent lines should be indented).

 Arrange entries in alphabetical order by the surname of

the first author.

 Books (print and online)

The details required, in order, are:

 Name(s) of author(s), editor(s) as (Eds), compiler(s) or the

institution responsible

 Date of publication in parenthesis. ( ).

 Title of publication and Subtitle if any (all titles must be

italicised).

 Edition in parenthesis. (if other than first).

  Page numbers preceded by the abbreviation for pages pp.
contained within the edition parenthesis ( ).

 Place of publication (followed by a colon) :

 Publisher - when the author and publisher are identical,

use the word Author as the name of the publisher.

 Two Authors

 Bernstein, D. K., & Tiegerman, E. (1989). Language

and communication disorders in children (2nd ed.).
Columbus, OH: Merill.

 Institution as Author

American Psychiatric Association. (2001). Diagnostic and

statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).
Washington, DC: Author.

Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993).

Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.