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Duckweed

Common names
The main duckweed species are the following:
Lemna minor: common duckweed, lesser duckweed [English]; lenticule mineure, petite lentille d'eau [French]; lenteja de agua [Spanish]; klein kroos [Dutch]; kleine
Wasserlinse [German]; ‫رى‬%& '()* [Arabic]; 浮萍 [Chinese]; ウキクサ [Japanese]; 개구리밥 [Korean]
Lemna gibba: fat duckweed, inflated duckweed, gibbous duckweed, swollen duckweed [English]; lentille d'eau bossue [French]; Bultkroos [Dutch]; Bucklige Wasserlinse
[German]; lenticchia d'acqua spugnosa [Italian]
Spirodela polyrhiza (sometimes spelled Spirodela polyrrhiza): great duckweed, greater duckweed, water flaxseed [English]; spirodèle polyrhize [French]; veelwortelig
kroos [Dutch]; Vielwurzelige Teichlinse [German]; lenticchia di palude [Italian]
Wolffia arrhiza: rootless duckweed, spotless watermeal [English]; wortelloos kroos [Dutch]; Wurzellose Zwergwasserlinse [German]

Other duckweed species include Landoltia punctata, Lemna disperma, Lemna japonica, Lemna minuta, Lemna paucicostata, Lemna
perpusilla, Lemna trisulca, Lemna turionifera, Lemna valdiviana, Spirodela biperforata, Spirodela intermedia, Wolffia australiana, Wolffia
columbiana, Wolffia microscopia, Wolffia neglecta, Wolffiella caudate, Wolffiella denticulata, Wolffiella lingulata, Wolffiella oblonga,
Wolffiella rotunda (Hasan et al., 2009)
Related feed(s)
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) Azolla

Feed categories
Aquatic plants Forage plants

Species
Lemna gibba L. ; Lemna minor L. ; Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleid. ; Wolffia arrhiza (L.) Horkel ex Wimm. [Araceae]
Taxonomic information
The duckweed family, Lemnacae, is placed by certain taxonomists in the Aracaea family. There are about 40 species in five genera:
Lemna, Landoltia, Spirodela, Wolffia and Wolffiella. Duckweed taxonomy is often confusing and disputed (Hasan et al., 2009).
Synonyms
Spirodela punctata, Spirodela oligorrhiza, Lemna punctata and Lemna oligorrhiza are now known as Landoltia punctata.
Description
Duckweeds are tiny free-floating vascular plants found throughout the world on fresh (or sometimes brackish) waters.
Morphology

Their morphology is extremely simple as they have no stems or true leaves, and usually consist of a single or a few flat, oval-shaped and
small "fronds": 2 mm or less in diameter for Wolffia species, 6-8 mm for Lemna species and as much as 20 mm for Spirodela species. Each
frond may or may not have roots. Most species reproduce by vegetative propagation and are characterized by rapid clonal
growth. Daughter fronds form from two pouches on each side of the narrow end of the frond and remain attached to the mother frond
during the initial growth phase. Some species also reproduce by producing unisexual and monoecious flowers and seeds. The plants
cluster in colonies and form green mats on the surface of the water. It is quite common for floating mats of duckweeds to consist of more
than one species, e.g. Lemna and Wolffia. Duckweeds have the ability to reinvigorate when blown by wind to nutrient-rich sites (Rusoff et
al., 1980; Hasan et al., 2009).
Utilisation

In many parts of the world, duckweeds are consumed by domestic and wild fowl, fish, herbivorous animals, and humans (Boyd,
1968; Chang et al., 1977; Culley et al., 1973; Rusoff et al., 1977; Rusoff et al., 1978). One of the smallest duckweeds (Wolffia arrhiza) has
been used as a nutritious vegetable by Burmese, Loatians, and the people of Northern Thailand for generations (Bhanthumnavin et al.,
1971). Since the 1970s, duckweeds have attracted considerable attention for their high protein content, fast accumulation of biomass

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compared to terrestrial plants, and ability to absorb nutrients and other chemicals (see the reports and reviews of Skillicorn et al.,
1993; Iqbal, 1999; Hasan et al., 2009; Mwale et al., 2013). Duckweeds can grow very quickly in small ponds, ditches or swamps where they
can extract large quantities of nutrients, making the plant a potential source of protein for humans and livestock, notably poultry and fish
(Mwale et al., 2013; Islam, 2002). Duckweeds have a high mineral absorption capacity, they can tolerate high organic loading and are thus
being used to process waste waters and remove contaminants from it (Leng et al., 1995).
Distribution
Duckweed species are adapted to a wide variety of geographic and climatic zones, with most species inhabiting tropical and subtropical
areas (Mwale et al., 2013). They do not grow in waterless deserts and permanently frozen areas. Lemna species, for example, are very
rare in regions with high or very low precipitation and are not found in Greenland or the Aleutian Islands (Landolt et al., 1987). Temperature
and sunlight control growth, with maximum growth occurring between 17.5 and 30 ºC. Growth is slower at low temperatures, and the plants
tend to die when water temperature rises above 35°C. In cold weather, many species of duckweed form a specialized starchy frond (turion)
that sinks to the bottom of the pond where it remains dormant until warm water triggers resumption of normal growth. Duckweeds have a
wide range of tolerance for pH and survive well from pH 5 to 9, though tolerance levels depend on the species (Hasan et al., 2009).
Duckweeds can grow in water of any depth but they cannot survive in fast moving water (more than 0.3 m/sec), or water exposed to wind
(Leng et al., 1995; Hasan et al., 2009). Generally, duckweeds are robust in terms of survival with an extreme range of tolerance for
temperature, pH, conductivity, nitrogen and phosphorus. However, they are sensitive in that they thrive within well-defined ranges of
optimum requirements. Birds and floods often disperse duckweeds to different geographic areas (Hasan et al., 2009).
Forage management
Yields

Duckweeds are highly productive plants, capable of a level of productivity closer to that obtained with microorganisms than with other
higher plants (Cross, 1994). Duckweeds can double their mass in 16 h to 2 days under optimal nutrient availability, sunlight, and water
temperature. This results in an exponential growth that lasts until the plants become crowded or run out of nutrients (Rusoff et al.,
1980; Hasan et al., 2009). Reported yields vary widely, ranging from 9 to 38 t DM/ha/year, depending on species, climatic conditions,
nutrient supply and environmental conditions (Hasan et al., 2009). In Louisiana, for instance, under summer conditions, with heavy
fertilization, up to 44 t/ha/yr have been obtained (Said et al., 1979). Average yields of around 10-20 t DM/ha can be obtained where
nutrients are generally not limiting and frequent harvesting is practiced to avoid overcrowding of plants (Hasan et al., 2009).
Farming

Though duckweed plants can easily be established, duckweed farming requires intensive management for optimum production, with daily
attention and frequent harvesting needed throughout the year to ensure optimum productivity. Pond depth should be 20-50 cm to reduce
the potential sources of stress and to facilitate harvesting. The main issues are when, how much and which fertilizers to apply and when to
harvest. Urea, muriate of potash and triple superphosphate are suitable sources of N, and K and P, respectively. Any waste organic
material that is readily biodegradable and has a sufficiently high nutrient content can be used for duckweed cultivation. The most economic
sources of suitable waste materials are animal manure, kitchen wastes, wastes from food processing plants, biogas effluents, and
slaughterhouse wastes. Solid materials, such as manure from livestock, night soil from villages, or food processing wastes, can also be
mixed with water and added to ponds. Duckweed should be harvested frequently, preferably daily, the standing crop density determining
the amount and timing of harvests. For instance, 10-35% may be harvested daily with the remaining plants left in the pond for further
growth (Hasan et al., 2009).
Processes
Duckweeds contain a lot of water (92-95%) and are, therefore, extremely bulky and perishable when harvested. While feeding dried
duckweed is often promising from a nutritional point of view, the economic and practical aspects of drying should be taken into
consideration. Drying may be too expensive and not feasible, particularly for smallholder farmers (Mwale et al., 2013; Du Thanh Hang,
2013). Due to the high water content, artificial drying is costly: a trial in the Netherlands required 30 hours at 40°C to decrease moisture
from 95 to 10% (Holshof et al., 2009). Natural, or less expensive methods (sun-drying, drying in the shade, air-drying) are therefore
preferable. Drying methods should not diminish the levels of carotene and xanthophylls in the plant when duckweed is intended for
livestock that require these pigments (Mwale et al., 2013).
Environmental impact
Invasiveness

Duckweeds form large covers in waterways, which may negatively affect the water quality and cause odour nuisance. It is recommended to
remove these covers frequently, but disposal and composting may be costly. Using duckweeds as animal feed can be a sustainable
alternative (Holshof et al., 2009).
Water treatment and bioremediation

Duckweeds can reduce eutrophication effects and provide oxygen from their ability to sustain photosynthesis (Hasan et al., 2009). They are
used extensively to reduce the chemical load of sewage ponds during waste water treatment. The basic concept of a duckweed wastewater
treatment system is to farm local duckweed on the wastewater requiring treatment. Duckweed wastewater treatment systems have been
studied for dairy waste lagoons, raw domestic sewage, secondary effluent, waste stabilization ponds and fish culture systems (Hasan et al.,
2009). They have been used to remove diverse pollutants, including heavy metals, estrogenic hormones, or for bioremediation of tannery
effluent or water contaminated by an oil refinery (Mwale et al., 2013). Duckweed waste water treatment systems can remove as much as
99% of the nutrients and dissolved solids contained in wastewater (Skillicorn et al., 1993). These substances are then removed
permanently from the effluent stream following the harvesting of a proportion of the crop. The plants also reduce suspended solids and
biochemical oxygen demand by reduction of sunlight in lagoons. Duckweed systems distinguish themselves from other effluent wastewater
treatment mechanisms in that they also produce a valuable, protein-rich biomass as a by-product. Depending on the wastewater, the
harvested crop may serve as an animal feed, a feed supplement supplying protein/energy and minerals, or a fertilizer (Hasan et al., 2009).

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Nutritional attributes
The entire duckweed plant is composed of non-structural, metabolically active tissue. Most photosynthesis is devoted to the production of
protein and nucleic acids, making duckweeds very high in nutritional value, typically rich in protein and minerals and poor in fibre. However,
the chemical composition of duckweeds varies considerably due to the age of the plant, environmental temperature, and the nutrient
content of the water. The nutritional content of duckweed is probably more dependent on the mineral concentrations of the growth medium
than on the species or their geographic location. As a result, water low in nutrients generally results in reduced nutritional content in
duckweed (Hasan et al., 2009).
The crude protein content of duckweeds ranges from 7 to 45% DM, depending on nitrogen availability (Culley et al., 1981). Under optimal
conditions, duckweed contains considerable protein, fat, starch and minerals. Duckweeds grown in enriched waters containing minerals or
effluents from agricultural and municipal waste lagoons can have a protein content as high as 30-40% DM (Chang et al., 1977; Hillman et
al., 1978; Culley et al., 1973; Rusoff et al., 1977; Rusoff et al., 1978). However, the protein content of duckweeds obtained from natural
waters (ponds, streams, lakes, paddy fields, and ditches) has been reported to range from 7 to 20% DM (Bhanthumnavin et al., 1971; Tan,
1970). Slow growth, starvation and aging result in protein levels as low as 7% DM (Landolt et al., 1987). Duckweeds are moderately rich in
lysine (about 4% of the protein) though a higher value (6% of the protein) has been reported for a leaf protein extract (Dewanji, 1993).
Though poorer in fibre than terrestrial plants, duckweeds does contain significant amounts of crude fibre. Crude fibre content is generally
lower (7-10% DM) for duckweeds grown in nutrient-rich water than those grown in nutrient-poor water (11-17% DM). Duckweeds have a
highly variable mineral content (up to more than 30% DM) that is directly linked to the amount of minerals available in the water. They may
contain relatively large amounts of potassium and calcium (Leng et al., 1995). Duckweeds have high concentrations of pigments and
xanthophylls that make this plant a valuable supplement for livestock, especially poultry, when these pigments can contribute to skin and
yolk colour. Carotene contents reported in the literature are in the 600-1000 mg/kg range (Dewanji, 1993; Mwale et al., 2013).
It is important to note that the wide variability in protein and mineral content will often explain the differences observed in feeding trials and
estimations of digestibility and energy values. In some cases, protein-rich duckweeds can compete with soybean meal and other sources of
quality protein. However, in other cases a high mineral content and low protein content will be detrimental to the energy value, digestibility
and performance, thus limiting inclusion rates. It is, therefore, recommended to assess the nutrient content of duckweeds prior to feeding
them to livestock.
Potential constraints
Pathogens, heavy metals and organic toxins

Pathogens, heavy metals and organic toxins are the main public health concerns related to duckweed farming. Pond workers (who come
into direct contact with the waste materials used to fertilize the ponds), populations (particularly children) living in the vicinity and the
consumers (humans and animals) of products from duckweed pond systems may be at risk. Those risks can be alleviated by adopting work
routines, pond designs, such as two-pond systems where duckweeds and fish are grown separately, and food preparation guidelines that
limit, if not eliminate, the transfer of pathogens from the wastewater to animals and humans. In the case of duckweeds grown on industrial
wastewaters containing heavy metals and organic toxins, it is strongly advised that they are not used for feed and food production, but
rather disposed of as safely as possible, for example in bottom-sealed landfills (Iqbal, 1999).
Antinutritional factors

Duckweeds may contain antinutritional factors detrimental to performance when duckweeds are fed at high levels. In particular duckweed
species such as Spirodella and Lemna have large quantities of oxalic acid, which limits intake in livestock (Goopy et al., 2003). Growing
duckweed in a low-calcium medium for a short period can prevent the formation of calcium oxalate (Franceschi, 1989). Phenolic
compounds, tannins and saponins have been reported (Negesse et al., 2009).
Bloat

Slight bloat symptoms were observed in heifers fed fresh duckweed, probably due to the large amount of fresh plant ingested (Rusoff et al.,
1978).
Ruminants
Fresh or dried duckweeds have been fed to cattle, sheep and goats with relatively good results, provided that they are only part of the diet.
In several cases, full substitution resulted in lower performance. There are contradictory values about duckweed protein degradability:
some authors found duckweed protein to be highly degradable in the rumen (80%, Huque et al., 1996). Others found much lower values
(50-60%, Damry et al., 2001) and described duckweed as a valuable source of escape protein.
Results of trials including duckweeds in the diets of cattle are summarized in the table below:
Country Animal type Duckweed species Trial Results Reference
Bangladesh Bulls, 317 kg Mostly Spirodela sp. Straw, fresh grass and concentrate Mixed duckweeds as a component of a Huque et al., 1996
with Lemna sp., containing 28% sun-dried duckweeds concentrate mixture were eaten by the
Wolffia spp. cattle at 10% of their LW.
United Holstein heifers, Spirodela Fresh duckweed and maize silage fed at Higher average daily gain than for the Rusoff et al., 1978
States 150 to 300 kg polyrhiza, Landoltia 2:1 (DM) for 28 days. Control diet based on control diet (900 g/d vs. 450 g/d).
punctata, Wolffia sp. corn, concentrate and grass pasture.
and Lemna gibba
Mexico Crossbred ewes, Lemna sp. and Napier grass hay supplemented with 200 or No effect on DM intake, estrus parameters Zetina-Cordoba et al.,
40 kg Spirodela sp. 300 g/d of sun-dried duckweeds (beginning, percentage of ewes, duration), 2012
pregnancy rate and progesterone
concentration.
Nigeria West African Lemna gibba Soybean meal diets with 0, 50 or 100% Economical and sustainable sheep Belewu et al., 2009
Dwarf sheep, dried duckweeds production sustained by 50% replacement
10-18 kg of soybean meal with duck weed meal. Full
substitution was detrimental to

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performance.
Australia Merino sheep Landoltia punctata Oaten chaff supplemented with fresh (1 The sheep readily ingested the fresh or Damry et al., 2001
kg/d) or sun-dried (50-100 g/d) duckweeds dried duckweeds. Diet had no effect on
wool measurements (yield, rate of fibre
elongation, fibre diameter).
Nigeria West African Spirodela polyrhiza Duckweeds offered ad libitum, fresh or Duckweeds were well accepted, fresh or Babayemi et al., 2006
Dwarf goats, dried, with or without Guinea grass dried. Intake was maximum when the diet
10-18 kg contained 20% fresh duckweeds (440 g/d)
and decreased at 40% inclusion rate.

Pigs
There have been few trials on the use of duckweeds for pig feeding. In Cuba, the inclusion of 10% duckweed (Lemna gibba) in the diet of
growing pigs resulted in decreased DM digestibility but did not affect performance and energy digestibility (Gutierrez et al., 2001). In
Vietnam, dried duckweed (Lemna spp.) was introduced in pig diets at up to 30%, resulting in relatively high nutrient digestibility values (OM
digestibility 88%), similar, or higher, than those obtained with dried cassava leaves, stylo and sweet potato vines included at the same rate
(Du Thanh Hang et al., 2009).

Poultry
Due to their high protein content, duckweeds have been tested extensively, as a source of high-quality protein, for domestic poultry such as
commercial broilers, village chickens, ducks and quails. Duckweeds are also a valuable source of pigment for meat and egg production
(Mwale et al., 2013). The energy value was reported to be relatively poor.
Trials conducted on several poultry species are summarized in the tables below.
Commercial broiler production

Results with commercial broilers tend to show that duckweeds should be fed in relatively limited amounts. High levels of inclusion (or
substitution) rates tend to decrease performance, particular in young chicks that cannot consume enough duckweed due to the bulkiness of
the material (Mwale et al., 2013). Though a least-cost formulation trial showed that dried Lemna paucicostata was cost-effective when
included at 29.5% in broiler diets (Olorunfemi, 2006), other feeding trials with broilers suggested that the contribution of duckweed to the
dietary protein should not exceed 6%. The high carotene content of duckweed has been shown to deepen the yellow colour of the broiler
meat and skin (Mwale et al., 2013). Reported values for metabolizable energy are rather low (less than 7 MJ/kg).
Country Poultry type Duckweed Trial Results Reference
species
Peru Broilers Lemna gibba 0, 10, 15 or 25% dry duckweed in the diet 25% duckweed resulted in a significant Haustein et al., 1994
decrease in feed consumption and weight
gain but the weight gain of broilers fed 15%
duckweed was similar to that of the control
diets.
India Vencobb broiler Lemna minor Diets with 0, 4, 8 or 12% duckweed meal Body weight, feed intake, feed efficiency, Kabir et al., 2005
chicks, 8 d old (DWM) ad libitum protein efficiency, energy efficiency and
profitability linearly declined as the proportion
of DWM increased.
India Starbro broiler Lemna minor Fish meal (12%) fully replaced with The full replacement of fish meal with Islam et al., 1997
chicks combinations of duckweed and soybean meal duckweed and soybean meal is not
recommended as it reduced feed intake,
liveweight gain, feed efficiency, and
profitability.
India Broilers Lemna perpusilla Control diet partially replaced, either with 6% No effect on feed intake, weight gain, feed Khatun et al., 2004
fresh duckweed or 7% dry duckweed. conversion ratio and carcass traits but the
inclusion of fresh or dry duckweed reduced
the feed cost.

Smallholder chicken production

Duckweeds have been tested as a supplementary feed in smallholder (village) chicken production, with variable results. It is important to
test for the nutritional profile, toxicity and antinutritional factors that might be present in duckweeds, so that corrective measures can be
taken before feeding to the chickens (Mwale et al., 2013).
Country Poultry type Duckweed Trial Results Reference
species
Vietnam Luong Phuong Lemna minor Fresh duckweed ad libitum, with a basal diet Live weight gain and feed conversion Du Thanh Hang, 2013
chickens, 30 d of maize and protein supplement (16% deteriorated as the level of duckweed in the
old protein in DM) restricted between 60 and diet was increased, as the chickens were
90% of DM intake, or offered ad libitum. unable to eat enough fresh duckweed to
compensate for the restriction in the
concentrate allowance.
Cambodia Sampov and Unspecified Fresh taro leaves, duckweed and water Duckweed was the most preferred green Kong Saroeun et al., 2010
Kandong spinach offered 4-5 times a day with broken forage, followed by water spinach and taro
chickens rice as source of energy. leaf. The fresh intake of duckweed was
61-116 g/day.
Vietnam Tau Vang Lemna minor Basal diets of differing protein content Access to fresh duckweed increased feed Nguyen Thi Kim Kang et
chickens (18-22%) with or without fresh duckweed ad intake and growth rate. al., 2004a
libitum
Vietnam Tau Vang Lemna minor Broken rice with roasted soybean partially or Live weight gain and feed conversion Nguyen Thi Kim Kang et
chickens, 5-15 fully replaced with fresh duckweed ad libitum improved with duckweed, optimum at 75% al., 2004b
weeks old substitution but 100% substitution showed
the highest profit. Carcass skin of chickens

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fed duckweed had a deeper orange-yellow

colour.
Vietnam Tau Vang Lemna minor Diet based on 8% roasted soybeans. Birds A scavenging system with supplementary Nguyen Thi Kim Kang et
chickens, 5-15 left to scavenge during the day. duckweed and a concentrate feed containing al., 2004b
weeks old 8% roasted soybeans gave good results
under village condition

Laying hens

Work with laying hens has been more limited than in broilers but has been encouraging.
Country Poultry type Duckweed Trial Results Reference
species
United Laying hens Spirodela Diet containing 12.6% Spirodela meal Dried Spirodela fed at a 12.6% inclusion rate Anderson et al., 2011
States polyrrhiza did not impair the performance of laying hens
and could also be a means of enhancing
Omega 3 levels in eggs.
Peru Laying hens Lemna gibba Dried duckweed included 0, 15, 25, and 40% Performance (egg production and weight) Haustein et al., 1988
inclusion rate was maintained at all levels, though the
optimal level was 15%. Eggs from hens fed
15 and 25% Lemna had higher protein
content than control eggs. The addition of
15% Lemna in the diets resulted in more egg
pigmentation than in controls
Vietnam Tau Vang hens, Lemna minor Broken rice with roasted soybean partially or Egg production, egg quality and feed Nguyen Thi Kim Kang et
19 weeks old fully replaced with fresh duckweed ad libitum conversion were highest at 75% substitution. al., 2004c
100% substitution showed the highest profit.

Ducks

Duckweeds are a natural feed for ducks (Cross, 1994) and there have been numerous trials concerning their use in duck farming. The
results of feeding fresh or dried duckweed on performance, skin colour and egg colour have been generally positive.
Country Poultry type Duckweed Trial Results Reference
species
Indonesia Local ducks, 1.24 Unspecified Diet containing 20% dried duckweed; diet Duckweed in different forms did not affect Indarsih et al., 2012
kg with fresh duckweed, offered in wet form; egg weight, egg white, yolk weight and shell
dried diet and fresh duckweed offered thickness. Diet in wet form improved feed
separately ad libitum. conversion (5.3 vs. 7.25). Fresh duckweed
ad libitum improved yolk pigmentation.
Vietnam Muscovy ducks Lemna minor Rice bran:fresh duckweed at 80:20 (high Final live weight and daily weight gain were Dang Thi My Tu et al.,
protein duckweed) or 70:30 (low protein), highest with high protein duckweed. Few 2012
DM basis ad libitum differences in carcass traits except for a
more attractive skin colour with duckweed.
Cambodia Muscovy ducks Lemna sp. Rice bran mixed with fresh duckweed in Supplementing rice bran with fresh Phongphanith et al., 2012
equal parts on fresh basis and fed ad libitum duckweed supported growth rates of 26.5
g/d.
Bangladesh Laying Jinding Lemna perpusilla Sun-dried duckweed included at 5 to 15% in Body weight gain and egg productivity Khandaker et al., 2007
ducks the diet as a substitute for mustard oil meal showed a linear declining trend as inclusion
rate increased but rates up to 15% could
result in a profit due to the lower price of
duckweed.
Vietnam Crossbred Lemna sp. Broken rice supplemented with roasted Fresh duckweed completely replaced Bui Xuan Men et al., 1995
ducklings, 28 to soybeans (0-27 g/d) and fresh duckweed ad roasted soybeans and a vitamin-mineral
63 d libitum premix in broken rice based diets for
fattening ducks without reduction in growth
performance or carcass traits, though feed
efficiency was reduced.
Thailand Muscovy ducks Lemna minor 20% broken rice and 20% (fresh basis) of DM and protein intake, live weight gain and Ngamsaeng et al., 2004
water spinach or duckweed, or a mixture feed conversion were better when the ducks
(35:45) of water spinach and duckweed were fed duckweed alone rather than water
spinach alone or mixed with duckweed.
Bangladesh Crossbred Lemna trisulca Fish meal (12%) partially replaced with sun- Duckweed replaced up to 50% of fish meal Hamid et al., 1993
ducklings dried duckweed (8, 12 and 16% inclusion protein without affecting performance.
rate corresponding to 33, 50 and 67% of fish
meal protein substitution)

Japanese quails
Country Poultry type
Thailand Japanese quails
Duckweed Trial Results Reference
species
Wolffia globosa Replacement of 20, 50 and 75% of soybean 50% of soybean protein can be replaced with Chantiratikul et al., 2010
protein with Wolffia meal protein Wolffia meal protein without affecting feed
efficiency, performance and carcass quality of
quails. Skin pigmentation increased with
increasing protein replacement.

Fish
Use of duckweeds as fish feed is by far the most widespread application (Iqbal, 1999). Because of its attractive nutritional qualities and the
relative ease of production, a significant number of studies have been carried on the potential utilization of duckweed biomass as fish feed
and an extensive review of the literature up to 2009 has been produced by FAO (see Hasan et al., 2009). Duckweeds can be grown
separately and then provided to the fish, or produced in the same pond. Several systems of duckweed-fish polyculture systems have been

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implemented, notably in Asia (Azim et al., 2003; Hasan et al., 2009).

Duckweed can be fed fresh as the only feed, or in combination with other feed components in a polyculture of Chinese and Indian carp
species with tilapia. Herbivorous and omnivorous fish such as grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), silver barb (Puntius gonionotus) and
tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) readily feed on duckweed (Iqbal, 1999). Catla (Catla catla) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) compete
aggressively for available duckweed feed and consume it directly (Ansal et al., 2010). The preference of duckweed over other aquatic
plants has been reported for grass carp and other fish species (Hasan et al., 2009).
Growth responses of different fish species fed fresh duckweed have been variable. The general trend was that carp perform better than
Nile tilapia and other species and that performances obtained with duckweed as the sole feed were better than with the control diets
(Hasan et al., 2009). Reviews of feeding trials have shown that duckweed included in dry diets at 13.5-40% can support growth in
herbivorous or omnivorous fish, such as carp and tilapia, as well as in protein-demanding carnivorous fish, such as catfish and snakeheads
(Ansal et al., 2010; Hasan et al., 2009).
Carps

Feeding trials with carp receiving duckweed have been carried out since the early 1960s with generally very positive results (Hasan et al.,
2009). Grass carp seem particularly adapted to feeding on Lemna (Landolt et al., 1987). The weight of grass carp could be tripled (from
100 g to 300 g) within 50 days when feeding a mixture of Lemna gibba and Lemna minor (Porath et al., 1977). The growth of hybrid carp
(Ctenopharyngodon idella (Val.) X Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) was determined by feeding preference and feed consumption. The most
preferred species was Lemna gibba when compared with six other species (Cassani et al., 1983).
Tilapia

Dry duckweed replaced up to 50% of the commercial tilapia feed without adverse effects on fish performance (Essa, 1997; Tavares et al.,
2008). In Nile tilapia fingerlings (Oreochromis niloticus) fed diets including 0 to 100% solar kiln-dried duckweed (Spirodela polyrhiza),
duckweed inclusion resulted in progressively reduced growth performance and nutrient utilization, but 30% inclusion rate was found to be
cost-effective (Fasakin et al., 1999). In hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus x Oreochromis aureus) grown with duckweed (Lemna gibba) or
a combination of duckweed and commercial pellets, this combination gave the best performance. When fed on duckweed alone, intake was
low, feed conversion ratio good (1:1) and growth rate poor (0.67% of BW daily). 65% of the duckweed consumed was assimilated and 26%
converted to tissue. When the fish were fed on pellets in addition to duckweed the rate of duckweed consumption decreased and growth
rate of the fish doubled with feed conversion ratios between 1.2 and 1.8. 70% of the mixed diet was assimilated but only 21% converted.
Fish grown on the mixed diet performed similarly to fish grown on pellets but had a better feed conversion ratio (Gaigher et al., 1984). In
Nile tilapia fed fresh duckweed, Lemna perpusilla, optimal daily feeding rates of Lemna were 5, 4 and 3% of the total fish body weight on a
duckweed-dry-weight basis for fish of 25 to 44 g, 45 to 74 g and 75 to 105 g in weight, respectively (Hassan et al., 1992). Tilapia fed diets
with 20% to 40% duckweed contained significantly more ash, phosphorus and protein and significantly less lipid and dry matter than tilapia
fed the control diet without duckweed (El-Shafai et al., 2004).
Catfish
Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)

Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) fed a diet containing 20% dry duckweed had similar weight gains and feed conversion efficiency as
catfish fed a standard feed (Robinette et al., 1980).
African catfish (Heterobranchus longifilis)

In African catfish (Heterobranchus longifilis) diets, 10% of the fish meal was replaced with dried duckweed (Lemna paucicostata) without
affecting growth performance (Effiong et al., 2009b).
Striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus)

In Vietnam, with striped catfish fingerlings (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus) the nutrient and energy digestibility of duckweed (Lemna
polyrhiza) was lower than for a wide range of other plant ingredients, such as soybean meal, broken rice, maize grain, cassava leaves and
sweet potato leaves, which may be partly explained by the high mineral content of the duckweed (22% DM). This low digestibility may limit
the possibility of using duckweed as replacement for fish meal, despite the high digestibility of protein and essential amino acids (Da et al.,
2013).
Other fish species
Snakehead (Channa striatus)

With snakehead (Channa striatus), duckweed (Lemna minor) included at 50% of the supplementary diet resulted in higher specific growth
rates and weight gains as well as lowering the feed cost (Raj et al., 2001).
Milkfish (Chanos chanos)

When duckweed (Lemna spp.) grown on sugar mill waste was harvested and transferred to a milkfish (Chanos chanos) pond, it acted as a
fertilizer on the pond and resulted in higher fish production (820 kg/ha in 90 days in duckweed-fertilized ponds vs. 320 kg/ha in inorganically
fertilized ponds) (Ogburn et al., 1994).
Jade perch (Scortum barcoo)

In Australia, jade perch (Scortum barcoo) actively consumed and gained weight (with 100% survival) on fresh duckweed alone harvested
from an effluent treatment plant (Willett et al., 2003).
Crustaceans
In the red claw crayfish (Cherax quadricarinatus), decomposed Spirodela species supported growth equal to that from commercial pellets
(Fletcher et al., 1997).
Tables of chemical composition and nutritional value

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Duckweed, fresh Duckweed, dried

Avg: average or predicted value; SD: standard deviation; Min: minimum value; Max: maximum value; Nb: number of values (samples) used
Duckweed, fresh
Various species included

Main analysis Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Dry matter % as fed 5.6 1.0 4.6 7.9 13
Crude protein % DM 29.1 4.3 24.9 38.6 15
Crude fibre % DM 12.5 4.6 6.9 18.7 9
NDF % DM 40.1 8.2 33.9 58.2 8
ADF % DM 18.5 4.5 12.4 23.4 4
Lignin % DM 5.7 4.3 3.2 10.6 3
Ether extract % DM 6.1 3.6 2.2 13.8 9
Ash % DM 15.9 3.9 9.5 23.3 14
Gross energy MJ/kg DM 18.2 *

Minerals Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Calcium g/kg DM 23.3 14.2 7.1 33.1 3
Phosphorus g/kg DM 5.7 0.7 4.9 6.2 3
Potassium g/kg DM 42.9 1
Sodium g/kg DM 1.4 1
Manganese mg/kg DM 1723 1
Zinc mg/kg DM 75 1
Copper mg/kg DM 20 1
Iron mg/kg DM 0 1

Amino acids Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Alanine % protein 4.3 0.5 3.8 4.6 3
Arginine % protein 4.4 0.7 3.8 5.3 3
Aspartic acid % protein 6.8 1.0 5.6 7.6 3
Glutamic acid % protein 7.1 1.2 5.8 8.0 3
Glycine % protein 3.6 0.5 3.0 4.0 3
Histidine % protein 1.7 0.5 1.2 2.2 3
Isoleucine % protein 3.6 0.4 3.1 3.9 3
Leucine % protein 6.6 0.7 5.8 7.2 3
Lysine % protein 3.9 0.5 3.4 4.3 3
Methionine % protein 0.8 0.0 0.8 0.9 3
Phenylalanine % protein 4.1 0.4 3.6 4.5 3
Proline % protein 2.9 0.4 2.4 3.3 3
Serine % protein 2.6 0.3 2.3 2.8 3
Threonine % protein 3.1 0.5 2.6 3.5 3
Tyrosine % protein 2.7 0.5 2.2 3.1 3
Valine % protein 4.3 0.7 3.5 5.0 3

Secondary metabolites Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Tannins (eq. tannic acid) g/kg DM 16.0 1
Tannins, condensed (eq. catechin) g/kg DM 0.2 1

Ruminant nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

OM digestibility, ruminants (gas production) % 77 1
ME ruminants (gas production) MJ/kg DM 6.5 1

The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.
References

Bui Xuan Men et al., 1995; Dang Thi My Tu et al., 2012; Hassan et al., 1992; Ly et al., 2002; Negesse et al., 2009; Ngamsaeng et al., 2004;
Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung et al., 2002; Nguyen Nhut Xuan Dung et al., 2002; Rusoff et al., 1980; Zaharaby et al., 2001
Last updated on 30/11/2013 00:17:09
Duckweed, dried

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Main analysis Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Dry matter % as fed 80.2 28.8 5.1 97.8 16
Crude protein % DM 27.8 5.6 15.5 35.6 18
Crude fibre % DM 13.1 4.0 8.7 20.0 8
NDF % DM 40.3 11.1 22.5 57.4 9
ADF % DM 23.9 2.9 20.3 28.9 7
Lignin % DM 2.3 1.3 3.3 2
Ether extract % DM 4.0 1.0 2.2 5.1 9
Ash % DM 18.9 8.0 3.8 35.6 17
Gross energy MJ/kg DM 17.1 1.1 15.5 17.8 4*

Minerals Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Calcium g/kg DM 20.3 10.3 30.3 2
Phosphorus g/kg DM 5.2 3.9 6.4 2
Manganese mg/kg DM 241 1
Zinc mg/kg DM 167 1
Copper mg/kg DM 2 1
Iron mg/kg DM 5405 1

Amino acids Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Alanine % protein 5.6 4.8 6.5 2
Arginine % protein 5.9 0.9 4.9 6.7 3
Aspartic acid % protein 8.0 7.4 8.7 2
Glutamic acid % protein 11.9 7.7 16.0 2
Glycine % protein 4.6 3.9 5.3 2
Histidine % protein 2.2 0.3 1.9 2.5 3
Isoleucine % protein 4.0 0.3 3.8 4.4 3
Leucine % protein 7.5 0.6 6.9 8.0 3
Lysine % protein 4.0 0.3 3.6 4.3 3
Methionine % protein 1.8 0.7 1.1 2.5 3
Phenylalanine % protein 4.8 0.5 4.4 5.3 3
Proline % protein 4.2 3.0 5.4 2
Serine % protein 3.3 2.8 3.8 2
Threonine % protein 3.6 0.6 3.2 4.2 3
Tyrosine % protein 3.6 0.4 3.1 3.9 3
Valine % protein 5.0 0.5 4.7 5.6 3

Secondary metabolites Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Tannins, condensed (eq. catechin) g/kg DM 16.0 1

Ruminant nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

ME ruminants (gas production) MJ/kg DM 11.7 1
a (N) % 30.5 11.4 17.8 42.1 4
b (N) % 60.1 13.1 45.2 76.5 4
c (N) h-1 0.057 0.014 0.042 0.074 4
Nitrogen degradability (effective, k=4%) % 66 9 56 79 4*
Nitrogen degradability (effective, k=6%) % 60 10 50 72 4*

Pig nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

Energy digestibility, growing pig % 62.7 *
DE growing pig MJ/kg DM 10.7 *
Nitrogen digestibility, growing pig % 64.0 1

Poultry nutritive values Unit Avg SD Min Max Nb

AME poultry MJ/kg DM 4.9 2.5 3.3 7.7 3

The asterisk * indicates that the average value was obtained by an equation.
References

Anderson et al., 2011; Bui Huy Nhu Phuc, 2006; Chantiratikul et al., 2011; Da et al., 2013; Domínguez et al., 1996; Du Thanh Hang et al.,
2009; Hassan et al., 1992; Haustein et al., 1988; Huque et al., 1996; Islam et al., 1997; Khandaker et al., 2007; Ly et al., 2002; Muztar et
al., 1976; Nolan et al., 2001; Rusoff et al., 1980; Sakarya et al., 2005; Zetina-Cordoba et al., 2012
Last updated on 30/11/2013 00:21:19
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Datasheet citation

Heuzé V., Tran G., 2015. Duckweed. Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/15306
Last updated on October 21, 2015, 10:02

English correction by Tim Smith (Animal Science consultant) and Hélène Thiollet (AFZ)
Image credits
Christian Fischer Rasbak Gzzz Christian Fischer Emilio Christian Fischer Christian Fischer

Source URL: https://www.feedipedia.org/node/15306

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