Electrical Machines - III (15A02504) Notes

CONTENTS
1 Unit-I : SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS Page NO
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Unit-I notes 5-30
1.4 Part A Questions 31
1.5 Part B Questions 32
2 Unit-II : REGULATION OF SYNCHRONOUS

GENERATORS
2.1 Introduction 32
2.2 Unit-II notes 33-50
3 Unit-III : PARALLEL OPERATION OF 57

SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
3.1 Introduction 57
3.2 Unit-III notes 57-62
4 Unit-IV : SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 Unit-IV notes 66-81
5 Unit-V : SINGLE PHASE AND SPECIAL MOTORS
5.1 Introduction 84
5.2 Unit-V notes 85-109
2
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR
B. Tech III-I Sem. (EEE) L T P C 3 1 0 3
15A02504 ELECTRICAL MACHINES – III
.
UNIT – I SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
Principle and Constructional Features of Salient Pole and Round Rotor Machines – Armature
Windings, Concentrated and Distributed Windings, Integral Slot and Fractional Slot Windings
– Pitch, Distribution, and Winding Factors – E.M.F Equation-Harmonics in Generated E.M.F
– Space and Slot Harmonics – Elimination of Harmonics- Armature Reaction – Synchronous
Reactance and Impedance – Load Characteristics - Phasor Diagram.
UNIT – II REGULATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
Regulation of Salient Pole Alternator – Voltage Regulation Methods – E.M.F Method-MMF
Method – ZPF Method – ASA Method – Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) – Two Reaction Theory –
Determination of Xd and Xq (Slip Test) – Phasor Diagrams.
UNIT –III PARALLEL OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
Power Flow Equation in Alternators (Cylindrical and Salient Pole Machines) –Synchronizing
Power and Torque – Parallel Operation and Load Sharing – Effect of Change of Excitation and
Mechanical Power Input – Synchronizing Alternators with Infinite Bus Bars – Determination
of Sub-Transient, Transient and Steady State Reactances.
UNIT –IV SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
Theory of Operation – Phasor Diagram – Power Flow Equations in Synchronous Motors-
Variation of Current and Power Factor with Excitation – V and Inverted V Curves –
Synchronous Condensers – Hunting, and Methods to Eliminate Hunting – Starting Methods of
Synchronous Motor – Synchronous Induction Motor - Construction,Principle of operation and
control of Brushless DC motor.
UNIT – V SINGLE PHASE AND SPECIAL MOTORS
Single Phase Induction Motors - Constructional Features – Double Revolving Field Theory-
Elementary Idea of Cross Field Theory – Split Phase Motors – Capacitor Start and Run Motors
– Shaded Pole Motor. Principle and Performance of A.C Series Motor -Universal Motor –
Single Phase Synchronous Motors – Reluctance Motor – Hysteresis Motor – Stepper Motor.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Electrical Machinery, P.S. Bimbhra, Khanna Publishers, 7th Edition, 2011.
2. Electric Machinery Fundamentals, Stephen J Chapman, Mc Graw Hill Series in
Electrical and Computer Engineering, 4th Edition, 2010, 10th Reprint 2015.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Electric Machines 4th edition, D.P.Kothari and I.J. Nagrath, Mc Graw Hill Education (India)
Pvt. Ltd., 4th Edition, 2010, 16th Reprint 2015.
2. Electric Machinery, A.E.Fitzgerald, C.Kingsley and S. Umans, Mc Graw Hill Education
(India) Pvt. Ltd., 6th Edition, 2005.
3. Electrical Machines, S K Bhattacharya, Mc Graw Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd.,4th
Edition, 2014, 3rd Reprint 2015.
3
UNIT – I SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
INTRODUCTION:
1. Definition: The synchronous generator or alternator is an electrical machine which converts

the mechanical power from a prime mover into an AC electrical power at a particular voltage
and frequency.
2. Construction of Synchronous generator or alternator:
Stator:
The stator in the synchronous generator is a stationary armature. This consists of a core and the
slots to hold the armature winding similar to the armature of a d.c generator. The stator core
uses a laminated construction. It is built up of special steel stampings insulated from each other
with varnish or paper. The laminated construction is basically to keep down eddy current
losses.
Generally choice of material is steel to keep down hysteresis losses. The entire core is
fabricated in a frame made of steel plates. The core has slots on its periphery for housing the
armature conductors. The frame does not carry any flux and serves as the support to the core.
Ventilation is maintained with the help of holes cast in the frame.
Rotor:
There are two types of rotors used in the synchronous generators or alternators:
1) Salient pole rotor

2) Smooth cylindrical rotor
1) Salient pole rotor:

This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are projected out from the surface
of the rotor. The poles are built up of thick steel laminations. The poles are bolted to the rotor
as shown in the figure. The pole face has been given a specific shape. The field winding is
provided on the pole shoe. These rotors have large diameters and small axial lengths.
The limiting factor for the size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the rotating
4
member of the machine. As the mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is preferred
for low-speed ranging from 125 r.p.m to 50 r.p.m. The prime movers used to drive such rotor
are generally water turbines and I.C. engines.
2) Smooth cylindrical rotor:

Non-salient type or non-projected pole type or round rotor. This rotor consists of a smooth
solid steel cylinder, having a number of slots to accommodate the field coil. These slots are
covered at the top with the help of steel or manganese wedges. The unspotted portions of the
cylinder itself act as the poles. The poles are not projecting out and the surface of the rotor is
smooth which maintains a uniform air gap between stator and rotor.
These rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths. This is to keep
peripheral speed within limits. The main advantage of this type is that these are mechanically
very strong and thus preferred for high-speed alternators ranging between 1500 to 3000 r.p.m.
Such high-speed are called 'turbo-alternators’. The prime movers used to drive such type of
rotors are generally steam turbines, electric motors.
3. Working Principle of Synchronous generator:

The alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When there is a relative
motion between the conductors and the flux, emf gets induced in the conductors. The dc
5
generators also work on the same principle. The only difference in the practical synchronous
generator and a dc generator is that in an the conductors are stationary and field is rotating.
But for understanding, the purpose we can always consider relative motion of conductors w.r.t
the flux produced by the field winding.
Consider a relative motion of a single conductor under the magnetic field produced
by two stationary poles. The magnetic axis of two poles produced by field is vertical, shown
dotted in below figure.
Let conductor starts rotating from position 1.at this instant, the entire velocity component is
parallel to the flux lines. Hence there is no cutting of flux lines by the conductor. So dφ/dt at
this instant is zero and hence induced emf in the conductor is also zero. As the conductor moves
from position 1 to position 2, the part of the velocity component becomes perpendicular to the
flux lines and proportional to that, emf gets induced in the conductor. The magnitude of such
an induced emf increases as conductor moves from position 1 to 2.
At position 2, the entire velocity component is perpendicular to the flux
lines. Hence there exists cutting of the flux lines. And at this instant, the induced emf in the
conductor is at its maximum. As the position of conductor changes from 2 to 3, the velocity
component perpendicular to the flux starts decreasing and hence induced emf magnitude also
starts decreasing. At position 3, again the entire velocity component is parallel to the flux lines
and hence at this instant induced emf in the conductor is zero.
As the conductor moves from 3 to 4, velocity component perpendicular to the flux lines
again starts increasing. But the direction of velocity component now is opposite to the direction
of velocity component existing during the movement of the conductor from position 1 to
2.Hence an induced emf in the conductor increase but in the opposite direction.
6
At position 4, it achieves maxima in the opposite direction, as the entire velocity
component becomes perpendicular to flux lines. Again from position 4 to 1, induced emf
decreases and finally at the position again becomes zero. This cycle continues as conductor
rotates at a certain speed. So if we plot the magnitudes of the induced emf against the time, we
get an alternating nature of the induced emf shown figure above. This is the working principle
of Synchronous generator or Alternator
4. Synchronous Machine Armature Windings
WINDING TYPES
A three phase winding, in extremely simplified form, is shown in Fig. 8. The start and finish
of all the coils in phase A are designated, respectively, as SA and FA. Phase A is shown as a
solid line in the figure, phase B as a dashed line, and phase C as a dotted line. Note that each
winding does not start and finish under the same pole. Further, note that the two coil sides of a
given coil lie in identical magnetic conditions of opposite polarity. This implies that when seen
from the coil terminals, the emfs produced in the two coil sides add up. If we assume that the
poles on the rotor are moving to the left as shown, then the relative motion of the armature
conductors is to the right. This implies that identical magnetic conditions will be seen by
conductors of phase A, followed by phase C, followed by phase B. The induced emfs in phases
7
A,C and B may be said to produce a phase sequence of ACBACBA. The time interval between
two phases to achieve identical magnetic conditions would depend on the relative speed of
motion, and on the spatial separation of the phases. In Fig 8, the phases are so laid out that each
phase is separated from another by 120 electrical degrees (360◦ being defined by the distance
to achieve identical magnetic conditions).
As the distance between two adjacent corresponding points on the poles is 180 electrical
degrees, we can see that the distance between the coil side at the start of A and that at the start
of C must be 120 electrical degrees. Thus, the leading pole tip of a unit north pole moving to
the left in Fig. 8 will induce identical voltages in corresponding coil sides A, C, and B,
respectively, 120 electrical degrees apart. Note that phase B lags phase A by 240 electrical
degrees or leads phase A by 120 electrical degrees. Fig. 8(b) is a representation that is
frequently used to depict the windings of the three phases and the phase relationship between
them. The winding depicted in Fig. 8 is an open winding since both ends of the windings have
been brought out for suitable connections. It is a wave winding since it progresses from pole to
pole. It is a concentrated winding because all the coils of one phase are concentrated in the
same slot under one pole. It is a half-coil winding because there is only one-half of a coil (one
coil side) in each slot. It is a full-pitch winding because the coil sides of one coil are 180◦
electrical degrees apart i.e., they lie under identical magnetic conditions, but of opposite
polarity under adjacent poles. Fig. 9, on the other hand shows the coils of a single phase,(A, in
this case) distributed winding distributed over two slots under each pole
Half-coil and whole-coil windings
Half-coil (also called single-layer) windings are sometimes used in small induction motor
stators and in the rotors of small wound-rotor induction motors. A cross section of a half-coil,
single-layer winding is shown in Fig. 9(c)(i). Like the dc dynamo armature windings, most
commercial armatures for ac synchronous generators are of the full or whole coil two-layer
type, shown in cross section at the right in Fig. 9(c)(ii). The whole-coil, two-layer winding gets
its name from the fact that there are two coil sides (one coil) per slot. Fig. 9(a) shows a single-
layer, half-coil lap windings; Fig. 9(b) shows a double-layer, full-coil lap winding. A cross
section of a single layer (half-coil) winding is shown in Fig. 9(c)(i). 2.1.2 Chorded or fractional
-pitch windings Whereas most single-layer windings are full-pitch windings, the two-layer,
whole-coil windings are generally designed on an armature as a chorded or fractional-pitch
windings. This common practice stems from the fact that the primary advantage of the whole-
coil windings is that it permits the use of fractional-pitch coils in order to save copper. As will
8
be shown later, fractional-pitch windings, when used in ac synchronous and asynchronous
generator armatures, in addition to saving copper, (1) reduce the MMF harmonics produced by
the armature winding and (2) reduce the EMF harmonics induced in the windings, without
reducing the magnitude of the fundamental EMF wave to a great extent. For the three reasons
cited, fractional-pitch windings are almost universally used in ac synchronous generator
armatures.
EMF of Fractional Pitch Windings
9
In the case of an ac generator using a full-pitch coil, such as that shown in Fig. 8, the two coil
sides span a distance exactly equal to the pole pitch of 180 electrical degrees. As a result, the
EMFs induced in a full-pitch coil are such that the coil side EMFs are in phase, as shown in
Fig. 10. The total coil voltage Ec is 2E1, if E1 is the emf induced in a coil-side. In the case of
the two-layer winding shown in Fig. 9(b), note that the coil span of single coil is less than the
pole span of 180 electrical degrees. The EMF induced in each coil side is not in phase, and the
resultant coil voltage Ec would be less than the arithmetic sum of the EMF of each coil side,
or less than 2E1. It is obvious that 2E1 must be multiplied by a factor,kp, that is less than unity,
to get the proper value for coil voltage Ec (or Ec = 2E1kp). The pitch factor kp is given by
The pitch factor may be quantified in terms of angles as follows. If we assume that the induced
EMFs of two coils, E1 and E2, are out of phase with respect to each other by some angle β as
shown in Fig. 11, then the angle between E1 and the resultant coil voltage Ec is β 2 .The
resultant coil voltage Ec is from Eqn. 6 and Fig. 11
The angle β is 1800 minus the number of electrical degrees spanned by the coil, for a
short pitched coil. For a full pitched coil, therefore, kp = 1 as β = 0. Since β is the
10
supplementary of the coil span, the pitch factor kp may also be expressed as
where p 0 is the span of the coil in electrical degrees. It is sometimes convenient to speak of an
armature coil span as having a fractional pitch expressed as a fraction e.g., a 5 6 pitch, or an 11
12 pitch, etc. This fraction is in fact the ratio of the number of slots spanned by a coil to the
number of slots in a full pitch. In such a case, the electrical degrees spanned, p 0 is 5 6 ∗ 1800
, or 1500 ; or 11 12 ∗ 1800 or 1650 ; etc. The pitch factor kp is still computed as in Eqn. 9.
Over pitched coils are not normally used in practice as there is an increased requirement of
copper wire without any additional advantage.
Relation between Electrical and Mechanical Degrees of Rotation As stated earlier there are 180
electrical degrees between the centres of two adjacent north and south poles. Since 360
electrical degrees represents a full cycle of sinusoidal EMF,
we are interested in determining how many sinusoidal cycles are generated in one complete
mechanical rotation, i.e., 360 mechanical degrees for a machine having P poles. The number
of electrical degrees as a function of degrees of mechanical rotation is
where P is the number of poles (always an even integer), p is the number of pole-pairs, and θ
is the number of mechanical degrees of rotation. Thus, a two-pole machine generates one cycle
of sinusoid; a four-pole machine generates two cycles and so on, in one full revolution of the
armature.
Distributed windings and distribution (or Belt) factor
The windings shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9(b) are called concentrated windings because all the
coil sides of a given phase are concentrated in a single slot under a given pole. For Fig. 8., in
determining the induced ac voltage per phase, it would be necessary only to multiply the
voltage induced in any given coil by the number of series-connected coils in each phase. This
is true for the winding shown in Fig. 8 because the conductors of each coil, respectively, lie in
the same position with respect to the N and S poles as other series coils in the same phase.
Since these individual coil voltages are induced in phase with each other, they may be added
arithmetically. In other words, the induced emf per phase is the product of the emf in one coil
and the number of series connected coils in that phase. Concentrated windings in which all
conductors of a given phase per pole are concentrated in a single slot, are not commercially
11
used because they have the following disadvantages, 1. They fail to use the entire inner
periphery of the stator iron efficiently. 2. They make it necessary to use extremely deep slots
where the windings are concentrated. This causes an increase in the mmf required to setup the
air gap flux. 3. The effect of the second disadvantage is to also increase the armature leakage
flux and the armature reactance. 4. They result in low copper-to-iron ratios by not using the
armature iron completely. 5. They fail to reduce harmonics as effectively as distributed
windings.
For the five reasons just given, it is more advantageous to distribute the armature winding,
using more slots and a uniform spacing between slots, than to concentrate the windings in a
few deep slots
When the slots are distributed around the armature uniformly, the winding that is inserted is
called a distributed winding. A distributed lap winding is shown in Fig. 12. Note that two coils
in phase belt A are displaced by one slot angle (the angular displacement between two
successive slots) with respect to each other. The induced voltages of each of these coils will be
displaced by the same degree to which the slots have been distributed, and the total voltage
induced in any phase will be the phasor sum of the individual coil voltages. For an armature
winding having four coils distributed over say, 2/3 rd of a pole-pitch, in four slots, the four
individual coil side voltages are represented by phasor in Fig. 13 as displaced by some angle
α, the number of electrical degrees between adjacent slots, known as slot angle. It is 300 for
the case of 4 slots per phase belt. Voltages Ec1, Ec2, etc., are the individual coil voltages, and
n is the number of coils in a given phase belt, in general. For a machine using n slots for a phase
belt, the belt or distribution factor kd by which the arithmetic sum of the individual coil voltages
must be multiplied in order to yield the phasor sum is determined by the following method,
12
where all terms are previously defined
As in the case of Eqn. 12., the computation of kd in terms of voltages (either theoretical or
actual) is impractical. The construction of Fig. 13 in which perpendiculars have been drawn to
the center of each of the individual coil voltage phasor to a common center of radius ’r’ (using
dashed lines) serves to indicate that α/2 is the angle BOA. Coil side voltage AB equals OA sin
α/2, and coil voltage represented by chord AC equals 2OA sin α/2. For n coils in series per
phase, chord AN, is also 2OA sin nα/2, and the distribution or belt factor kd is
where n is the number of slots per pole per phase (s.p.p) α is the number of electrical degrees
between adjacent slots i.e. slot angle It should be noted from Eqn. 12. that the distribution factor
kd for any fixed or given number of phases is a sole function of the number of distributed slots
under a given pole. As the distribution of coils (slots/pole) increases, the distribution factor kd
decreases. It is not affected by the type of winding, lap or wave, or by the number of turns per
coil, etc
5. Generated EMF in a Synchronous Generator
It is now possible to derive the computed or expected EMF per phase generated in a
synchronous generator. Let us assume that this generator has an armature winding consisting
13
of a total number of full pitched concentrated coils C, each coil having a given number of turns
Nc. Then the total number of turns in any given phase of an m-phase generator armature is
But Faraday’s law states that the average voltage induced in a single turn of two coil sides is
The voltage induced in one conductor is 2φ/(1/s) = 2φs, where s=speed of rotation in r.p.s, for
a 2 pole generator. Furthermore, when a coil consisting of Nc turns rotates in a uniform
magnetic field, at a uniform speed, the average voltage induced in an armature coil is
where φ is the number of lines of flux (in Weber) per pole, Nc is number of turns per coil, s is
the relative speed in revolutions/second (rps) between the coil of Nc turns and the magnetic
field φ
A speed s of 1 rps will produce a frequency f of 1 Hz. Since f is directly proportional and
equivalent to s, (for a 2-pole generator) replacing the latter in Eqn. 14, for all the series turns
in any phase,
However, in the preceding section we discovered that the voltage per phase is made more
completely sinusoidal by intentional distribution of the armature winding. The effective rms
value of a sinusoidal ac voltage is 1.11 times the average value. The effective ac voltage per
phase is
But Eqn. 16 is still not representative of the effective value of the phase voltage generated in
an armature in which fractional-pitch coils and a distributed winding are employed. Taking the
pitch factor kp and the distribution factor kd into account, we may now write the equation for
the effective value of the voltage generated in each phase of an AC synchronous generator as
6. Frequency of an A.C. Synchronous Generator
14
Commercial ac synchronous generators have many poles and may rotate at various speeds,
either as alternators or as synchronous or induction motors.Eqn. 13 was derived for a two-pole
device in which the generated EMF in the stationary armature winding changes direction every
half-revolution of the two-pole rotor. One complete revolution will produce one complete
positive and negative pulse each cycle. The frequency in cycles per second (Hz) will, as stated
previously, depend directly on the speed or number of revolutions per second (rpm/60) of the
rotating field. If the ac synchronous generator has multiple poles (having, say, two, four, six,
or eight poles...), then for a speed of one revolution per second (1 rpm/60), the frequency per
revolution will be one, two, three, or four ..., cycles per revolution, respectively. The frequency
per revolution, is therefore, equal to the number of pairs of poles. Since the frequency depends
directly on the speed (rpm/60) and also on the number of pairs of poles (P/2), we may combine
these into a single equation in which
where P is the number of poles N is the speed in rpm (rev/min) f is. the frequency in hertz ω m
is the speed in radians per second (rad/s) ωe is the speed electrical radians per second.
7. HARMONICS IN SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES:
Now we will learn about Harmonics in Synchronous machines. We know that in
synchronous machines or the voltage and currents are induced. These voltage and
currents are sinusoidal waveforms. But practically this doesn't happens and sinusoidal
waveforms are not produced when such alternators are loaded. Due to the loading condition,
the generated waveform deviates from the ideal waveform. Such a non-sinusoidal waveform is
called complex wave.
By Fourier transform, this complex waveform can be shown to be built of a series of
sinusoidal waves whose frequencies are integral multiples of the frequency of fundamental
wave. These sinusoidal components or harmonic functions are called harmonics of the
complex wave.
The fundamental wave is defined as that component which is having same frequency as
that of complex wave. The component which is having double the frequency of that of
fundamental wave called second harmonic. While the component which is having the
frequency three times that of fundamental is called third harmonic and so on.The complex
waveform contains both the even as well as odd harmonics. Consider a complex wave which
is represented by,
15
e = E1m sin (ωt +Φ1) + E2m sin (ωt +Φ2) +E3m sin (ωt +Φ3)+........+Enm sin (ωt +Φn)
where E1m sin (ωt +Φ1) is the fundamental component of maximum value E1m having an
angle Φ1 from the instant of zero of the complex wave. Similarly, Enm sin (ωt +Φn) represents
nth harmonic of maximum value Enm and having phase angle Φn with respect to complex
wave.
Out of the even and odd harmonics, a complex wave containing fundamental component
and even harmonics only are always unsymmetrical about x-axis whereas a complex wave
containing fundamental component and odd harmonics only is always symmetrical about the
x-axis.In case of the voltage generated is mostly symmetrical as the field system and coils are
all symmetrical. So the generated voltage or current will not have any even harmonics in most
of the cases.
The complex waveform of voltage can be analyzed experimentally by using the
phenomenon of resonance. If voltage waveform containing harmonic content is applied to the
circuit containing resistance, inductance and capacitance, then the circuit will resonate at one
of the harmonic frequencies. The voltage drop across the resistance can be analyzed by using
an oscillograph. The values of inductance and capacitance can be changed so that resonance
can be obtained at fundamental, third harmonic, fifth harmonic etc.The voltage on the
oscillograph indicates the presence of particular harmonics.
Slot Harmonics in Synchronous Machines:
The voltage generated in armature windings is derived assuming that the surface of the
armature to be smooth. However in practice armature is not smooth but is made slotted. Due
to this slotting, certain harmonic EMFs of undesirable order are produced.
The reluctance at any point in the air gap depends on whether there is a slot or teeth in the
magnetic path. Since in case of alternators armature is moving, the teeth and slots alternately
occupy positions at this point. This will vary the reluctance. The ripples will be formed due to
the variation of reluctance from point to Field point in the air gap which is shown in the below
figure. These ripples will not move with respect to Armature conductors but glide on the
distribution of flux.
16
These ripples due to slotting of the armature are always due to ripple opposite to slots and teeth
which are causing them. Thus the harmonics which are generated in the EMF due to slotting is
called slot harmonics. It can be seen that the main source of harmonics is the non-sinusoidal
field form which can be made sinusoidal and the harmonics can be eliminated.
The air gap offers maximum reluctance to the
flux path. This air gap if made to vary sinusoid ally around the machine, the field form would
also be sinusoidal. Even the air gap is made to vary sinusoidal, the field form cannot be
sinusoidal due to saturation in iron parts which is unavoidable. But there should not be the high
degree of saturation so that approximately sinusoidal waveform will be obtained.
Thus, in general, it can be seen that ideal sinusoidal field form is very difficult to obtain
whether the machine is salient pole type or cylindrical rotor construction. Now here we will
learn how to minimize or eliminate harmonic components in synchronous machines
8.Harmonics Minimization from induced voltages:
To eliminate or minimize the harmonics from the voltage waveform, the windings must be
properly designed. The different ways to eliminate the harmonics from generated voltage
are,
1) Distribution of armature windings :
Instead of having concentrated type of windings, they should be distributed in different
slots. The distribution factor for harmonics is comparatively less than that of the fundamental
and hence magnitude of harmonic e.m.f. is small.
2) Chording :
The e.m.f. generated in the winding is proportional to cos (x /2) where a is angle of
chording and x is order of harmonic. If proper value of angle of chording is selected then
harmonic e..m.f.s can be reduced significantly.
17
3) Fractional slot windings:
The output voltage waveform will be free of harmonics by facilitating the use of fractional
slot windings as the distribution factor will be smaller compared to that with the fundamental.
4) Skewing:
Skewing the pole face will help in eliminating the slot harmonics.
5) Large length of air gap:
The reluctance will be increased by increasing the air gap and slot harmonics can be reduced.
Armature Reaction in a Synchronous Machine
The effect of Armature (stator) flux on the flux produced by the rotor field poles is
called Armature Reaction. When the current flows through the armature winding of the an
alternator, a flux is produced by the resulting MMF. This armature flux reacts with the main
pole flux, causing the resultant flux to become either less than or more than the original main
field flux.
For simplicity, we consider a 3 phase, 2 pole alternator shown in the figure below.
The winding of each pole is assumed to be concentrated, but the effects of armature reaction
will be the same as if a distributed winding were also used. The armature reaction in
synchronous machine affects the main field flux and vary differently for different power
factors.
Here armature reaction is discussed for following three conditions, namely unity power factor,
zero power factor lagging and zero power factor leading. The power factor can be defined as
the cosine of the angle between the armature phase current and the induced EMF in the
armature conductor in that phase.
18
9. Armature Reaction at Unity Power Factor
The direction of rotation of the rotor is considered clockwise. By applying right hand rule, the
direction of the induced emf in various conductors can be found. The direction of rotation of
the conductors is taken anticlockwise with respect to the rotor poles.
Suppose that the alternator is supplying current at unity power factor. The phase current IA, IB,
and IC will be in phase with their respective generated voltages, i.e., E A, EB, and EC as shown
in the figure below.
The positive direction of fluxes ϕA, ϕB, ϕC are shown in the figure below.
The projection of a phasor on the vertical axis gives its instantaneous value.
At t=0, the instantaneous values of currents and fluxes are given by the equation shown
below.
19
Where the subscript m denotes the maximum values of current and flux. Thus, the flux ϕA is
along OA and the fluxes ϕB and ϕC are negative and acts opposite to each other represented by
OB and OC respectively as shown in the figure below. The resultant of the fluxes can be found
by resolving the fluxes horizontally and vertically.
Resolving along the horizontal direction we get
20
Similarly, resolving along the vertical direction we get
The resultant armature reaction flux is given by
If the rotor is rotated, 30 degrees in a clockwise direction, the corresponding phasor diagram
is shown below.
At the instant when ωt = 30⁰, the instantaneous values of currents and fluxes are given as
21
The space diagram for fluxes at ωt = 30⁰ is shown below.
Here, ϕB = 0. The resultant armature reaction flux is given by the equation shown below.
The direction of the resultant flux ϕAR is along OD, which makes an angle with the horizontalin
the clockwise direction.
22
Hence, it is observed that the resultant flux ϕAR sets up by the current in the armature remains
constant in magnitude equal to 1.5 ϕm and it rotates at synchronous speed. When the current is
in phase with the induced voltage the armature reaction flux ϕAR lags behind the main field by
90⁰. This is called Cross Magnetizing Flux.
10. Armature Reaction at Lagging Power Factor
If the alternator is loaded with an inductive load of zero power factor lagging. The phase current
IA, IB and IC will be lagging with their respective phase voltages E A, EB and EC by 90⁰. The
figure below shows the phasor diagram of armature reaction at lagging load.
At time t = 0, the instantaneous values of currents and fluxes are given by
The space diagram of the magnetic fluxes is shown below.
23
The resultant flux ϕAR is given by the equation shown below.
The direction of the armature reaction flux is opposite to the main field flux. Therefore, it will
oppose and weaken the main field flux. It is said to be demagnetized.
11. Armature Reaction at Leading Power Factor
If the alternator is loaded with a load of zero power factor leading. The phase currents IA, IB and
IC will be leading their respective phase voltages EA, EB and EC by 90⁰. The phasor diagram is
shown below.
24
At time t = 0, the instantaneous values of currents and fluxes are given by the equations
shown below.
The direction of the flux is shown below in the phasor diagram.
25
The resultant flux is given by the equation shown below.
The direction of the armature reaction flux is in the direction of main field flux. It is known
as magnetizing flux.
Armature Reaction Nature
The following conclusion is given below.
• The armature reaction flux is constant in magnitude and rotates at synchronous speed.
• The armature reaction is cross-magnetizing when the generator supplies a load at unity power
factor.
• When the generator supplies a load, at lagging power, the armature reaction is partly
demagnetizing and partly cross-magnetizing.
26
Synchronous Reactance and Synchronous Impedance
The Synchronous Reactance (XS) is the imaginary reactance employed to account for the
voltage effects in the armature circuit produced by the actual armature leakage reactance and
by the change in the air gap flux caused by the armature reaction.
Similarly, the Synchronous Impedance ZS is a fictitious impedance employed to account for
the voltage effects in the armature circuit produced by the actual armature resistance, the actual
armature leakage reactance and the change in the air gap flux produced by the armature
reaction.
The actual generated voltage consists of the summation of the two component voltages. One
of these component voltages that would be generated if there were no armature reaction. It is
the voltage that would be generated because of only the field excitation. This component of the
generated voltage is called the Excitation Voltage (Eexc).
The other component of the generated voltage is known as the Armature
Reaction Voltage (EAR). Thus, the two voltages that are the armature reaction voltage and the
excitation voltage are added to keep a check on the effect of armature reaction upon the
generated voltage. The equation is shown below.
The voltage in a circuit caused by the change in the flux by the current is a result of armature
reaction. The nature of this effect is inductive reactance. Therefore, E AR is equivalent to a
voltage of inductive reactance and is given by the equation shown below.
The Inductive Reactance XAR is a fictitious reactance. As a result a voltage is generated in the
armature circuit. Therefore, armature reaction voltage can be modeled as an inductor in series
with the internally generated voltage.
In addition to the effects of armature reaction, the stator winding also has a self-inductance and
resistance.
Let,
• La is the self-inductance of the stator winding

• Xa is the self-inductive reactance of stator winding
• Ra is the armature stator resistance.
27
The terminal voltage V is given by the equation shown below.
Where,
• RaIa is the armature resistance drop

• XaIa is the armature leakage reactance drop
• XARIa is the armature reaction voltage
The armature reaction effects and the leakage flux effects on the machine are both
represented by inductive reactance. Therefore, all these combine to form a single reactance
called Synchronous Reactance of the machine XS.
Therefore,
Where,
The impedance ZS in the above equation (7) is the Synchronous Impedance, and XS is
the Synchronous Reactance.
12. Generator Load Characteristics
Consider a synchronous generator driven at constant speed and with constant excitation. On
open circuit the terminal voltage V is the same as the open circuit e.m.f. Et . Suppose a unity-
power-factor load be connected to the machine. The flow of load current produces a voltage
drop IZs in the synchronous impedance, and terminal voltage V is reduced. Fig. 31 shows the
28
complexor diagram for three types of load. It will be seen that the angle σ between Et and V
increases with load, indicating a shift of the flux across the pole faces due to cross-
magnetization. The terminal voltage is obtained from the complex summation
Algebraically this can be written
for non-reactive loads. Since normally r is small compared with X
so that the V/I curve, Fig. 32, is nearly an ellipse with semi-axes Et and Isc. The current Isc is
that which flows when the load resistance is reduced to zero. The voltage V falls to zero also
and the machine is on short-circuit with V = 0 and
For a lagging load of zero power-factor, diagram is given in Fig. 31 The voltage is given as
before and since the resistance in normal machines is small compared with the synchronous
reactance, the voltage is given approximately by
29
which is the straight line marked for cos φ = 0 lagging in Fig. 32. A leading load of zero power
factor Fig. 31. will have the voltage
another straight line for which, by reason of the direct magnetizing effect of leading currents,
the voltage increases with load. Intermediate load power factors produce voltage/current
characteristics resembling those in Fig. 32. The voltage-drop with load (i.e. the regulation) is
clearly dependent upon the power factor of the load. The short-circuit current Isc at which the
load terminal voltage falls to zero may be about 150 per cent (1.5 per unit) of normal current
in large modern machines.
30
PART A Questions
1. Why almost all large size Synchronous machines are constructed with rotating field
system type?
The following are the principal advantages of the rotating field system type construction of
Synchronous machines:
The relatively small amount of power, about 2%, required for field system via slip rings and
brushes. For the same air gap dimensions, which is normally decided by the KVA rating,
more space is available in the stator part of the machine for providing more insulation to the
system of conductors, especially for machines rated for 11kV or above. Insulation to stationary
system of conductors is not subjected to mechanical stresses due to centrifugal action.
Stationary system of conductors can easily be braced to prevent deformation. It is easy to
provide cooling arrangement for a stationary system of conductors. Firm stationary connection
between external circuit and system of conductors enable he machine to handle large amount
of volt-ampere as high as 500MVA.
2. Write down the equation for frequency of emf induced in an Alternator.

Frequency of emf induced in an Alternator ,expressed in cycles per second or Hz, is given by
the following equation F = (PN)/120 Hz, Where P- Number of poles N-Speed in rpm
3. How are alternators classified?
According to type of field system Stationary field system type
Rotating field system type
According to shape of field system Salient pole type
Smooth cylindrical type
4. Name the types of Alternator based on their rotor construction.
Alternators can be classified into the following two types according to its rotor construction
Smooth cylindrical type alternator
• Salient pole alternator •
5. Why do cylindrical Alternators operate with steam turbines?
Steam turbines are found to operate at fairly good efficiency only at high speeds. The high
speed operation of rotors tends to increase mechanical losses and so the rotors should have a
smooth external surface. Hence, smooth cylindrical type rotors with less diameter and large
axial length are used for Synchronous generators driven by steam turbines with either 2 or 4
poles.
31
6. Which type of Synchronous generators are used in Hydro-electric plants and why?
As the speed of operation is low for hydro turbines use din Hydro-electric plants, salient pole
type Synchronous generators are used. These allow better ventilation and also have other
advantages over smooth cylindrical type rotor.
Part B Questions
1. Derive EMF equation for synchronous generator (June 2018)

2. Explain space and slot harmonics of a synchronous generator. (June 2018)
3.Explain principle and construction features of salient pole and round machines (De
4. Explain in detail about synchronous reactance and impedance with phasor
diagram(Dec18)
5. Enumerate various methods used for minimizing harmonics in turbo-alternator
(June2017)
6. A3-phase, 8-pole, 750 rpm star – connected alternator has 72 slots on the armature.
Each slot has 12 conductors and winding is short chorded by 2 slots. Find the
induced emf between lines, given the flux per pole is 0.06 Wb (June 2017)
7. Explain the Load Characteristics of synchronous generators
8. Explain in detail about Concentrated and Distributed Windings of synchronous
generators
32
UNIT – II REGULATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
Introduction
VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
The Voltage Regulation of a Synchronous Generator is the rise in voltage at the terminals
when the load is reduced from full load rated value to zero, speed and field current remaining
constant. It depends upon the power factor of the load. For unity and lagging power factors,
there is always a voltage drop with the increase of load, but for a certain leading power, the full
load voltage regulation is zero.
The voltage regulation is given by the equation shown below.
Where,
• |Ea| is the magnitude of a generated voltage per phase
• |V| is the magnitude of rated terminal voltage per phase
In this case, the terminal voltage is the same for both full load and no load conditions. At lower
leading power factors, the voltage rises with the increase of load, and the regulation is negative.
Determination of Voltage Regulation
There are mainly two methods which are used to determine the regulation
of voltage of a smooth cylindrical rotor type alternators. They are named as direct load
test method and indirect methods of voltage regulation. The indirect method is further
classified as Synchronous Impedance Method, Ampere-turn Method and Zero Power
Factor Method.
33
Direct Load Test
The alternator runs at synchronous speed, and its terminal voltage is adjusted to its rated value
V. The load is varied until the Ammeter and Wattmeter indicate the rated values at the given
power factor. The load is removed, and the speed and the field excitation are kept constant. The
value of the open circuit and no load voltage is recorded.
It is also found from the percentage voltage regulation and is given by the equation shown
below.
The method of direct loading is suitable only for small alternators of the power rating less than
5 kVA.
Indirect Methods of Voltage Regulation
For large alternators, the three indirect methods are used to determine the voltage regulation
they are as follows.
Synchronous Impedance Method
The Synchronous Impedance Method or Emf Method is based on the concept of replacing
the effect of armature reaction by an imaginary reactance. For calculating the regulation, the
synchronous method requires the following data; they are the armature resistance per phase
and the open circuit characteristic.The open circuit characteristic is the graph of the circuit
voltage and the field current. This method also requires short circuit characteristic which is the
graph of the short circuit and the field current.
For a synchronous generator following are the equation given below
34
Where,
For calculating the synchronous impedance, Zs is measured, and then the value of Ea is
calculated. From the values of Ea and V, the voltage regulation is calculated.
Measurement of Synchronous Impedance
The measurement of synchronous impedance is done by the following methods. They are
known as
• DC resistance test
• Open circuit test
• Short circuit test
DC resistance test
In this test, it is assumed that the alternator is star connected with the DC field winding is kept
open .It measures the DC resistance between each pair of terminals either by using an ammeter
– voltmeter method or by using the Wheatstone’s bridge. The average of three sets of resistance
value Rt is taken. The value of Rt is divided by 2 to obtain a value of DC resistance per phase.
Since the effective AC resistance is larger than the DC resistance due to skin effect. Therefore,
the effective AC resistance per phase is obtained by multiplying the DC resistance by a factor
1.20 to 1.75 depending on the size of the machine. A typical value to use in the calculation
would be 1.25.
Open Circuit Test
In the open circuit test for determining the synchronous impedance, the alternator is running
at the rated synchronous speed, and the load terminals are kept open. This means that the loads
are disconnected, and the field current is set to zero. The circuit diagram is shown below.
After setting the field current to zero, the field current is gradually increased step by step. The
terminal voltage Et is measured at each step. The excitation current may be increased to get
25% more than the rated voltage. A graph is drawn between the open circuit phase voltage Ep =
Et/√3 and the field current If. The curve so obtains called Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C).
The shape is same as normal magnetisation curve. The linear portion of the O.C.C is extended
to form an air gap line.
The Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C) and the air gap line is shown in the figure below.
35
Short Circuit Test
In the short circuit test, the armature terminals are shorted through three ammeters as shown
in the figure below.
The field current should first be decreased to zero before starting the alternator. Each ammeter
should have a range greater than the rated full load value. The alternator is then run at
synchronous speed. Same as in an open circuit test that the field current is increased gradually
in steps and the armature current is measured at each step. The field current is increased to get
armature currents up to 150% of the rated value.
The value of field current If and the average of three ammeter readings at each step is taken. A
graph is plotted between the armature current Ia and the field current If. The characteristic so
obtained is called Short Circuit Characteristic (S.C.C). This characteristic is a straight line
as shown in the figure below.
Calculation of Synchronous Impedance

The following steps are given below for the calculation of the synchronous impedance.
36
• The open circuit characteristics and the short circuit characteristic are drawn on the same
curve.
• Determine the value of short circuit current Isc and gives the rated alternator voltage per
phase.
• The synchronous impedance ZS will then be equal to the open circuit voltage divided by the
short circuit current at that field current which gives the rated EMF per phase.
The synchronous reactance is determined as
The graph is shown below.
From the above figure consider the field current If = OA that produces rated alternator
voltage per phase. Corresponding to this field current, the open circuit voltage is AB
Therefore,
37
Assumptions in the Synchronous Impedance Method
The following assumptions made in the synchronous Impedance Method are given below.
• The synchronous Impedance is constant
The synchronous impedance is determined from the O.C.C and S.C.C. It is the ratio of the
open circuit voltage to the short circuit current. When the O.C.C and S.C.C are linear,
the synchronous impedance ZS is constant.
• The flux under test conditions is the same as that under load conditions.
It is assumed that a given value of the field current always produces the same flux. This
assumption introduces considerable error. When the armature is short circuited, the current in
the armature lag the generated voltage by almost 90 degrees, and hence the armature reaction
is almost completely demagnetizing.
• The effect of the armature reaction flux can be replaced by a voltage drop proportional to the
armature current and that the armature reaction voltage drop is added to the armature reactance
voltage drop.
• The magnetic reluctance to the armature flux is constant regardless of the power factor.
For a cylindrical rotor machine, this assumption is substantially true because of the uniform air
gap. Regulation obtained by using a synchronous impedance method is higher than that
obtained by actual loading. Hence, this method is also called the Pessimistic method.
At lower excitations, ZS is constant, since the open circuit characteristics coincide with the air
gap line. This value of ZS is called the linear or Unsaturated Synchronous Impedance.
However, with increasing excitation, the effect of saturation is to decrease ZS and the values
beyond the linear part of the open circuit called as Saturated Value of the Synchronous
Impedance.
MMF Method of Voltage Regulation
MMF Method is also known as Ampere Turn Method. The synchronous impedance method
is based on the concept of replacing the effect of armature reaction by an imaginary reactance
the Magnetomotive force (MMF). The MMF method replaces the effect of armature leakage
reactance by an equivalent additional armature reaction MMF so that this MMF may be
combined with the armature reaction MMF.
38
To calculate the voltage regulation by MMF Method, the following information is required.
They are as follows:
• The resistance of the stator winding per phase
• Open circuit characteristics at synchronous speed.
• Short circuit characteristic
Step to Draw Phasor Diagram of MMF Method
The phasor diagram at a lagging power factor is shown below.
• The armature terminal voltage per phase (V) is taken as the reference phasor along OA.
• The armature current phasor Ia is drawn lagging the phasor voltage for lagging power factor
angle ϕ for which the regulation is to be calculated.
• The armature resistance drop phasor IaRa is drawn in phase with Ia along the line AC. Join O
and C. OC represents the emf E’.
39
•
Considering the Open Current Characteristics shown above the field current I’f corresponding
to the voltage E’ is calculated.
• Draw the field current I’f leading the voltage E’ by 90 degrees. It is assumed that on short
circuit all the excitation is opposed by the MMF of armature reaction. Thus,
From the Short Circuit Current characteristics (SSC) shown above, determine the field current
If2 required to circulate the rated current on short circuit. This is the filed current required to
overcome the synchronous reactance drop IaXa.
• Draw the field current If2 in phase in opposition to the current armature current Ia. Thus,
Determine the phasor sum of the field currents I’f and If2. This gives the resultant field current
If which would generate a voltage E0 under no load conditions of the alternator. The open
circuit EMF E0 corresponding to the field current if is found from the open circuit
characteristics
The regulation of the alternator is found from the relation shown below.
40
Potier Triangle or Zero Power Factor Method
The Potier triangle determines the voltage regulation of the machines. This method depends
on the separation of the leakage reactance of armature and their effects. The graph of the Potier
triangle is shown in the figure below. The triangle formed by the vertices a, b, c has shown
below in the figure is called Potier Triangle.
Consider a point B on the Zero Power Factor Curve corresponding to rated terminal voltage V
and a field current of OM = If = Ff/Tf. If, for this condition of operation the armature reaction
MMF has a value expressed in equivalent field current will be given as
Then the equivalent field current of the resultant MMF would be represented as shown below.
This field current OL would result in a generated voltage Eg = Lc from the no-load saturation
curve. Since for lagging Zero Power Factor operation, the generated voltage will be
41
The vertical distance ac must be equal to the leakage reactance voltage DROP IaXaL where Ia is
the rated armature current.
Therefore,
For Zero Power Factor operation with rated current at any other terminal voltage, such as V2.
As the armature current is of the same value, both the IaandXaL voltage and the armature MMF
must be of the same value. Therefore, for all the conditions of operation with rated armature
current at zero lagging power factor, the Potier Triangle must be located between the terminal
voltage V, a point on the ZPFC and the corresponding Eg point on the O.C.C.
If the Potier triangle cab is moved downward so that the side ab is kept horizontal and b is kept
on the ZPFC, the point c will move on the O.C.C. When the point b, reaches the point e, the
Potier triangle cab will move on the position fde shown in the figure. The location of point f
on the O.C.C will determine the voltage Eg2. When the point b, reaches the point b’, the Potier
Triangle will be in the position c’a’b’. This is the limiting position which corresponds to short
the circuit condition because the terminal voltage is zero at the point b’.
The initial part of the O.C.C is almost linear, another triangle Oc’b’is formed by the O.C.C.
The hypotenuse of the Potier triangle and the baseline. A similar triangle such as ckb, can
construct from the Potier triangle in any other location by drawing a line kc parallel to Oc’.
Steps for Construction of Potier Triangle on ZPFC
• Take a point b on the ZPFC preferably well upon the knee of the curve.
• Draw bk equal to b’O. (b’ is the point for zero voltage, full load current). Ob’ is the short circuit
excitation Fsc.
• Through k draw, kc parallel to Oc’ to meet O.C.C in c.
• Drop the perpendicular ca on to bk.
• Then, to scale ca is the leakage reactance drop IaXaL and ab is the armature reaction MMF
FaR or the field current IfaR equivalent to armature reaction MMF at rated current.
42
The effect of field leakage flux in combination with the armature leakage flux gives rise to an
equivalent leakage reactance Xp, known as the Potier Reactance. It is greater than the armature
leakage reactance.
For cylindrical rotor machines, the Potier reactance Xp is approximately equal to the leakage
reactance XaL. in salient pole machine, Xp may be as large as 3 times XaL.
Assumptions for Potier Triangle

The following assumptions are made in the Potier Triangle Method. They are as follows:-
• The armature resistance Ra is neglected.
• The O.C.C taken on no load accurately represents the relation between MMF and Voltage on
load.
• The leakage reactance voltage Ia XaL is independent of excitation.
• The armature reaction MMF is constant.
It is not necessary to plot the entire ZPFC for determining XaL and Fa, only two points b and b’
are sufficient. Point b corresponds to a field current which gives the rated terminal voltage
while the ZPF load is adjusted to draw rated current. Point b’ corresponds to the short circuit
condition (V = 0) on the machine. Thus, Ob’ is the field current required to circulate the short
circuit current equal to the rated current.
Short Circuit Ratio of a Synchronous Machine
The Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) of a synchronous machine is defined as the ratio of the field
current required to generate rated voltage on an open circuit to the field current required to
circulate rated armature current on short circuit. The short circuit ratio can be calculated from
the open circuit characteristic ( O.C.C) at rated speed and the short circuit
characteristic(S.C.C) of a three-phase synchronous machine as shown in the figure below.
43
From the above figure, the short circuit ratio is given by the equation shown below
Since the triangles Oab and Ode are similar. Therefore,
The direct axis synchronous reactance Xd is defined as the ratio of open circuit voltage for a
given field current to the armature short circuit current for the same field current.
For the field current equal to Oa, the direct axis synchronous reactance in ohms is given by the
equation shown below.
The per unit value of Xd is given as
But, the base impedance is
44
Therefore,
From the equation (1) and the equation (6) we get
From the equation (7) it is clear that the short circuit ratio is equal to the reciprocal of the per
unit value of the direct axis synchronous reactance.
In a saturated magnetic circuit, the value of Xd depends upon the degree of saturation.
Significance of Short Circuit Ratio (SCR)
Short Circuit Ratio is an important factor of the synchronous machine. It affects the operating
characteristics, physical size and cost of the machine. The Large variation in the terminal
voltage with a change in load takes place for the lower value of the short circuit ratio of a
synchronous generator. To keep the terminal voltage constant, the field current (If) has to be
varied over a wide range.
For the small value of the short circuit ratio (SCR), the synchronizing power is small. As the
synchronizing power keeps the machine in synchronism, a lower value of the SCR has a low
stability limit. In other words, a machine with a low SCR is less stable when operating in
parallel with the other generators.
A synchronous machine with the high value of SCR had a better voltage regulation and
improved steady state stability limit, but the short circuit fault current in the armature is high.
It also affects the size and cost of the machine.
The excitation voltage of the synchronous machine is given by the equation.
45
For the same value of Tph Excitation voltage is directly proportional to the field flux per
pole.
The synchronous inductance is given as
Therefore,
Hence, the short circuit ratio is directly proportional to the air gap reluctance or air gap length.
If the length of the air gap is increased, the SCR can be increased. With the increase in the air
gap length, the field MMF is to be increased for the same value of excitation voltage (E f).
Hence, to increase the value of field MMF either field current or the number of field turns has
to be increased. All this requires a greater height of field poles and, as a result, the overall
diameter of the machine increases.
Thus, a conclusion is that the large value of SCR will increase the size, weight and the cost of
the machine.
The typical values of the SCR for different types of machines are as follows:-
• For cylindrical rotor machine, the value of SCR lies between 0.5 to 0.9.
• In case of the Salient-pole machine, it lies between 1 to 1.5 and
• For synchronous compensators, it is 0.4.
Two Reaction Theory – Salient Pole Synchronous Machine
Two Reaction Theory was proposed by Andre Blondel. The theory proposes to resolve the
given armature MMFs into two mutually perpendicular components, with one located along
46
the axis of the rotor of the salient pole. It is known as the direct axis or d axis component. The
other component is located perpendicular to the axis of the rotor salient pole. It is known as
the quadrature axis or q axis component.
The d axis component of the armature MMF Fa is denoted by Fd and the q axis component by
Fq. The component Fd is either magnetizing or demagnetizing. The component Fq results in a
cross-magnetizing effect. If Ψ is the angle between the armature current Ia and the excitation
voltage Ef and Fa is the amplitude of the armature MMF, then
Salient Pole Synchronous Machine Two Rection Theory

In the cylindrical rotor synchronous machine, the air gap is uniform. The pole structure of the
rotor of a salient pole machine makes the air gap highly non-uniform. Consider a 2 pole, salient
pole rotor rotating in the anticlockwise direction within a 2 pole stator as shown in the figure
below.
The axis along the axis of the rotor is called the direct or the d axis. The axis perpendicular to
d axis is known as the quadrature or q axis. The direct axis flux path involves two small air
gaps and is the path of the minimum reluctance. The path shown in the above figure by ϕq has
two large air gaps and is the path of the maximum reluctance.
The rotor flux BR is shown vertically upwards as shown in the figure below.
47
The rotor flux induces a voltage Ef in the stator. The stator armature current Iawill flow through
the synchronous motor when a lagging power factor load is connected it. This stator armature
current Ia lags behind the generated voltage Ef by an angle Ψ.
The armature current produces stator magnetomotive force Fs. This MMF lags behind Ia by
angle 90 degrees. The MMF FS produces stator magnetic field BSlong the direction of Fs. The
stator MMF is resolved into two components, namely the direct axis component Fd and the
quadrature axis component Fq.
If,
• ϕd is the direct axis flux
• Φq is the quadrature axis flux
• Rd is the reluctance of the direct axis flux path
Therefore
As, Rd < Rq, the direct axis component of MMF Fd produces more flux than the quadrature axis
component of the MMF. The fluxes of the direct and quadrature axis produce a voltage in the
windings of the stator by armature reaction.
Let,
48
• Ead be the direct axis component of the armature reaction voltage.
• Eaq be the quadrature axis component of the armature reaction voltage.
Since each armature reaction voltage is directly proportional to its stator current and lags
behind by 90 degrees angles. Therefore, armature reaction voltages can be written as shown
below.
Where,
• Xad is the armature reaction reactance in the direct axis per phase.
• Xaq is the armature reaction reactance in the quadrature axis per phase.
The value of Xad is always greater than Xaq. As the EMF induced by a given MMF acting on
the direct axis is smaller than for the quadrature axis due to its higher reluctance.
The total voltage induced in the stator is the sum of EMF induced by the field excitation. The
equations are written as follows:-
The voltage E’ is equal to the sum of the terminal voltage V and the voltage drops in the
resistance and leakage reactance of the armature. The equation is written as
The armature current is divided into two components; one is the phase with the excitation
voltage Ef and the other is in phase quadrature to it.
If
• Iq is the axis component of Ia in phase with Ef.
• Id is the d axis Ia lagging Ef by 90 degrees.
Therefore,
Combining the equation (4) and (5) we get
49
Combining the equation (6) and (7) we get
Let,
The reactance Xd is called the direct axis synchronous reactance, and the reactance Xq is
called the quadrature axis synchronous reactance.
Combining the equations (9) (10) and (11), we get the equations shown below.
The
equation (12) shown above is the final voltage equation for a salient pole synchronous
generator.
50
PART A Questions
1. What are the advantages of salient pole type construction used for Synchronous
machines?
Advantages of salient-pole type construction are : They allow better ventilation
The pole faces are so shaped that the radial air gap length increases from the pole
center to the pole tips so that the flux distribution in the air-gap is sinusoidal in shape which
will help the machine to generate sinusoidal emf Due to the variable reluctance the machine
develops additional reluctance power which is independent of excitation
2 Why is the stator core of Alternator laminated?
The stator core of Alternator is laminated to reduce eddy current loss.
3. How does electrical degree differ from mechanical degree?
Mechanical degree is the unit for accounting the angle between two points based on their
mechanical or physical placement. Electrical degree is used to account the angle between two
points in rotating electrical machines. Since all electrical machines operate with the help of
magnetic fields, the electrical degree is accounted with reference to the magnetic field. 180
electrical degree is accounted as the angle between adjacent North and South poles.
4. What is the relation between electrical degree and mechanical degree?
The number of poles P, the electrical machine has, as given by the following equation
5. What is distributed winding?
When coil-sides belonging to each phase are housed or distributed in more than one slot under
each pole region then the winding is called distributed winding. A full pitch coil has width of
coil otherwise called coil-span as 180º - angle between adjacent slots in electrical degree and
x= 1,2,3…
6. Why is short pitch winding preferred over full-pitch winding?
Advantages Waveform of the emf can be approximately made to a sine wave and
distorting harmonics can be reduced or totally eliminated. Conductor material , copper , is
saved in the back and front end connections due to less coil-span. Fractional slot winding with
fractional number of slots/phase can be used which in turn reduces the tooth ripples.
Mechanical strength of the coil is increased.
7. Write down the formula for distribution factor.
m=number of slots/ pole/ phase n = order of harmonic
8. Define winding factor.
51
The winding factor Kd is defined as the ratio of phasor addition of emf induced in all the coils
belonging to each phase winding to their arithmetic addition.
9. Name the various methods for predetermining the voltage regulation of 3-phase
Alternator. The following are the three methods which are used to predetermine the voltage
regulation of smooth cylindrical type Alternators Synchronous impedance / EMF method •
Ampere-turn / MMF method • Potier / ZPF method •
10. How synchronous impedance is calculated from OCC and SCC?
Synchronous impedance is calculated from OCC and SCC as |Zs| = E0/Isc(for same If) A
compromised value of Zs is normally estimated by taking the ratio of (E0/Isc) at normal field
current Ifn. A normal field current Ifn is one which gives rated voltage Ur on open circuit. |Zs|
= Ur/Iscn
11. What are the advantages and disadvantages of estimating the voltage regulation of an
Alternator by EMF method?
Advantages: Simple no load tests (for obtaining OCC and SCC) are to be conducted •
Calculation procedure is much simpler • Disadvantages: The value of voltage regulation
obtained by this method is always higher than the • actual value
12. Why is the synchronous impedance method of estimating voltage regulation
considered as pessimistic method?
Compared to other methods, the value of voltage regulation obtained by the synchronous
impedance method is always higher than the actual value and therefore this method is called
the pessimistic method.
13. In what way does the ampere-turn method differ from synchronous impedance
method?
The ampere-turn /MMF method is the converse of the EMF method in the sense that instead of
having the phasor addition of various voltage drops/EMFs, here the phasor addition of MMF
required for the voltage drops are carried out. Further the effect of saturation is also taken care
of.
14. What are the test data required for predetermining the voltage regulation of an
Alternator by MMF method?
Data required for MMF method are : Effective resistance per phase of the 3-phase winding R •
Open circuit characteristic (OCC) at rated speed/frequency • Short circuit characteristic (SCC)
at rated speed/frequency •
52
15 Why is the MMF method of estimating the voltage regulation considered as the
optimistic method?
Compared to the EMF method, MMF method, involves more number of complex calculation
steps. Further the OCC is referred twice and SCC is referred once while predetermining the
voltage regulation for each load condition. Reference of OCC takes care of saturation effect.
As this method require more effort, the final result is very close to the actual value. Hence this
method is called optimistic method.
16. State the condition to be satisfied before connecting two alternators in parallel
The following are the three conditions to be satisfied by synchronizing the additional Alternator
with the existing one or the common bus-bars. The terminal voltage magnitude of the incoming
Alternator must be made equal to • the existing Alternator or the bus-bar voltage magnitude.
The phase sequence of the incoming Alternator voltage must be similar to the busbar voltage. •
The frequency of the incoming Alternator voltage must be the same as the bus-bar • voltage.
17. How do the synchronizing lamps indicate the correctness of phase sequence between
existing and incoming Alternators?
The correctness of the phase sequence can be checked by looking at the three sets of lamps
connected across the 3-pole of the synchronizing switch. If the lamps grow bright and dark in
unison it is an indication of the correctness of the phase sequence. If on the other hand, they
become bright and dark one after the other, connections to any two machine terminals have to
be interchanged after shutting down the machine.
18. What are the advantages and disadvantages of three dark lamps method of
synchronizing?
Advantages: The synchronous switch using lamps is inexpensive • Checking for correctness
of the phase sequence can be obtained in a simple • manner which is essential especially when
the Alternator is connected for the first time or for fresh operation after disconnection .
Disadvantages: The rate of flickering of the lamps only indicates the frequency difference •
between the bus-bar and the incoming Alternator. The frequency of the incoming Alternator in
relation to the bus-bar frequency is not available.
19. How synchronoscope is used for synchronizing Alternators?
Synchronoscope can be used for permanently connected Alternators where the correctness of
phase sequence is already checked by other means. Synchronoscope is capable of rotating in
both directions. The rate of rotation of the pointer indicates the amount of frequency difference
between the Alternators. The direction of rotation indicates whether incoming Alternator
53
frequency is higher or lower than the existing Alternator. The TPST switch is closed to
synchronize the incoming Alternator when the pointer faces the top thick line marking.
20. Why synchronous generators are to be constructed with more synchronous reactance
and negligible resistance?
The presence of more resistance in the Synchronous generators will resist or oppose their
synchronous operation. More reactance in the generators can cause good reaction between the
two and help the generators to remain in synchronism in spite of any disturbance occurring in
any one of the generators.
21. List the factors that affect the load sharing in parallel operating generators?
The total active and reactive power delivered to the load, connected across the common bus-
bars, are shared among Synchronous generators, operating in parallel, based on the following
three factors Prime-mover characteristic/input • Excitation level and • Percentage synchronous
impedance and its R/X ratio •
22. How does the change in prime mover input affect the load sharing?
An increase in prime-mover input to a particular generator causes the activepower shared by it
to increase and a corresponding decrease in active-power shared by other generators. The
change in reactive power sharing is less appreciable. The frequency of the bus-bar voltage will
also subjected to slight increase in value.
23. How does change in excitation affects the load sharing?
The decrease in excitation in one generator causes the reactive power shared by it to decrease
and a corresponding increase in reactive-power shared by other generators. The change in
active-power sharing is less appreciable. There will be a slight decrease in terminal voltage
magnitude also.
24. What steps are to be taken before disconnecting one Alternator from parallel
operation?
The following steps are to be taken before disconnecting one Alternator from parallel operation
The prime-mover input of the outgoing generator has to be decreased and that of • other
generators has to be increased and by this the entire active-power delivered by the outgoing
generator is transferred to other generators. The excitation of the outgoing generator has to be
decreased and that of other • generators have to be increased and by this the entire reactive-
power delivered by the outgoing generator is transferred to other generators. After ensuring the
current delivered by the outgoing generator is zero, it has to be • disconnected from parallel
operation.
54
25. What is meant by infinite bus-bars?
The source or supply lines with non-variable voltage and frequency are called infinite bus-bars.
The source lines are said to have zero source impedance and infinite rotational inertia.
26. How does increase in excitation of the Alternator connected to infinite busbars affect
this operation?
Increase in excitation level of the synchronous generator will effectively increase the reactive
component of the current supplied by the generator and hence the active power delivered.
27. Upon what factors does the load angle depend?
Angle is positive during generator operation and negative during motor operation.
28. An Alternator is found to have its terminal voltage on load condition more than that
on no load. What is the nature of the load connected?
The nature of the load is of leading power factor , load consisting of resistance and capacitive
reactance.
PART B Questions
1. Determine Xd and Xq with the help of a phasor diagram of a synchronous
generator. (Dec 2018).
2. Discuss in detail about two reaction theory of a synchronous generator(Dec
2018).
3.With neat diagram, explain short circuit ratio method (June 2018)
4.Give a short note on: (June 2018)
1. ZPF method.
2. ASA method
5. Why synchronous impedance method is called pessimistic method? (Dec 2017)

6. A star connected alternator is rated at 1500 kVA, 12000 V. The armature
effective resistance and synchronous reactance are 2 and 35 respectively per
phase. Calculate the % regulation for a load of 1200 kW at (i) 0.8 lagging pf (ii)
0.8 leading pf. (Dec 2017)
7. Define Xd and Xq. (Dec 2017)
8. A 2200 V, 50 Hz, , star connected alternator has an effective resistance of 0.5
per phase. A field current of 30 A produced the full-load current of 200 A on short
circuit and a line-to-line emf of 1100 V on open circuit. Determine the power angle of
the alternator when it delivers full load at 0.8 lagging per factor. (Dec 2017)
55
9.How does the value of regulation as calculated by synchronous impedance
method compared with that obtained from an actual load test and why? (June 2017)
10.A 3-phase, star connected, 1000 kVA, 11 kV, alternator has rated current of
52.5 A. The AC resistance of the winding per phase is 0.45 ohms. The test results
are given below:
OC test: Field current = 12.5 A, Voltage between the lines = 422 V.
SC test: Field current = 12.5 A, Line current = 52.5 A.
Determine the full load voltage regulation of the alternator at a power factor
of: (i) 0.8 leading. (ii) 0.8 lagging. (June 2017)
11. How does the value of regulation as calculated by MMF method
56
UNIT –III PARALLEL OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS
PARALLEL OPERATION OF THE ALTERNATORS:

Interconnection of the electric power systems is essential from the economical point of view
and also for reliable and Parallel Operation. Interconnection of AC power systems requires
synchronous generators to operate in parallel with each other. In generating stations, two or
more generators are connected in parallel. The alternators are located at different locations
forming a grid connected system.
They are connected parallel by means of transformer and transmission lines. Under normal
operating conditions all the generators and synchronous motors in an interconnected system
operate in synchronism with each other. A machine has to be adjusted for optimum operating
efficiency and greater reliability if the generators are connected in parallel.
As the load increases beyond the generated capacity of the connected units, additional
generators are parallel to carry the load. Similarly, if the load demand decreases, one or more
machines are taken off the line as per the requirement. It allows the units to operate at a higher
efficiency.
Reasons of Parallel Operation
Alternators are operated in parallel for the following reasons:
• Several alternators can supply a bigger load than a single alternator.
• One or more alternators may shut down during the period of light loads. Thus, the remaining
alternator operates at near or full load with greater efficiency.
• When one machine is taken out of service for its scheduled maintenance and inspection, the
remaining machines maintain the continuity of the supply.
• If there is a breakdown of the generator, there is no interruption of the power supply.
• Number of machines can be added with disturbing the initial installation according to the
requirement to fulfil the increasing future demand of the load.
• Parallel operation of the alternator, reduces the operating cost and the cost of energy generation.
• It ensures the greater security of supply and enables overall economic generation.
Necessary Conditions for Parallel Operation of the Alternator
Most synchronous machines will operate in parallel with other synchronous machines. The
process of connecting one machine in parallel with another machine or with an Infinite Bus bar
system is known as Synchronizing. The machine carrying load is known as Running
Machines while the alternator which is to be connected in parallel with the system is known
as the Incoming machine.
The following condition should be satisfied for parallel operation are as follows:-
57
• The phase sequence of the Busbar voltages and the incoming machine voltage must be the
same.
• The Busbar voltages and the incoming machine terminal voltage must be in phase.
• The terminal voltage of the incoming machine and the alternator which is to be connected in
parallel or with the Busbar voltage should be equal.
• The frequency of the generated voltage of the incoming machine and the frequency of the
voltage of the Busbar should be equal.
Synchroscope Synchronizing
The Synchroscope is a device used for determining the phase angle differences between two or
more machines at the time of the synchronization. The synchronization is essential for sharing
the load on the bus bar of the power system. The following are the essentials conditions for
synchronization
The magnitude of the incoming voltage becomes equal.
The machines are in phase with each other.
The frequency of the machines remains same.
For the parallel operation of the three-phase machines, it is essential that they are in phase with
each other. The phase sequence of the device is correct at the time of the installation.
The Synchroscope compares the incoming voltage of the machines concerning the three-phase
system. The figure of synchroscope shown below. It has a dial places on the circular calibrated
scale on the motor. The position of the dial shows the phase difference between the incoming
voltage and the infinite machines.
The scale of the Synchroscope marks with two arrows which indicate the direction of rotation
of the pointer. The arrow indicates the clockwise and the anti-clockwise direction of the
58
pointer. The clockwise arrows show too fast movement and the anti-clockwise direction show
slow rotation of the incoming machine.
The arrow shows the movement of the machine concerning the bus bar. If the frequency of the
incoming machine is more than that of the generator, the pointer deflects towards the fast mark.
And if the frequency of the incoming machine is less then the pointer deflects towards the slow
mark.
When the frequency of the incoming machine voltage and the infinite machine becomes equal,
the pointer becomes stationary. When their frequency differs then the pointer deflects in one
direction.
The deflection of pointer shows the speed of the incoming machines, i.e., the frequency of the
incoming machine is higher or lower than that of the infinite bus or not. The frequency and
phase position are controlled by the input of the prime mover.
When the pointer moves slowly and passes through the zero phase point, the circuit breaker is
closed, and the incoming alternator connects to the bus. The Synchroscope does not give any
information about the phase sequence. It shows relation only on one phase.
Note: The large synchronous motor can also be Synchronize through these methods. The
synchronous machine is started, and when the machines gain synchronous speed, the direct
current supplied to the field winding. If the load torque is not excessive, then the motor
synchronized with the system.
Generator Synchronization
A stationary generator must not be connected to live Busbars because the induced EMF is zero
at standstill resulting in a short circuit. The Synchronisation procedure and the equipment for
checking it are the same whether one alternator is to be connected in parallel with another
alternator, or an alternator is to be connected to the infinite bus.
The following methods are used for synchronisation.
Synchronisation by Synchronising lamps

A set of three synchronising lamps can be used to check the conditions for paralleling or
synchronisation of the incoming machine with the other machine. A dark lamp method along
with a voltmeter used for synchronising is shown below. This method is used for low power
machine.
59
The prime mover of the incoming machine is started and brought nearer to its rated speed. A
field current of the incoming machine is adjusted in such a way so that it becomes equal to the
bus voltage. The flicker of the three lamps occurs at a rate which is equal to the difference in
the frequencies of the incoming machine and the bus. All the lamps will glow and off at the
same time if the phases are properly connected. If this condition does not satisfy, then the phase
sequence is not connected correctly.
Thus, in order to connect the machine in the correct phase sequence, two leads to the line of
the incoming machine should be interchanged. The frequency of the incoming machine is
adjusted until the lamp flicker at a slow rate. The flicker rate should be less than one dark period
per second. After finally adjusting the incoming voltage, the synchronising switch is closed in
the middle of their dark period.
Advantages of the Dark Lamp Method
• This method is cheaper.
• The correct phase sequence is easily determined.
60
Disadvantages of the Dark Lamp Method
• The lamp becomes dark at about half of its rated voltage. Hence, it is possible that the
synchronising switch might be switched off even when there is a phase difference between the
machine.
• The filament of the lamp might burn out.
• The flicker of the lamps does not indicate that which lamp has the higher frequency.
Three Bright Lamp Method
In this method, the lamps are connected across the phases such as A1 is connected to B2, B1 is
connected to C2 and C1 is connected to A2. If all the three lamps get bright and dark together,
this means that the phase sequence is correct. The correct instant of closing the synchronising
switch is in the middle of the bright period.
Two Bright One Dark Lamp Method
In this method, one lamp is connected between corresponding phases while the two others are
cross-connected between the other two phases as shown in the figure below.
Here, A1 is connected to A2, B1 to C2 and C1 to B2. The prime mover of the incoming machine
is started and brought up to its rated speed. The excitation of the incoming machine is adjusted
in such a way that the incoming machine induces the voltage EA1, EB2, EC3, which is equal to
the Busbar voltages VA1, VB1 and VC1. The diagram is shown below.
61
The correct moment to close the switch is obtained at the instant when the straight connected
lamp is dark, and the connected cross lamps are equally bright. If the phase sequence is
incorrect, no such instant will take place, and all the lamps will be dark simultaneously.
The direction of rotation of the incoming machine is changed by interchanging the two lines of
the machine. Since the dark range of the lamp extends to a considerable voltage range, a
voltmeter V1 is connected across the straight lamp. The synchronising switch is closed when
the voltmeter reading is zero.
Thus, the incoming machine is now floating on the Busbar and is ready to take up the load as
a generator. If the prime mover is disconnected, it behaves as a motor. For paralleling small
machines in power stations, three lamps along with the synchroscope are used. For
synchronising very large machine in power stations, the whole procedure is performed
automatically by the computer.
Infinite Bus
Definition: The bus whose voltage and frequency remains constant even after the variation in
the load is known as the infinite bus. The alternators operating in parallel in a power system is
the example of the infinite bus. The on and off of any of the alternator will not affect the
working of the power system.
62
PART A QUESTIONS
1. Why are Alternators rated in kVA and not in kW?
The continuous power rating of any machine is generally defined as the power the machine or
apparatus can deliver for a continuous period so that the losses incurred in the machine gives
rise to a steady temperature rise not exceeding the limit prescribed by the insulation class. Apart
from the constant loss incurred in Alternators is the copper loss, occurring in the 3 –phase
winding which depends on I2 R, the square of the current delivered by the generator. As the
current is directly related to apparent – power delivered by the generator , the Alternators have
only their apparent power in VA/kVA/MVA as their power rating.
2. What are the causes of changes in voltage in Alternators when loaded?

Variations in terminal voltage in Alternators on load condition are due to the following three
causes: Voltage variation due to the resistance of the winding, R
Voltage variation due to the leakage reactance of the winding, Xt
3. What is meant by armature reaction in Alternators?

The interaction between flux set up by the current carrying armature and the main is defined
as the armature reaction.
4. What do you mean by synchronous reactance?

Synchronous reactance X s= (Xl + Xa) The value of leakage reactance Xl is constant for a
machine based on its construction. Xa depends on saturating condition of the machine. It is the
addition of Xa , which represent the armature reaction effect between two synchronously acting
magnetic fields that makes the total reactance Xa to be called synchronous reactance.
5. What is meant by synchronous impedance of an Alternator?

The complex addition of resistance, R and synchronous reactance , jXs can be represented
together by a single complex impedance Zs called synchronous impedance. In complex form
Zs = (R + jXs ) In polar form Zs = | Zs | < Where | Zs | = ¥_52 + X2 s )
6. What is meant by load angle of an Alternator?

The phase angle introduced between the induced emf phasor, E and terminal voltage phasor ,
U during the load condition of an Alternator is called load angle
63
Part B Questions
1.Discuss in detail about how to determine sub-transient, transient and steady state
reactions. ( Dec 2018 )
2. Discuss in detail about parallel operation load sharing of a synchronous generator( Dec
2018 )
3. Explain power flow equation in alternator with its torque equation. ( June 2018 )
4. Describe synchronizing alternators with infinite bus bars ( June 2018 )
5. A 2-pole, 50 Hz, , turbo alternator is excited to generate the bus-bar voltage of 11 kV
on no-load. The machine is star connected and the short circuit current for this
excitation is 1000 A. Calculate the synchronizing power per degree of mechanical
displacement of the rotor and the corresponding synchronizing torque. ( Dec 2017 )
6. Two alternators working in parallel supply a lighting load of 3000 kW and a motor load
aggregating to 5000 kW at a p.f 0.72. one machine is loaded up to 5000 kW at 0.8 p.f
lagging. What is the load and power factor of the other machine? ( Dec 2017 )
7. Show that in order to obtain a constant voltage, constant frequency of a practical bus bar
8. A 75 kW, 400 V, 4-pole, 3-phase, star connected synchronous motor has a resistance and
mechanical power developed. Assume an efficiency of 92.5%. ( June 2017 )
64
UNIT IV SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Introduction
Definition: The motor which runs at synchronous speed is known as the synchronous motor.
The synchronous speed is the constant speed at which motor generates the electromotive force.
The synchronous motor is used for converting the electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Construction of Synchronous Motor
The stator and the rotor are the two main parts of the synchronous motor. The stator becomes
stationary, and it carries the armature winding of the motor. The armature winding is the
main winding because of which the EMF induces in the motor. The rotator carry the field
windings. The main field flux induces in the rotor. The rotor is designed in two ways, i.e., the
salient pole rotor and the non-salient pole rotor.
The synchronous motor uses the salient pole rotor. The word salient means the poles of the
rotor projected towards the armature windings. The rotor of the synchronous motor is made
with the laminations of the steel. The laminations reduce the eddy current loss occurs on the
winding of the transformer. The salient pole rotor is mostly used for designing the medium and
low-speed motor. For obtaining the high-speed cylindrical rotor is used in the motor.
Synchronous Motor Working
The stator and rotor are the two main parts of the synchronous motor. The stator is the stationary
part, and the rotor is the rotating part of the machine. The three-phase AC supply is given to
the stator of the motor.
The stator and rotor both are excited separately. The excitation is the process of inducing the
magnetic field on the parts of the motor with the help of an electric current.
When the three phase supply is given to the stator, the rotating magnetic field developed
between the stator and rotor gap. The field having moving polarities is known as the rotating
magnetic field. The rotating magnetic field develops only in the polyphase system. Because
of the rotating magnetic field, the north and south poles develop on the stator.
The rotor is excited by the DC supply. The DC supply induces the north and south poles on the
rotor. As the DC supply remains constant, the flux induces on the rotor remains same. Thus,
the flux has fixed polarity. The north pole develops on one end of the rotor, and the south pole
develops on another end.
The AC is sinusoidal. The polarity of the wave changes in every half cycle, i.e., the wave
remains positive in the first half cycle and becomes negative in the second half cycle. The
65
positive and negative half cycle of the wave develops the north and south pole on the stator
respectively.
When the rotor and stator both have the same pole on the same side, they repel each other. If
they have opposite poles, they attract each other. This can easily be understood with the help
of the figure shown below.
The rotor attracts towards the pole of the stator for the first half cycle of the supply and
repulse for the second half cycle. Thus the rotor becomes pulsated only at one place. This
is the reason because of which the synchronous motor is not self-starting.
The prime mover is used for rotating the motor. The prime mover rotates the rotor at their
synchronous speed. The synchronous speed is the constant speed of the machine whose value
depends on the frequency and the numbers of the pole of the machine.
66
When the rotor starts rotating at their synchronous speed, the prime mover is disconnected to
the motor. And the DC supply is provided to the rotor because of which the north and south
pole develops at their ends
The north and south poles of the rotor and the stator interlock each other. Thus, the rotor
starts rotating at the speed of the rotating magnetic field. And the motor runs at the
synchronous speed. The speed of the motor can only be changed by changing the frequency
of the supply.
Main Features of Synchronous Motor
• The speed of the synchronous motor is independent of the load, i.e., the variation of the load
does not affect the speed of the motor.
• The synchronous motor is not self-starting. The prime mover is used for rotating the motor at
their synchronous speed.
• The synchronous motor operates both for leading and lagging power factor.
The synchronous motor can also be started with the help of the damper windings.
V Curve of a Synchronous Motor
V curve is a plot of the stator current versus field current for different constant loads. The
Graph plotted between the armature current Ia and field current If at no load the curve is
obtained known as V Curve. Since the shape of these curves is similar to the letter “V”, thus
they are called V curve of synchronous motor.
The power factor of the synchronous motor can be controlled by varying the field current If.
As we know that the armature current Ia changes with the change in the field current If. Let us
assume that the motor is running at NO load. If the field current is increased from this small
value, the armature current Ia decreases until the armature current becomes minimum. At this
minimum point, the motor is operating at unity power factor. The motor operates at lagging
power factor until it reaches up to this point of operation.
If now, the field current is increased further, the armature current increases and the motor start
operating as a leading power factor. The graph drawn between armature current and field
current is known as V curve. If this procedure is repeated for various increased loads, a family
of curves is obtained.
The V curves of a synchronous motor are shown below.
67
The point at which the unity power factor occurs is at the point where the armature current is
minimum. The curve connecting the lowest points of all the V curves for various power levels
is called the Unity Power Factor Compounding Curve. The compounding curves for 0.8
power factor lagging and 0.8 power factor leading are shown in the figure above by a red dotted
line.
The loci of constant power factor points on the V curves are called Compounding Curves. It
shows the manner in which the field current should be varied in order to maintain constant
power factor under changing load. Points on the right and left of the unity power factor
corresponds to the over excitation and leading current and under excitation and lagging current
respectively.
The V curves are useful in adjusting the field current. Increasing the field current If beyond the
level for minimum armature current results in leading power factor. Similarly decreasing the
field current below the minimum armature current result results in lagging power factor. It is
seen that the field current for unity power factor at full load is more than the field current for
unity power factor at no load.
The figure below shows the graph between power factor and field current at the different loads.
68
It is clear from the above figure that, if the synchronous motor at full load is operating at unity
power factor, then removal of the shaft load causes the motor to operate at a leading power
factor.
Effect of Load on a Synchronous Motor
A synchronous motor runs at constant synchronous speed, regardless of the load. Let us see
the effect of the load change on the motor. Consider a synchronous motor operating initially
with a leading power factor. The phasor diagram for leading power factor is shown below.
The load on the shaft is increased.the rotor slows down momentarily, as it required some time
to take increased power from the line. In another word, it can be said that even if the rotor is
69
rotating at synchronous speed, the rotor slips back in space because of the increase in the load.
In this process, the torque angle δ becomes larger and, as a result, the induced torque increases.
The induced torque equation is given as
Then increased torque increases the rotor speed, and the motor again regains the synchronous
speed, but with the larger torque angle. The excitation voltage Ef is proportional to ϕω, it
depends upon the field current and the speed of the motor. Since the motor is moving at a
synchronous speed, and the field current is also constant. Hence, the magnitude of the
Voltage |Ef|remains constant. We have,
From the above equations, it is clear, that if P is increased the value of Ef sinδ and Ia
cosϕ also increases.
The figure below shows the Effect of increase in load on the operation of a synchronous
motor.
It is seen from the above figure that with the increase in load, the quantity jIaXs goes on
increasing and the relation V = Ef + jIaXs is satisfied. The armature current is also increased.
70
The power factor angle also changes with the change in load. It becomes less and less leading
and then becomes more and more lagging as shown in the figure above.
Thus, if the load on a synchronous motor is increased the following points are considered which
are given below.
• The motor continues to run at synchronous speed.
• The torque angle δ increases.
• The excitation voltage Ef remains constant.
• The armature current Ia drawn from the supply increases.
• The phase angle ϕ increases in the lagging direction.
There is a limit to the mechanical load that can be applied to a synchronous motor. As the load
is increased, the torque angle δ also increases until the condition arises when the rotor is pulled
out of synchronism and the motor is stopped.
Pull-out torque is defined as the maximum value of the torque which a synchronous motor
can develop at rated voltage and frequency without losing synchronism. It values varies
from 1.5 to 3.5 times the full load torque.
Hunting in a Synchronous Motor
The phenomenon of oscillation of the rotor about its final equilibrium position is
called Hunting. On the sudden application of load, the rotor search for its new equilibrium
position and this process is known as Hunting. The Hunting process occurs in a synchronous
motor as well as in synchronous generators if an abrupt change in load occurs
The steady state or stable operation of a synchronous motor is a condition of equilibrium. In it,
the load torque is equal as well as opposite to the electromagnetic torque. The rotor of the motor
runs at synchronous speed in the steady state condition, maintain a constant value of the torque
angle δ. The equilibrium gets disturbed if a sudden change occurs in the load torque. Thus, a
resulting torque takes place which changes the speed of the motor. It is given by the equation
shown below.
Where J is the moment of inertia

ωM is the angular velocity of the rotor in mechanical units.
The speed of the motor slows down temporarily, and the torque angle δ is sufficiently increased.
This is done to restore the torque equilibrium and the synchronous speed when there is a sudden
increase if the load torque.
71
The electromagnetic torque is given by the equation shown below.
If the value of δ is increased, the electromagnetic torque is also increased. As a result, the motor
is accelerated. As the rotor reaches the synchronous speed, the torque angle δ is larger than the
required value. Here the rotor speed continues to increase beyond the synchronous speed.
As the rotor accelerates above synchronous speed, the torque angle δ decreases. The point
where the motor torque becomes equal to the load torque, the equilibrium is not restored
because now the rotor speed is greater than the synchronous speed. Therefore, the rotor
continues to swing backwards and as a result, the torque angle goes on decreasing.
When the load angle δ becomes less than the required value, the mechanical load becomes
greater than the developed power. Therefore, the motor starts to slow down. The load angle
starts increasing again. Thus, the rotor starts to swing or oscillates around the synchronous
speed.
The motor responds to a decreasing load torque by a temporary increase in speed and a
reduction of the torque angle δ. Thus, the rotor swings and rotate around the synchronous speed.
Thus, this process of rotation of the rotor speed equal or around the synchronous speed is
known as Hunting. Since, during the rotor oscillation, the phase of the phasor Ef changes about
phasor V. Thus, hunting is known as Phase Swinging.
Causes of Hunting
The various causes of hunting are as follows:-
• Sudden changes of load.
• Faults were occurring in the system which the generator supplies.
• Sudden change in the field current.
• Cyclic variations of the load torque.
Effect of Hunting
The various effects of hunting are as follows:-
• It can lead to loss of synchronism.
• It can cause variations of the supply voltage producing undesirable lamp flicker.
• The possibility of Resonance condition increases. If the frequency of the torque component
becomes equal to that of the transient oscillations of the synchronous machine, resonance may
take place.
• Large mechanical stresses may develop in the rotor shaft.
72
• The machine losses increases and the temperature of the machine rises.
Reduction of Hunting
The following technique given below is used to reduce the phenomenon of hunting.
• Use of damper windings
• Uses of flywheels
The prime mover is provided with a large and heavy flywheel. This increases the inertia of the
prime mover and helps in maintaining the rotor speed constant.
• By designing synchronous machines with suitable synchronising power coefficients.
Starting of a Synchronous Motor
A synchronous motor is a device which converts the AC into mechanical work at
synchronous speed. The starting of the Synchronous Motor does not take place on its
own. This means that the Synchronous Motor is not Self Starting. It can be started by
the following methods given below
• Starting with the help of an External Prime Mover

• Starting with the help of Damper Windings
The detailed description of the methods is explained below.
Motor Starting with an External Prime Mover
In this method, an external prime mover drives the synchronous motor and brings it to
synchronous speed. The synchronous machine is then synchronized with the bus bar as a
synchronous generator. The prime mover is then disconnected. Once operating in parallel
condition, the synchronous machine will work as a motor. Thus, the load can be connected to
the synchronous motor.
73
Since the load is not connected to the synchronous motor before synchronizing, the starting
motor has to overcome the inertia of the synchronous motor at no load. Therefore, the rating
of the motor which has to be started is much smaller than the rating of the synchronous motor.
Now a day, a Brushless excitation system is provided on the shafts of the large synchronous
motor. These exciters are used as starting motors.
Motor Starting with Damper Windings
Damper Windings is the most widely used methods to start a synchronous motor. A Damper
Winding consists of heavy copper bars inserted in the slots of the pole faces of the rotor as
shown in the figure below.
These copper bars are short-circuited by end rings at both ends of the rotor. Thus, these short-
circuited Bars form a squirrel cage winding. When a three phase supply is connected to the stator, the
synchronous motor with Damper Winding will start. It works as a three-phase induction motor. As
soon as the motor approaches the synchronous speed, the DC excitation is applied to the field
windings. As a result, the rotor of the motor will pull into step with the stator magnetic field.
In the applications where high starting torque and constant speed are desired then synchronous
induction motors can be used. It has the advantages of both synchronous and induction motors.
The synchronous motor gives constant speed whereas induction motors can be started against
full load torque.
Consider a normal slip ring induction motor having three phase winding on the rotor as shown
in the Fig. 1.
Initially it is run as an slip ring induction motor with the help of starting resistances. When the
resistance is cut out the motor runs with a slip. Now the connections are changed and the exciter
is connected in series with the rotor windings which will remain in the circuit permanently.The
74
motor is connected to the exciter which gives d.c. supply to the motor through slip rings. One
phase carries full d.c. current while the other two carries half of the full d.c. current as they are
in parallel. Due to this d.c. excitation, permanent poles (N and S) are formed on the rotor.
As the motor is running as induction motor initially high starting torque (upto twice full load
value) can be developed. When d.c. excitation is provided it is pulled into synchronism and
starts running at constant speed. The synchronous induction motor provides constant speed,
large starting torque, low starting current and power factor correction.
It may be possible that the a.c. winding is put on the rotor and the d.c. excitation is provided
on the stator. This simplifies control gear. It also gives better facilities for insulation which
permits higher voltages and lower d.c. excitations.
The d.c. winding must be designed in such a way as to give high m.m.f. with moderate d.c.
excitation power. The excitation loss must be distributed evenly over the winding. The mmf
distribution should be nearly sinusoidal. It should also provide damping against hunting and it
should be satisfactorily started as induction motor.
When the machine is running as an induction motor there are induced alternating currents in
the rotor and it runs below synchronous speed. When the rotor carries d.c. currents in the rotor
and it runs below synchronous speed. When the rotor carries d.c. currents the rotor field and
hence the rotor must run at synchronous speed. This means that slip must be reduced to zero.
But if there is any departure from this speed during normal operation then again induced
currents are there in the rotor. The rotor is of low resistance so its windings act as damping
winding. Hence no separate damping windings are required.
When direct current excitation is provided a synchronizing torque is quickly set up. The
magnitude of this torque is Tm sinθ where θ is the angle between stator and rotor field. In
addition to this induction motor torque is also present which is proportional to the slip (dθ/dt),
so long as slip is small. There may also be constant load torque if it is started on load and finally
it requires torque J(d2θ/d2t) to accelerate the rotor.
It can be seen that θ<π as long as the synchronizing torque acts in opposite direction to that of
load torque which tends to reduce the angular velocity dθ/dt of the slip motion. when π<θ<2π
then synchronizing torque acts in conjuction with load torque to increase the slip i.e. nothing
but angular velocity dθ/dt and the motor fails to synchronize.
As the slip motion is irregular, the motor is subjected to mechanical strains. Also there may be
oscillations in current and power factor. Hence it is desired that the motor should synchronize
as quickly as possible after switching d.c. excitation. It requires that synchronizing torque
should be sufficiently larger than load torque and it should be opposite of load torque. The
75
angle obtained at the instant of switching d.c. excitation also affects pulling into step. Following
figures shows oscillograms of rotor current on application of excitation for various values of θ.
o
When the excitation is delayed beyond 60 it is seen that the rotor fails to synchronize as the
induction motor torque and the synchronizing torque work in conjuction and the torque will
have pulsating value.
Thus the motor can be pulled into the synchronism if excitation is applied at a position that the
rotor will occupy when both stator and rotor fields are synchronized
Performance Characteristics of Synchronous Induction Motors
While studying the performance characteristics of synchronous induction motor, three different
types of torques are to be considered. These are viz the starting torque which indicates capacity
of motor to start against load, pull in torque which indicates the ability of the motor to maintain
operation during change over from induction motor to synchronous motor, pull out torque
which represents the running of motor synchronously at peak load. The first two torques are
closely related with each other and are the characteristics of the machine running as induction
motor. The pull out torque is characteristics when it is running running synchronously. The
characteristics curves for synchronous induction motor operating at full load unity p.f. and at
0.8 p.f. leading is shown in the Fig. 3.
When the load exceeds the synchronous pull out torque, the machine looses synchronism and
runs as an induction motor with fluctuation in torque and slip due to d.c. excitation. With
reduction in load torque the motor is automatically resynchronized.
Advantages of Synchronism Induction Motor
Following are the advantages of synchronous induction motor over salient pole synchronous
motor.
i) The synchronous induction motor can start and synchronize against more than full load
torque which is not possible with salient pole synchronous motor which must be started
against light load.
ii) The exciter required for synchronous induction motor is of smaller capacity as the gap is
not long as compared to normal salient pole motor.
iii) The rotor winding in synchronous induction motor can function as providing excitation
and required damping. So no separate damper winding is required.
iv) No separate starting and control equipments are required.
1.3 Disadvantages of Synchronous Induction Motor
i) As the gap is small as compared to normal salient pole synchronous motor it will not give
large overload capacity.
76
ii) The variation of power factor is large as compared to normal synchronous motor.
iii) The speed variation is not possible for synchronous induction motor as it runs at constant
motor.
1.4 Applications of Synchronous Induction Motor
The applications where mechanical load is to be driven alongwith phase advancing properties
of synchronous motors are to be used then use of synchronous induction motor is better option.
Also the applications where in load torque is remaining nearly constant, this motor can be used
77
Brushless DC Motor Drives
Definition: The self-controlled variable frequency drive employing a sinusoidal PMAC
(Permanent Magnet Alternating Current) motor is called brushless DC motor drive. The
brushless DC motor drive has some advantages like practically they require no maintenance
and have a long life. They also have low frequency, low inertia and friction, and low radio
frequency interference and noise. The only disadvantage of the drive is that they have high
costs and low starting torque.
The brushless DC motor drive is used in record players, the tape drive for recorders, spindle
drive in hard disks for computers, and low power drives in computers peripherals instruments
and control systems. They also have applications in aerospace, in biomedical and in driving
cooling fans, etc.
The cross section of a three-phase two pole trapezoidal PMAC motor is shown in the figure
below. This drive has a permanent magnet rotor with wide pole arc. The stator of the drive has
three poles winding which is displaced by 120º and each phase winding spans 60º on each side.
The voltage induces in three phases are shown in the figure below. The reason for getting the
trapezoidal waveform is that when the rotor revolving in a counter-clockwise direction, then
up to 120º rotation from the position all the top conductor of phase A will linking the south
pole and all the bottom of phase A will be linking the north pole.
78
The voltage induces in phase A will be the same during 120º rotations and beyond the 120º
some conductors in the top link north pole and others the south pole. Similarly, the voltage
induces in the bottom conductors. The wave voltage induces in phase A linearly reverse in next
60º rotation. Similarly, the voltage induces in the phases B and C.
The brushless DC motor drive uses voltage source inverter and trapezoidal PMAC motor
shown in the figure below. The stator windings are star connected. The phase voltage waveform
for a trapezoidal PMAC motor is shown in the figure below.
The stator winding is fed with a current pulse, and each of the pulses had duration 120º and
located in the region where induced voltage is constant and maximum. The polarity of the
current pulse is same as that of the induced voltage. The air gap flux is constant and the voltage
induced is proportional to the speed of the rotor.
79
During each 60º internal the current enters one phase and come out of another phase, therefore
power supplied to the motor in each such interval is expressed as
The torque developed by the motor
The waveform of the torque is given by the figure shown below. The torque is proportional to
the current flows in the DC power links. The regenerative breaking of the drive is obtained by
reversing the phase current and hence the current source Id will also reverse. The power flows
from the machine to inverter and from the inverter to DC source.
When the drive speed reversed the polarity of induces voltages reversed and the drive
gives regenerative braking operation, and when the current direction is reversed the motoring
operation is obtained. The current waveforms are shown in the figure below.
80
Synchronous Condensor
Synchronous Condensor is also known as Synchronous Compensator or Synchronous
Phase Modifier. A synchronous condenser or a synchronous compensator is a synchronous
motor running without a mechanical load. It can generate or absorb reactive volt-ampere (VAr)
by varying the excitation of its field winding. It can be made to take a leading current with
over-excitation of its field winding.
In such a case it delivers inductive or absorbs capacitive Volt-ampere reactive. If it is under the
excited condition, it draws the lagging current and, therefore, supplies capacitive or absorbs
inductive volt-ampere reactive. Thus, a current drawn by a synchronous capacitor or condenser
can be varied from lagging to leading smoothly by varying its excitation.
When the motor power factor is unity, the DC excitation is said to be normal. Over-excitation
causes the motor to operate at a leading power factor. Under excitation causes it to operate at
a lagging power factor. When the motor is operated at no load with over-excitation, it takes a
current that leads the voltage by nearly 90 degrees.
Thus, it behaves like a capacitor and under such operating conditions, the synchronous motor
is called a synchronous capacitor.
Since a synchronous condenser behaves like a variable inductor or a variable capacitor, it is
used in power transmission systems to regulate line voltage.
81
Part A Questions
1. State the characteristic features of synchronous motor.
a. the motor is not inherently self starting b. The speed of operation is always in synchronous
with the supply frequency irrespective of load conditions c. The motor is capable of operating
at any power factor.
2 In what way synchronous motor is different from other motors?
All dc and ac motors work on the same principle. Synchronous motor operates due to
magnetic locking taking place between stator and rotor magnetic fields.
3. Name any two methods of starting a synchronous motors
By an extra 3 phase cage induction motor • By providing damper winding in pole phases
By operating the pilot excitor as a dc motor
4. What is the effect on speed if the load is increased on a 3 phase synchronous motor?
The speed of operation remains constant from no load to maximum load in the motor
operating at constant frequency bus bars.
5. Why a synchronous motor is a constant speed motor?
Synchronous motor work on the principle of force developed due to the magnetic attraction
established between the rotating magnetic field and the main pole feed. Since the speed of
rotating magnetic field is directly proportional to frequency the motor operates at constant
speed.
6. What is the phasor relation between induced emf and terminal voltage of a 3 phase
Synchronous motor?
The rotating magnetic field is initially established by the prime source of supply V. The main
field then causes an emf e to get induced in the 3 phase winding. Hence when the machine
operates as a synchronous motor the emf phasor always lags the terminal voltage phasor by
the load/torque
7. What are V and inverted V curves of synchronous motor?
The variation of magnitude of line current with respect to the field current is called V curve .
The variation of power factor with respect to the field current is called inverted V curve.
8. What happens when the field current of a synchronous motor is increased beyond the
normal value at constant input?
Increase in emf causes the motor to have reactive current in the leading direction. The
additional leading reactive current causes the magnitude of line current, accompanied by the
decrease in power factor.
82
9. Distinguish between synchronous phase modifier and synchronous condenser
A synchronous motor used to change the power factor or power factor in the supply lines is
called synchronous phase modifier. A synchronous motor operated at no load with over
excitation condition to draw large leading reactive current and power is called a synchronous
condenser.
10. How the synchronous motor can be used as s synchronous condenser?
Synchronous motor is operated on over excitation so as to draw leading reactive current and
power from the supply lines. This compensates the lagging current and power requirement of
the load making the system power factor to become unity. The motor does the job of
capacitors and hence called as synchronous condenser.
Part B Questions
1.Explain theory of operation of a synchronous motor with phasor diagram (Dec 2018)
2.With neat sketch, explain V and inverted V curves (Dec 2018)
3.Explain construction and principle operation of brushless DC motor
(June 2018)
4.Discuss in detail about variation of current and power factor with excitation in
synchronous motor (June 2018)
5. What are synchronous condensers? Explain (Dec 2017)
6. A 440 V, 50 Hz, circuit takes 18 A at a lagging power factor of 0.8 A synchronous
motor is used to raise the power factor to unity. Calculate the kVA input to the motor
and its power factor when driving a mechanical load of 6 kW. The motor has an
efficiency of 88% (Dec 2017)
7. What is the necessity of a starting method of synchronous motor? Explain different
methods of starting of synchronous motors (Dec 2017)
8. Explain the working of a synchronous -induction motor (June 2017)
9.What is hunting and how it can be suppressed (June 2017)
10.Explain the effect of excitation on armature current and power factor and hence draw
the ‘V’ and inverted ‘V’ curves (June 2017)
11.A 3-phase, 415 V, 6-pole, 50 Hz, star connected synchronous motor has an e.m.f of
520 V (L-L). The stator winding has a synchronous reactance of 2 ohms/ph and motor
develops a torque of 220 N-m. Find current drawn supply and operating power factor
(Nov 2016)
83
UNIT V SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
INTRODUCTION
A Single Phase Induction Motor consists of a single phase winding which is mounted on the
stator of the motor and a cage winding placed on the rotor. A pulsating magnetic field is
produced, when the stator winding of the single-phase induction motor shown below is
energised by a single phase supply.
The word Pulsating means that the field builds up in one direction falls to zero and then builds
up in the opposite direction. Under these conditions, the rotor of an induction motor does not
rotate. Hence, a single phase induction motor is not self-starting. It requires some special
starting means.
If the 1 phase stator winding is excited and the rotor of the motor is rotated by an auxiliary
means and the starting device is then removed, the motor continues to rotate in the direction in
which it is started.
The performance of the single phase induction motor is analysed by the two theories. One is
known as the Double Revolving Field Theory, and the other is Cross Field Theory. Both the
theories are similar and explain the reason for the production of torque when the rotor is
rotating.
Double Revolving Field Theory of Single Phase Induction Motor
The double revolving field theory of a single phase induction motor states that a pulsating
magnetic field is resolved into two rotating magnetic fields. They are equal in magnitude but
opposite in directions. The induction motor responds to each of the magnetic fields separately.
The net torque in the motor is equal to the sum of the torque due to each of the two magnetic
fields.
The equation for an alternating magnetic field is given as
84
Where βmax is the maximum value of the sinusoidally distributed air gap flux density produced
by a properly distributed stator winding carrying an alternating current of the frequency ω, and
α is the space displacement angle measured from the axis of the stator winding.
As we know,
So, the equation (1) can be written as
The first term of the right-hand side of the equation (2) represents the revolving field moving
in the positive α direction. It is known as a Forward Rotating field. Similarly, the second term
shows the revolving field moving in the negative α direction and is known as the Backward
Rotating field.
The direction in which the single phase motor is started initially is known as the positive
direction. Both the revolving field rotates at the synchronous speed. ωs = 2πf in the opposite
direction. Thus, the pulsating magnetic field is resolved into two rotating magnetic fields. Both
are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction but at the same frequency.
At the standstill condition, the induced voltages are equal and opposite as a result; the two
torques are also equal and opposite. Thus, the net torque is zero and, therefore, a single phase
induction motor has no starting torque.
Starting Methods of a Single Phase Induction Motor
The Single Phase Motor is not self starting and hence needs an auxiliary means or equipment
to start the single phase induction motor. Mechanical methods are impractical and, therefore
the motor is started temporarily converting it into two phase motor.
Single phase Induction motors are usually classified according to the auxiliary means used to
start the motor. They are classified according to the starting methods.
85
SPLIT PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
The Split Phase Motor is also known as a Resistance Start Motor. It has a single cage rotor,
and its stator has two windings known as main winding and starting winding. Both the windings
are displaced 90 degrees in space. The main winding has very low resistance and a high
inductive reactance whereas the starting winding has high resistance and low inductive
reactance. The Connection Diagram of the motor is shown below.
A resistor is connected in series with the auxiliary winding. The current in the two windings is
not equal as a result the rotating field is not uniform. Hence, the starting torque is small, of the
order of 1.5 to 2 times of the started running torque. At the starting of the motor both the
windings are connected in parallel.
As soon as the motor reaches the speed of about 70 to 80 % of the synchronous speed the
starting winding is disconnected automatically from the supply mains. If the motors are rated
about 100 Watt or more, a centrifugal switch is used to disconnect the starting winding and for
the smaller rating motors relay is used for the disconnecting of the winding.
86
A relay is connected in series with the main winding. At the starting, the heavy current flows
in the circuit, and the contact of the relay gets closed. Thus, the starting winding is in the circuit,
and as the motor attains the predetermined speed, the current in the relay starts decreasing.
Therefore, the relay opens and disconnects the auxiliary winding from the supply, making the
motor runs on the main winding only.
The phasor diagram of the Split Phase Induction Motor is shown below.
The current in the main winding (IM) lag behind the supply voltage V almost by the 90-degree
angle. The current in the auxiliary winding IA is approximately in phase with the line voltage.
Thus, there exists the time difference between the currents of the two windings. The time phase
difference ϕ is not 90 degrees, but of the order of 30 degrees. This phase difference is enough
to produce a rotating magnetic field.
The Torque Speed Characteristic of the Split Phase motor is shown below.
87
Here, n0 is the point at which the centrifugal switch operates. The starting torque of the resistance
start motor is about 1.5 times of the full load torque. The maximum torque is about 2.5 times of
the full load torque at about 75% of the synchronous speed. The starting current of the motor is
high about 7 to 8 times of the full load value.
The direction of the Resistance Start motor can be reversed by reversing the line connection of
either the main winding or the starting winding. The reversal of the motor is possible at the
standstill condition only.
Applications of Split Phase Induction Motor
This type of motors are cheap and are suitable for easily starting loads where the frequency of
starting is limited. This type of motor is not used for drives which require more than 1 KW
because of the low starting torque. The various applications are as follows:
Used in the washing machine, and air conditioning fans.
The motors are used in mixer grinder, floor polishers.
Blowers, Centrifugal pumps
Drilling and lathe machine.
Capacitor Start Induction Motor
A Capacitor Start Motors are a single phase Induction Motor that employs a capacitor in the
auxiliary winding circuit to produce a greater phase difference between the current in the main
and the auxiliary windings. The name capacitor starts itself shows that the motor uses a capacitor
88
for the purpose of the starting. The figure below shows the connection diagram of a Capacitor
Start Motor
The capacitor start motor has a cage rotor and has two windings on the stator. They are known
as the main winding and the auxiliary or the starting winding. The two windings are placed 90
degrees apart. A capacitor CS is connected in series with the starting winding. A centrifugal
switch SC is also connected in the circuit.
The Phasor Diagram of the Capacitor Start motor is shown below.
89
IM is the current in the main winding which is lagging the auxiliary current IAby 90 degrees as
shown in the phasor diagram above. Thus, a single phase supply current is split into two phases.
The two windings are displaced apart by 90 degrees electrical, and their MMF’s are equal in
magnitude but 90 degrees apart in time phase.
The motor acts as a balanced two-phase motor. As the motor approaches its rated speed, the
auxiliary winding and the starting capacitor is disconnected automatically by the centrifugal
switch provided on the shaft of the motor.
Characteristics of the Capacitor Start Motor
The capacitor starts motor develops a much higher starting torque of about 3 to 4.5 times of the
full load torque. To obtain a high starting torque, the two conditions are essential. They are as
follows:-
The Starting capacitor value must be large.
The valve of the starting winding resistance must be low.
The electrolytic capacitors of the order of the 250 µF are used because of the high Var rating of
the capacitor requirement.
The Torque Speed Characteristic of the motor is shown below
90
The characteristic shows that the starting torque is high. The cost of this motor is more as
compared to the split phase motor because of the additional cost of the capacitor. The
Capacitor start motor can be reversed by first bringing the motor to rest condition and then
reversing the connections of one of the windings.
Applications of the Capacitor Start Motor

The various applications of the motor are as follows:-
These motors are used for the loads of higher inertia where frequent starting is required.
Used in pumps and compressors
Used in the refrigerator and air conditioner compressors.
They are also used for conveyors and machine tools.
Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor
The Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor has a cage rotor, and its stator has two windings
known as Main and Auxiliary Windings. The two windings are displaced 90 degrees in space.
91
There are two capacitors in this method one is used at the time of the starting and is known as
starting capacitor. The other one is used for continuous running of the motor and is known as
RUN capacitor.
So this motor is named as Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor. This motor is also known as
Two Value Capacitor Motor. Connection diagram of the Two valve Capacitor Motor is shown
below
There are two capacitors in this motor represented by CS and CR. At the starting, the two
capacitors are connected in parallel. The Capacitor Cs is the Starting capacitor is short time rated.
It is almost electrolytic. A large amount of current id required to obtain the starting torque.
Therefore, the value of the capacitive reactance X should be low in the starting winding. Since,
XA = 1/2πfCA, the value of the starting capacitor should be large.
The rated line current is smaller than the starting current at the normal operating condition of the
motor. Hence, the value of the capacitive reactance should be large. Since, XR = 1/2πfCR, the
value of the run capacitor should be small
As the motor reaches the synchronous speed, the starting capacitor Cs is disconnected from the
circuit by a centrifugal switch Sc. The capacitor CR is connected permanently in the circuit and
thus it is known as RUN Capacitor. The run capacitor is long time rated and is made of oil filled
paper.
The figure below shows the Phasor Diagram of the Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Motor.
92
Fig(a) shows the phasor diagram when at the starting both the capacitor are in the circuit and ϕ
> 90⁰. Fig (b) shows the phasor when the starting capacitor is disconnected, and ϕ becomes
equal to 90⁰.
The Torque Speed Characteristic of a Two Value Capacitor Motor is shown below.
This type of motor is quiet and smooth running. They have higher efficiency than the motors
that run on the main windings only. They are used for loads of higher inertia requiring frequent
93
starts where the maximum pull-out torque and efficiency required are higher. The Two Value
Capacitor Motors are used in pumping equipment, refrigeration, air compressors, etc.
Shaded Pole Induction Motor
Definition: The shaded pole induction motor is simply a self-starting single-phase induction
motor whose one of the pole is shaded by the copper ring. The copper ring is also called the
shaded ring. This copper ring act as a secondary winding for the motor. The shaded pole motor
rotates only in one particular direction, and the reverse movement of the motor is not possible.
The power losses are very high in the shaded pole induction motor. And the power factor of the
motor is low. The starting torque induces in the induction motor are also very low. Because of
the following reasons the motor has poor efficiency. Thus, their designs are kept small, and the
motor has low power ratings.
Construction of Shaded Pole Induction Motor
The shaded pole motor may have two or four poles. Here in this article, we use the two pole
motor for the sake of simplicity. The speed of the motor is inversely proportional to the number
of poles used in the motor.
Stator – The stator of the shaded pole motor has a salient pole. The salient pole means the poles
of the magnet are projected towards the armature of the motor. Each pole of the motor is excited
by its exciting coil. The copper rings shade the loops. The loops are known as the shading coil.
The poles of the motor are laminated. The lamination means multiple layers of material are used
for making the poles. So, that the strength of the pole increases.
The slot is constructed at some distance apart from the edge of the poles. The short-circuited
copper coil is placed in this slot. The part which is covered with the copper ring is called the
shaded part and which are not covered by the rings are called unshaded part.
Rotor – The shaded pole motor uses the squirrel cage rotor. The bars of the rotor is skewed at
an angle of 60º. The skew can be done for obtaining the better starting torque.
The construction of the motor is very simple because it does not contain any commutator,
brushes, collector rings, etc. or any other part. The shaded pole induction motor does not have
any centrifugal switch. Thus, the chances of failure of the motor are less.
The centrifugal switch is the type of electrical switch that starts operating by using the centrifugal
force, generated by the rotating shaft. It is also used for controlling the speed of the shaft.
Shaded Pole Induction Motor Working
When the supply is connected to the windings of the rotor, the alternating flux induces in the
core of the rotor. The small portion of the flux link with the shaded coil of the motor as because
94
it is short-circuited. The variation in the flux induces the voltage inside the ring because of which
the circulating current induces in it.
The circulating current develops the flux in the ring which opposes the main flux of the motor.
The flux induces in the shaded portion of the motor, i.e., a and the unshaded portion of the motor,
i.e., b have a phase difference. The main motor flux and the shaded ring flux are also having a
space displacement by an angle of 90°.
The connection diagram of the Shaded Pole Motor is shown below.
As there is time and space displacement between the two fluxes, the rotating magnetic field
induces in the coil. The rotating magnetic field develops the starting torque in the motor. The
field rotates from the unshaded portion to the shaded portion of the motor.
Applications of the Shaded Pole Induction Motor
The various applications of the Shaded Poles Motor are as follows:-
They are suitable for small devices like relays and fans because of its low cost and easy starting.
Used in exhaust fans, hair dryers and also in table fans.
Used in air conditioning and refrigeration equipment and cooling fans.
Record players, tape recorders, projectors, photocopying machines.
Used for starting electronic clocks and single-phase synchronous timing motors.
This type of motor is used to drive the devices which require low starting torque.
Universal Motor
The motors which can be used with a single phase AC source as well as a DC source of supply
and voltages are called as Universal Motor. It is also known as Single Phase Series Motor. A
95
universal motor is a commutation type motor. If the polarity of the line terminals of a DC Series
Motor is reversed, the motor will continue to run in the same direction.
The direction is determined by both field polarity and the direction of current through the
armature. As torque is proportional to the flux and the armature current. Let the DC series motor
be connected across a single phase AC supply. Since the same current flows through the field
winding and the armature winding.The AC reversal from positive to negative or vice versa will
affect the field flux polarity and the current direction through the armature.
The direction of the developed torque will remain positive, and direction of the rotation will be
as it was before. The nature of the torque will be pulsating, and the frequency will be twice that
of line frequency as shown in the waveform below.
Thus, a Universal motor can work on both AC and DC. However, a series motor which is mainly
designed for DC operation if works on single phase AC supply suffers from the following
drawbacks.
The efficiency becomes low because of hysteresis and eddy current losses.
The power factor is low due to the large reactance of the field and the armature windings.
96
The sparking at the brushes is in excess.
In order to overcome the above following drawbacks, certain modifications are made in a DC
series motor so that it can work even on the AC current. They are as follows:-
The field core is made up of the material having a low hysteresis loss. It is laminated to reduce
the eddy current loss.
The area of the field poles is increased to reduce the flux density. As a result, the iron loss and
the reactive voltage drop are reduced.
To get the required torque the number of conductors in the armature is increased.
A compensating winding is used for reducing the effect of the armature reaction and improving
the commutation process. The winding is placed in the stator slots as shown in the figure below.
The series motor with the compensated winding is shown in the figure below.
97
The winding is put in the stator slot. The axis of compensating winding is 90 degrees with the
main field axis. The compensating winding is connected in series with both the armature and the
field, hence, it is called Conductively compensated.
If the compensating winding is short circuited, the motor is said to be inductively compensated.
The connection diagram is shown below.
98
The construction of the universal motor is same as that of the series motor. In order to minimize
the problem of commutation, high resistance brushes with increased brush area are used. To
reduce Eddy current losses the stator core and yoke are laminated. The Universal motor is simple
and less costly. It is used usually for rating not greater than 750 W.
The characteristic of Universal motor is similar to that of the DC series motor. When operating
from an AC supply, the series motor develops less torque. By interchanging connections of the
fields with respect to the armature, the direction of rotation can be altered.
Speed control of the universal motors is obtained by solid state devices. This motor is most
suitable for applications requiring high speeds. Since the speed of these motors is not limited by
the supply frequency and is as high as 20000 rpm.
Applications of Universal Motor
The Universal motor is used for the purposes where speed control and high values of the speed
are necessary. The various applications of the Universal Motor are as follows:-
Portable drill machine.
Used in hair dryers, grinders and table fans.
A universal motor is also used in blowers, polishers and kitchen appliances.
Reluctance Motor
A single phase synchronous Reluctance Motor is basically the same as the single cage type
induction motor. The stator of the motor has the main and auxiliary winding. The stator of the
single phase reluctance and induction motor are same. The rotor of a reluctance motor is a
squirrel cage with some rotor teeth removed in the certain places to provide the desired number
of salient rotor poles.
The figure below shows the 4 pole reluctance type synchronous motor.
99
In the above figure the teeth have been removed in four locations to produce a 4 pole structure.
The two end rings are short circuited. When the stator is connected to a single phase supply, the
motor starts as a single phase induction motor. A centrifugal switch disconnects the auxiliary
winding as soon as the speed of the motor reaches about 75% of the synchronous speed. The
motor continues to speed up as a single phase motor with the main winding in operation.
A reluctance motor torque is produced due to the tendency of the rotor to align itself in the
minimum reluctance position, when the speed of the motor is close to the synchronous speed.
Thus, the rotor pulls in synchronism. The load inertia should be within the limits, for proper
effectiveness. At synchronism, the induction torque disappears, but the rotor remains in
synchronism due to synchronous reluctance torque.
The Torque Speed Characteristic of a single phase Reluctance Motor is shown below.
The starting torque depends upon the rotor position. The value of the starting torque varies
between 300 to 400 % of its full load torque. As we know that as motor attains speed nearly of
synchronous speed the auxiliary winding is disconnected and the rotor continues to rotate at
the synchronous speed.
The motor operates at a constant speed up to a little over than 200% of its full load torque. If
the loading of the motor is increased above the value of the pull out torque, the motor loose
synchronism but continues to run as a single phase induction motor up to over 500% of its rated
100
torque. At the starting the motor is subjected to Cogging. This can be reduced by skewing the
rotor bars and by having the rotor slots not exact multiples of the number of poles.
The rotor of a Reluctance Motor is unexcited, therefore, the power factor is low as compared
to the induction motor. As the motor has no DC field excitation so the output of a reluctance
motor is reduced. Hence, the size of the motor is large as compared to synchronous motor.
Applications of a Reluctance Motor
The various applications of the Reluctance Motor are as follows:-
• Simple construction as there is no slip rings, no brushes and no DC field windings).
• Low cost
• Maintenance is easy.
• It is used for many constant speed applications such as electric clock timer, signaling devices,
recording instruments etc.
Hysteresis Motor
A Hysteresis Motor is a synchronous motor with a uniform air gap and without DC
excitation. It operates both in single and three phase supply. The Torque in a Hysteresis
Motor is produced due to hysteresis and eddy current induced in the rotor by the action
of the rotating flux of the stator windings.
The working of the motor depends on the working of the continuously revolving
magnetic flux. For the split phase operation, the stator winding of the motor has two
single phase supply. This stator winding remains continuously connected to the single
phase supply both at the starting as well as the running of the motor.
The rotor of the motor is made up of smooth chrome steel cylinder and it has no
winding. It has high retentivity and because of this, it is very difficult to change the
magnetic polarities once they are caused by the revolving flux of the rotor. The rotor of
the hysteresis motor moves synchronously because the pole of the motor magnetically
locks with the stator which has opposite polarities.
Construction of Stator of Hysteresis Motor
The stator of the hysteresis motor produces a rotating magnetic field and is almost similar to
the stator of the induction motor. Thus, the stator of the motor is connected either to single
supply or to the three phase supply. The three phase motor produces more uniform rotating
field as compared to that of the single phase supply. The stator winding of the single-phase
hysteresis motor is made of permanent split capacitor type or shaded pole type. The capacitor
is used with an auxiliary winding in order to produce a uniform field
101
Construction of Rotor of Hysteresis Motor
The rotor of the hysteresis motor consists of the core of aluminium or some other non-magnetic
material which carries a layer of special magnetic material. The figure below shows the rotor
of the hysteresis motor.
The outer layer has a number of thin rings forming a laminated rotor. The rotor of the motor is
a smooth cylinder, and it does not carry any windings. The ring is made of hard chrome or
cobalt steel having a large hysteresis loop as shown in the figure below.
Operation of a Hysteresis Motor

The following illustration shows the basic functioning of a hysteresis motor.
102
When supply is given applied to the stator, a rotating magnetic field is produced. This magnetic
field magnetises the rotor ring and induces pole within it. Due to the hysteresis loss in the rotor,
the induced rotor flux lags behind the rotating stator flux. The angle δ between the stator
magnetic field BS and the rotor magnetic field BR is responsible for the production of the
torque. The angle δ depends on the shape of the hysteresis loop and not on the frequency.
Thus, the value of Coercive force and residual flux density of the magnetic material should be
large. The ideal material would have a rectangular hysteresis loop as shown by loop 1 in the
hysteresis loop figure. The stator magnetic field produces Eddy currents in the rotor. As a result,
they produce their own magnetic field.
The eddy current loss is given by the equation shown below.
Where,
• ke is a constant
• f2 is the eddy current frequency
• B is the flux density
As we know,
Where s is the slip and f1 are the frequency of the stator.

Therefore,
103
The torque is given by the equation shown below.
Now, the torque due to hysteresis loss is given by the equation shown below.
The Torque due to hysteresis is given as
From the equation (1) it is clear that the torque is proportional to the slip. Therefore, as the
speed of the rotor increases the value of Ʈe decreases. As the speed of the motor reaches
synchronous speed, the slip becomes zero and torque also become zero.
As the electromagnet torque is developed by the motor is because of the hysteresis loss and
remains constant at all rotor speed until the breakdown torque. At the synchronous speed, the
eddy current torque is zero and only torque due to hysteresis loss is present.
Torque Speed characteristic of Hysteresis Motor

The speed torque curve of the motor is shown below.
104
Curve 1 is the ideal curve, and the curve 2 is the practical hysteresis motor curve. The torque-
speed characteristic of the hysteresis motor is different from an induction motor. Since, at the
synchronous speed, the torque developed by an induction motor becomes zero, whereas in the
hysteresis motor the torque is constant at all the speed even at the synchronous speed. Thus,
from the curve, it is seen that the locked rotor, starting and pull out torque is equal.
The noise level of the hysteresis motor is very low as compared to the induction motor because
it operates at a constant speed and its rotor is smooth. This type of motor is smoothest running,
quietest single phase motor and is used for quality sound reproduction equipment like record
players, tape recorders, etc. It is also employed in electric clocks and other timing devices.
Stepper Motor
The name Stepper Motor itself shows that the rotor movement is in the form of various steps
or discrete steps. It is also known as Stepping Motor. The number of pulses fed into the
controller circuit determines the angular rotation of the motor. Each input pulse produces one
step of the angular movement. The drive is considered as an analog to digital converter. It has
an inbuilt logic, which causes appropriate windings to be energised and de-energized by the
solid state switches in the required sequence.
105
Step Angle in Stepper Motor
Definition: Step angle is defined as the angle which the rotor of a stepper motor moves when
one pulse is applied to the input of the stator.
The positioning of a motor is decided by the step angle and is expressed in degrees. The
resolution or the step number of a motor is the number of steps it makes in one revolution of
the rotor. Smaller the step angle higher the resolution of the positioning of the stepper motor.
The accuracy of positioning of the objects by the motor depends on the resolution. Higher the
resolution greater will be the accuracy. Some precision motors can make 1000 steps in one
revolution with a step angle of 0.36 degrees. A standard motor will have a step angle of 1.8
degrees with 200 steps per revolution. The various step angles like 90, 45 and 15 degrees are
common in simple motors.
The number of phases can vary from two to six. Small steps angle can be obtained by using
slotted pole pieces
Advantages of Stepper Motor
The various benefits of the Stepping Motor are as follows:-
• The motor is simple in construction, reliable.
• At the standstill condition, the motor has full torque.
• The motors are less costly.
• They require little maintenance.
• The stepper motor has an excellent and accurate starting, stopping and reversing response.
106
Disadvantages of Stepper Motor
The various disadvantages of the stepping motor are as follows:-
• The motor uses more current as compared to the DC motor.
• At the higher speed, the value of torque reduces.
• Lower efficiency.
• The Resonance condition arises and requires micro stepping.
• At the high speed, the control is not possible.
Stepper MotorApplications
The Stepper motor is manufactured in various sizes ranging from milliwatts to hundreds of
watts. Its maximum torque value ranges up to 15 Newton Meter and the step angle ranges from
to 90 degrees. As already discussed earlier about What is a Stepper Motor? and the Step
Angle. The Stepper Motor Applications have a wide range. Some of the applications are
given below.
• As the stepper motor are digitally controlled using an input pulse, they are suitable for use with
computer controlled systems.
• They are used in numeric control of machine tools.
• Used in tape drives, floppy disc drives, printers and electric watches.
• The stepper motor also use in X-Y plotter and robotics.
• It has wide application in textile industries and integrated circuit fabrications.
• The other applications of the Stepper Motor are in spacecrafts launched for scientific
explorations of the planets etc.
• These motors also find a variety of commercial, medical and military applications and also
used in the production of science fiction movies.
• Stepper motors of microwatts are used in the wrist watches.
• In the machine tool, the stepper motors with ratings of several tens of kilowatts is used
Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
The principle of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor is based on the property of the
flux lines which capture the low reluctance path. The stator and the rotor of the motor
are aligned in such a way that the magnetic reluctance is minimum. There are two types
of the Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor. They are as follows
107
Working of a Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
A four phase or (4/2 pole), single stack variable reluctance stepper motor is shown
below. Here, (4/2 pole) means that the stator has four poles and the rotor has two poles.
The four phases A, B, C and D are connected to the DC source with the help of a
semiconductor, switches SA, SB, SC and SD respectively as shown in the above figure.
The phase windings of the stator are energized in the sequence A, B, C, D, A. The rotor
aligns itself with the axis of phase A as the winding A is energized. The rotor is stable
in this position and cannot move until phase A is de-energized.
Now, the phase B is excited and phase A is disconnected. The rotor moves 90 degrees
in the clockwise direction to align with the resultant air gap field which lies along the
axis of phase B. Similarly the phase C is energized, and the phase B is disconnected,
and the rotor moves again in 90 degrees to align itself with the axis of the phase
Thus, as the Phases are excited in the order as A, B, C, D, A, the rotor moves 90 degrees
at each transition step in the clockwise direction. The rotor completes one revolution in
4 steps. The direction of the rotation depends on the sequence of switching the phase
and does not depend on the direction of the current flowing through the phase. Thus,
the direction can be reversed by changing the phase sequence like A, D, C, B, A.
The magnitude of the step angle of the variable reluctance motor is given as
•
Where,
• α is the step angle
ms is the number of stator phases
108
Nr is the number of rotor teeth
The step angle is expressed as shown below.
Where, NS is the stator poles

The step angle can be reduced from 90 degrees to 45 degrees in a clockwise direction by
exciting the phase in the sequence A, A+B, B, B+C, C, C+ D, D, D+A, A.
Similarly, if the sequence is reversed as A, A+D, D, D+C, C, C+B, B, B+A, A, the rotor rotates
at step angle of 45 degrees in the anticlockwise direction.
Here, (A+B) means that the phase windings A and B both are energized together. The resultant
field is the midway of the two poles. i.e. it makes an angle of 45 degrees with the axis of the
pole in the clockwise direction. This method of shifting excitation from one phase to another
is known as Microstepping.By using Stepper Motor, lower values of the step angle can be
obtained with numbers of poles on the stator.
Consider a 4 phase, (8/6 pole) single stack variable reluctance motor shown in the figure below.
The opposite poles are connected in series forming a 4 phases. The rotor as 6 poles. Here I am
considering only phase A to make the connection simple. When the coil AA’ is excited the
rotor teeth 1 and 4 are aligned along the axis of the winding of the phase A. Thus, the rotor
occupies the position as shown in the above figure (a).
Now, the phase A is de-energized, and the phase winding B is energized. The rotor teeth 3 and
6 get aligned along the axis of phase B. The rotor moves a step of phase angle of 15 degrees in
the clockwise direction. Further, the phase B is de-energized, and the winding C is excited. The
rotor moves again 15⁰ phase angle.
109
The sequence A, B, C, D, A is followed, and the four steps of rotation are completed, and the
rotor moves 60 degrees in clockwise direction. For one complete revolution of the rotor 24
steps are required. Thus, any desired step angle can be obtained by choosing different
combinations of the number of rotor teeth and stator exciting coils.
PART A QUESTIONS
1. What are the principal advantages of rotating field type construction?

Relatively small amount of power required for field system can easily supplied to rotating
system using slip rings and brushes, more space is available in the stator part of the machine
to provide more insulation, it is easy to provide cooling system, stationary system of
conductors can easily be braced to prevent deformation.
2. What are the advantages of salient type pole construction used in sync.machines?
They allow better ventilation, the pole faces are so shaped radial air gap length increases
from pole center to pole tips so flux distortion in air gap is sinusoidal so emf is also
sinusoidal.
3. Which type of sync. generators are used in hydroelectric plants and why?
As the speed of operation is low, for hydro turbines used in hydroelectric plants, salient
pole type sync. generator is used because it allows better ventilation also better than smooth
cylindrical type rotor
4. Why are alternators rated in KVA and not in KW?
As load increases I2 R loss also increases, as the current is directly related to apparent
power delivered by generator, the alternator has only their apparent power in
VA/KVA/MVA as their power rating.
5. Why the sync. impedance method of estimating voltage regulation is is considered
as pessimistic method?
Compared to other method, the value of voltage regulation obtained by this method is
always higher than the actual value so it is called as pessimistic method.
6. Why MMF method of estimating voltage regulation is considered as optimistic
method?
Compared to EMF method, MMF method involves more no. of complex calculation steps.
Further the OCC is referred twice and SCC is referred once while predetermining the
voltage regulation for each load condition. Reference of OCC takes core saturation effect.
110
As this method require more effort, final result is very close to actual value, hence this
method is called as optimistic method.
7. Define voltage regulation of the alternator?
It is defined as the increase in terminal voltage when full load is thrown off, assuming field
current and speed remaining the same. % reg = [(E0 – V)/V]x100 Where E0 = no terminal
voltage V = full load rated terminal voltage
8. How is arm. winding in alternators is different from those used in dc machines?
The arm. winding of the alternator is placed in the stator, but in the case of dc machines
the arm winding is placed in the rotor.
9. What is hunting how can it be prevented?
When a sync motor is used for driving a fluctuating load, the rotor starts oscillating about
its new position of equilibrium corresponding to the new load. This is called hunting or
phase swinging. To prevent hunting dampers are damping grids are employed.
10 what are different torques of a sync motor?
1. Starting torque 2. Running torque 3. Pull-in torque 4. Pull-out torque
11. Define step angle?
It is defined as angle through which the stepper motor shaft rotates for each command pulse.
It is denoted as β, i)β=[(Ns-Nr)/ Ns.Nr]x360o Where Ns = no. of stator poles or stator teeth
Nr = no. of rotor poles or rotor teeth ii) β = 3600 /mNr Where m= no. of stator poles
12. What are different types of stepper motor?
1. Variable reluctance (VR) motor 2. Permanent magnet (PM) stepper motor 3. Hybrid
stepper motor
13. What is the advantage in using stepper motor?
1. it can drive open loop without feedback 2. it requires little or no maintenance.
14. Give the applications of stepper motor?
1. Robotics 2. Computer peripherals 3. Facsimile machine 4. Aerospace
15. What are the adv. of reluctance m/c?
1. Motor speed is constant 2. Simple construction
Part B Questions
1.Explain double revolving field theory with suitable example (Dec 2018)
2.Write short notes on principle operation of : (Dec 2018)
Reluctance motor
111
Stepper motor
3. Explain principle and performance of AC series motor. (June 2018)
Give a short note on: (June 2018)
Single phase synchronous motors
4. Hysteresis motor. (Dec 2017)
5.Describe the construction and working of single phase induction motor. Give their
applications and disadvantages(Dec 2017)
6.Explain the construction and principle of operation of shaded – pole induction
motor with neat diagrams (Dec 2017)
7. Discuss in detail the working and principle of: (June 2017)
8.Capacitor start capacitor run motors
Hysteresis motor.
9.Explain double-field revolving theory of a single phase induction motor (June
2017)
10.With a neat diagram, describe the principle & working of shaded pole motor
(June 2017)
----------------------------
112

Electrical Machines - III (15A02504) Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Electrical Machines - III (15A02504) Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electrical Machines - III (15A02504) Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CONTENTS

1 Unit-I : SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS Page NO

1.2 Unit-I notes 5-30

1.4 Part A Questions 31

1.5 Part B Questions 32

2 Unit-II : REGULATION OF SYNCHRONOUS

2.2 Unit-II notes 33-50

2.4 Part A Questions 51

2.5 Part B Questions 52

3 Unit-III : PARALLEL OPERATION OF 57

3.2 Unit-III notes 57-62

3.4 Part A Questions 63

3.5 Part B Questions 64

4 Unit-IV : SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

4.2 Unit-IV notes 66-81

4.4 Part A Questions 82

4.5 Part B Questions 83

5 Unit-V : SINGLE PHASE AND SPECIAL MOTORS

1. Definition: The synchronous generator or alternator is an electrical machine which converts

1) Salient pole rotor

1) Salient pole rotor:

2) Smooth cylindrical rotor:

3. Working Principle of Synchronous generator:

EMF of Fractional Pitch Windings

6. Frequency of an A.C. Synchronous Generator

Armature Reaction in a Synchronous Machine

Resolving along the horizontal direction we get

The resultant armature reaction flux is given by

At time t = 0, the instantaneous values of currents and fluxes are given by

The space diagram of the magnetic fluxes is shown below.

The direction of the flux is shown below in the phasor diagram.

• La is the self-inductance of the stator winding

• RaIa is the armature resistance drop

12. Generator Load Characteristics

Algebraically this can be written

for non-reactive loads. Since normally r is small compared with X

2. Write down the equation for frequency of emf induced in an Alternator.

1. Derive EMF equation for synchronous generator (June 2018)

VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR

Calculation of Synchronous Impedance

The synchronous reactance is determined as

The graph is shown below.

Assumptions for Potier Triangle

Since the triangles Oab and Ode are similar. Therefore,

The per unit value of Xd is given as

But, the base impedance is

From the equation (1) and the equation (6) we get

The synchronous inductance is given as

Salient Pole Synchronous Machine Two Rection Theory

Combining the equation (4) and (5) we get

5. Why synchronous impedance method is called pessimistic method? (Dec 2017)

PARALLEL OPERATION OF THE ALTERNATORS:

Synchronisation by Synchronising lamps

2. What are the causes of changes in voltage in Alternators when loaded?

3. What is meant by armature reaction in Alternators?

4. What do you mean by synchronous reactance?

5. What is meant by synchronous impedance of an Alternator?