Current Electricity

Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LT-22 AIIMS PHYSICS (ONLINE)
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
In previous chapter we deal largely with electrostatics that is, with charges at rest. With this chapter
we begin to focus on electric currents, that is, charges in motion.
ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric charges in motion constitute an electric current. Any medium having practically free electric
charges, free to migrate is a conductor of electricity. The electric charge flows from higher potential
energy state to lower potential energy state.
Positive charge flows from higher to lower potential and negative charge flows from lower to higher.
Metals such as gold, silver, copper, aluminium etc. are good conductors. When charge flows in a
conductor from one place to the other, then the rate of flow of charge is called electric current (I).
When there is a transfer of charge from one point to other point in a conductor, we say that there is an
electric current through the area. If the moving charges are positive, the current is in the direction of
motion of charge. If they are negative the current is opposite to the direction of motion. If charge Q
crosses an area in time t then the average electric current through the area, during this time as
Q Q dQ
 Average current Iav   Instantaneous current I  lim 
t t 0 t dt
dQ = Idt  Total charge flows in a time ‘t’
t t
Q   dQ   Idt
0 0
0 0 0
 Current is a fundamental quantity with dimension  M L T A 
 Current is a scalar quantity with its SI unit ampere

Ampere : The current through a conductor is said to be one ampere if one coulomb of charge is
flowing per second through a cross-section of wire
 The conventional direction of current is the direction of flow of positive charge or applied field. It is
opposite to direction of flow of negatively charged electrons
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 The conductor remains uncharged when current flows through it because the charge entering at one
end per second is equal to charge leaving the other end per second
 For a given conductor current does not change with change in its cross-section because current is
simply rate of flow of charge
 If n particles each having a charge q pass per second per unit area then current associated with
q
cross-sectional area A is I   nqA
t
 If there are n particles per unit volume each having a charge q and moving with velocity v then current
q
through cross-sectional area A is I   nqA
t
Due to circular motion of a charge
If a point charge q is movint in a circle of radius r with speed  (frequency v, angular speed  and
q qv q
time period T) then corresponding currents i  q   
T 2r 2
Types of current : Electric current is of two type
Current carriers : The charged particles whose flow in a definite direction constitutes the electric
current are called current carriers. In different situation current carriers are different.
(i) Solids : In solid conductors like metals current carriers are free electrons
(ii) Liquids : In liquids current carriers are positive and negative ions
2
(iii) Gases : In gases current carriers are positive ions and free electrons
(iv) Semi conductor : In semi conductors current carriers are holes and free electrons
Behaviour of conductor in the absence of potential difference
The randomly moving free electrons inside the metal collide with the lattice and follow a zig-zag path.
In absence of applied potential difference electrons have random motion. The average displacement
and average velocity is zero. There is no flow of curent due to thermal motion of free electrons in a
conductor. The free electrons present in a conductor gain energy from temperature of surrounding
and move randomly in the conductor.
1 3
The speed gained by virtue of temperature is called as thermal speed of an electron m 2rms  kT
2 2
3kT
So thermal speed  rms  where m is mass of electron
m
At room temperature T = 300K,  rms  105 m / s
Thermal velocity : All electrons in the atom are not capable of motion. Only a few which have little
higher level of energy leave their orbit and are capable of moving around. These electrons are called
“free electrons”. These free electrons are in very large quantity  10 29 m 3 in free metals. Due to
temperature and thermal energy they have a thermal velocity  105 m 1 . This velocity is in all directions
and of magnitudes varying from zero to maximum. Due to large number of electrons we can assume
that vector sum of thermal velocities at any instant is zero.
  
i.e. u1  u 2  u 3  ....  u n  0
 Even when rms speed due to thermal motion is very high, there is no current flow through the conductor
in the absence of electric field, because thermal motion is random and average thermal velocity of
electrons is zero.
Behaviour of a conductor in the presence of external potential difference
When two ends of a conductors are joined to a battery then one end is at higher potential and another
at lower potential. This produces an electric field inside the conductor from point of higher to lower
potential
V
E where V = emf of the battery, L = length of the conductor..
L
3
The field exerts an electric force on free electrons causing acceleration of each electron.
 
 F eE
Acceleration of electron a  
m m
DRIFT VELOCITY
Drift velocity is defined as the velocity with which the free electrons get drifted towards the positive
terminal under the effect of the applied external electric field. In addition to its thermal velocity, due to
acceleration given by applied electric field, the electron acquires a velocity component in a direction
opposite to the direction of the electric field. The gain in velocity due to the applied field is very small
and is lost in the next collision.
Mean Free path : The fast moving electrons keep striking other atoms / ions in the conductor. They
are reflected and move in other direction. They keep moving till they strike another ion/atom.
The path between two consecutive collisions is called free path. The average length of these free
paths is called “Mean Free Path”
 :
o
   10 A    total dis tan ce travelled
Mean free path  
  number of collisions
Relaxation Time : The time to travel mean free path is called Relaxation Period or Relaxation Time,
denoted by Greek letter Taue “  ”
total time taken

Relaxation time :  
number of collisions
1
If t1, t2, ...tn are the time period for n collisions then Relaxation Time    t1  t 2  .....t n 
n
    
At any given time, an electron has a velocity v1  u1  a1 , where u1 = the thermal velocity and a1 =
the velocity acquired by the electron under the influence of the applied electric field.
1 = the time that has elapsed since the last collision. Similarly, the velocities of the other electrons
are
        
v1  u 2  a 2 , v 3  u 3  a3 ,....v N  u N  a N
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
The average velocity of all the free electrons in the conductor is equal to the drift velocity v d of the free
electrons
The last result shows that the electrons mocve with an average velocities which is independent of
time, although the electrons are accelerated. This is the phenomenon or drift and this average velocity
of the electrons in the presence of external electric field is called drift velocity.
Note : The electron drift speed is estimated to be only a few mm/s currents in the range of a few
amperes established almost instantaneously because electric field is established throughout the
circuit, almost instantly with thespeed of light causing at every point a local electron drift. Establishment
of current does not have to wait for electrons from one end of the conductor travelling to the other
end. However, it does take a little while for the current to reach its steady state value.
Note : Each ‘free’ electron does accelerate, increasing its drift speed until it collided with a positive ion
of the metal. It loses its drift speed after collision but starts to accelerate and increases its drift speed
again only to suffer a collision again and so on. On the average, therefore, electrons acquire only a
drift speed. Therefore electrons attain drift speed even when they are accelerated by electric field.
Note : The electron drift speed is so small, and the electron’s charge is small but we still obtain large
amounts of current in a conductor because the electron number density is of the order of 1029 m 3
Note : Electrons drift in a metal from lower to higher potential, it doesn’t mean that all the ‘free’ electrons
of the metal are moving in the same direction. Because the drift velocity is superposed over the large
random velocities of electrons.
Note : In the absence of electric field path of the electrons between two consecutive collisions is a
straight line. But in the presence of an electric field path of the electrons are generally curved
Relation between current and drift velocity

Let n = number density of free electrons and A = area of cross-section of conductor.
Number of free electrons in conductor of length L = nAL, total charge on these free electrons
q  neAL
L q v 
Time taken by drifting electrons to cross conductor t   current I   neAL  d   neAvd
vd t L 
5
eE
I  neAVd but Vd  
m
eE
 I  neA
m
ne 2 AE
I
m
CURRENT DENSITY (J)

Current is a macroscopic quantity and deals with the overall rate of flow of charge through a section.
To specify the current with direction in the micriscopic level at a point, the term current density is
introduced. Current density at any point inside a conductor is defined as a vector having magnitude
equal to current per unit area surrounding that point. Remember area is normal to the direction of
charge flow (or current passes) through that point.
 dI 
 Current density at point P is given by J  n
dA
 If the cross-sectional area is not normal to the current, but makes an angle  with the direction of
dI    
current then J   dI  JdA cos   J.dA  I   J.dA
dA cos 

If current density is uniform, then I  J.A
I  JA cos 
      
If current density J is uniform for a normal cross-section A then : i  J.ds  J. ds [as J = constant]
 
or
Current density in terms of velocity of charge : In case of uniform flow of charge through a cross-
section normal to it as i  nqA
 i      ch arg e
So, J  n   nq  n or J  nq  v    [with    nq ]
A volume
i.e., current density at a point is to the product of volume charge density with velocity of charge
distribution at that point.
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Ohm’s Law
If the physical conditions of the conductor (length, temperature, mechanical strain etc.) remains
same, then the current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across it’s two ends i.e. I  V  V  IR where R is a proportionality constant, known as electric
resistance. Ohm’s law (at microscopic level)
 Ohm’s law is not a universal law. The substances, which obey ohm’s law are known as ohmic.
 Graph between V and I for a metallic conductor is a straight line as shown
V
Slope of the line = tan   R
I
 At different temperatures V-I curves are different.
Here tan 1  tan 2 So R 1  R 2 i.e. T1  T2
Resistance of a Conductor :
Definition : The property of substance by virtue of which it opposes the flow of curent through it, is
known as the resistance.
Cause of resistance of a conductor : It is due to the collisions of free electrons with the ions or atoms
of the conductor while drifting towards the positive end of the conductor
Resistance R of a conductor depends on the following factors:
a) Length ‘  ’ of the conductor : R , That is , resistance of conductor varies directly as its length.
As potential difference is applied across the two ends, free electrons move from the end at lower
potential to the end at a higher potential. In this process they collide against each other and undergo
retardation. A greater length of conductor results in greater number of collisions, thereby producing
grreater retardation and hence grreater resistance.
b) Area of cross-section ‘A’ : R 1 A . Resistance of a conductor varies inversely as its area of cross-
section.
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For a conductor having greater area of cross-section, more free electrons cross that section of
conductor in one second, thereby giving a large current. A large current means a lesser resistance.
 
Combining the two factors together, we get R  or R 
A A
where  is called resistivity of the conductor
Resistance according to potential difference : Resistance of a conducting body is not unique but
depends on it’s length and area of cross-section i.e. how the potential difference is applied. See the
following figures
Unit and dimension: It’s S.I. unit is Volt/Amp. or Ohm    . Also 1 ohm
1volt 108 emu of potential

  1  109 emu of resistance. It’s dimension is  ML2 T 3 A 2  .
1Amp 10 emu of current  
1 1
Conductance (G): Reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance. G  It’s unit is or  1
R 
or “Siemen”.
Stretching of Wire: If a conducting wire stretches, it’s length increases, area of cross-section
decreases so resistance increases but volume remain constant.
8
Suppose for a conducting wire before stretching it’s length  1 , area of cross-section = A1, radius =
1
r1, diameter = d1, and resistance R1  
A1
Before stretching .............. After stretching
After stretching length   2 , area of cross-section = A2, radius = r2, diameter = d2 and resistance
2
 R2  
A2
2 2 4 4
R 1  1 A 2  1   A 2   r2   d 2 
Ratio of resistance             since A11  A 2  2
R 2  2 A1   2   A1   r1   d1 
2
R 1  1 
1) If length is given then R   
2
 
R2  2 
4
l R 1  r2 
2) If radius is given then R  4   
r R 2  r1 
Note: After stretching if length increases by n times then resistance will increase by n2 times i.e.
1 1
R 2  n 2 R 1 . Similarly if radius be reduced to times then area of cross-section decreases 2
n n
times so the resistance becomes n4 times i.e. R 2  n 4 R 1 .
• After stretching if length of a conductor increases by x% then resistance will increases by 2x% (valid
R 
only if x < 10%) % change in resistance, if there is small change in length  100  2  100
R 
RESISTIVITY
Resistivity:   RA /  if   1m, A = 1 m2 then   R

The specific resistance of a material is equal to the resistance of the wire of that material with unit
cross-section area and unit length.
Resistivity depends on (i) Nature of material (ii) Temperature of material,  does not depend on the
size and shape of the material because it is the characteristic property of the conductor material.
9
3 3 2
Unit and dimension: It’s S.I. units is ohm × m and dimension is  ML T A 
It’s dependence: Resistivity is the intrinsic property of the substance. It is independent of shape and
size of the body (i.e.,  and A). it depends on the followings:
(i) Nature of the body: For different substances their resistivity also different e.g. silver  minimum =
1.6 × 10-8   m and fused quartz = minimum 1016   m
(ii) Temperature: Resistivity depends on the temperature. For metals t  0 1  t  i.e. resistivity
increases with temperature.
(iii) Impurity and mechanical stress: Resistivity increases with impurity and mechanical stress.
(iv) Effect of magnetic field: Magnetic field increases the resistivity of all metals except iron, cobalt
and nickel.
(v) Effect of light: Resistivity of certain substances like selenium, cadmium, sulphides is inversely
proportional to intensity of light falling upon them.
Resistivity of some electrical material: insulator  alloy  semi conductor  conductor
1
Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity    i.e.    with unit mho/ m and dimensions
 M 1L3T 3 A 2  .
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RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT DENSITY, CONDUCTIVITY AND ELECTRIC FIELD

Let the number of free electrons per unit volume in a conductor = n
Total number of electrons in dx distance = n (Adx)

Total charge dQ = n (Adx)e
dQ dx 1
Current I   nAe  neAVd , Current density J   neVd
dt dt A
 eE   eE   ne 2  ne 2 
 ne    Vd      J    E  J  E where conductivity  
m m  m  m
 depends only on the material of the conductor and its temperature.

 
In vector form J  E Ohm’s law (at microscopic level)
MOBILITY
Conductivity arises from mobile charge carriers. In metals, these mobile charge carriers are electrons;
in an ionised gas, they are electrons and positive charged ions; in an electrolyte, these can be both
positive and negative ions.
An important quantity is the mobility  defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric
Vd
field  
E
The SI unit of mobility is m2/Vs
eE Vd e 
Vd  Hence,    where  is the average collision time for electrons.
m E m
I
We have, I  neAVd , thus Vd 
neA
Vd I
So,   
E neAE
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If a steady current flows in a metallic conductor of non uniform cross section.
(i) Along the wire I is same

(ii) Current density and drift velocity depends on area
I1  I 2 , A1  A 2  J1  J 2 .E1  E 2 , v d1  v d 2
If the temperature of the conductor increases, the amplitude of the vibrations of the positive ions in
the conductor also increases. Due to this, the free electrons collide more frequently with the vibrating
ions and as a result, the average relaxation time decreases.
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE
The effect of rise in temperature is:
i) to increase the resistance of pure metals. The increase is large and fairly regular for normal ranges
of temperature. The temperature/resistance graph is a straight line. As would be presently clarified,
metals have a positive temperature co-efficient of resistance.
ii) to increase the resistance of alloys, though in their case, the increase is relatively small and irregular.
For some high-resistance alloys like Eureka (60% Cu and 40% Ni) and manganin, the increase in
resistance is (or can be made) negligible over a considerable range of temperature.
iii) to decrease the resistance of electrolytes, insulators (such as paper, rubber, glass, mica etc.) and
partial conductors such as carbon. Hence, insulators are said to possess a negative temperature-
coefficient of resistance.
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE
Let a metallic conductor having a resistance of R0 at 0oC be heated of toC and let its resistance at this
temperature be Rr. Then, considering normal ranges of temperature, it is found that the increase in
resistance R  R t  R 0 depends
i) directly on its initial resistance

ii) directly on the rise in temperature
iii) on the nature of the material of the conductor.
or R t  R 0  R  t or R t  R 0  R 0 t ...(i)
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where  (alpha) is a constant and is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance of the
conductor.
Rt  R0 R
Rearranging Eq (ii), we get   
R0  t R0  t
If R 0  1 , t  1o C , then   R  R t  R 0
Hence, the temperature-coefficient of a material may be defined as:

the increase in resistance per ohm original resistance per oC rise in temperature.
From Eq. (i), we find that R t  R 0 1  t  ...(ii)
R 1 1   t1
If R1 and R2 are the resistances at t1o C and t 2 o C respectively then 
R2 1  t2
R 2  R1

R 1 t 2  R 2 t1
The value of  is different at different temperature. Temperature coefficient of resistance averaged
2 1 R R
over the temperature range t 1 o C to t 2 o C is given by   R t  t which gives R 2 = R 1
1 2 1
1    t 2  t1   . This formula gives an approximate value.
 R 2 1  t2 1
   1   t 2 1   t1 
 R 1 1   t1
1
When  t1  1 , then 1   t1   1   t1
R2
  1   t 2 1   t1   1   t 2   t1   2 t1 t 2
R1
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R2 R 2  R1
 1    t 2  t1    
R1 R1  t 2  t1 
1 dR dR
generally      dt
R dt R
R t
dR
On integrating
R R   0 dt
0
 R 
n  R  R   t or n 
R
t
0
 R0 
R
 et or R  R e t
R0 0
TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTIVITY

The resistivity of a material is found to be dependent on the temperature. Different materials do not
exhibit the same dependence on temperatures. Over a limited range of temperatures, that is not too
large, the resistivity of a metallic conductor is approximately given by,
T  0 1    T  T0  
where r is the resistivity at a temperature T and  0 is the same at a reference temperature T0.  is
called the temperature co-efficient of resistivity, the dimension of  is (Temperature)-1. For metals,
 is positive.
1  T  0 
T  0  0  T  T0  or   
0  T  T0 
Some materials like Nichorme (which is an alloy of nickel, iron and chromium) exhibit a very weak
dependence of resistivity with temperature. Manganin and constantan have similar properties. These
materials are thus widely used in wire bound standard resistors since their resistance values would
change very little with temperatures.
Unlike metals, the resistivities of semiconductors decrease with increasing temperatures. A typical
dependence is as shown in figure.
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m
We have the temperature dependence of resistivity of conductors,  
ne 2 
 thus depends inversely both on the number n of free electrons per unit volume and on the average
time  between collisions. As we increase temperature, average speed of the electrons, which act
as the carriers of current, increases resulting in more frequent collisions. The average time of collisions
 , thus decreases with temperature.
In a metal, n is not dependent on temperature to any appreciable extent and thus the decrease in the
value of  with rise in temperature causes  to increase as we have observed.
For insulators and semiconductors, however, n increases with temperature. This increase more
than compensates any decrease in  , so that for such materials,  decreases with temperature.
Colour Coding of Resistance
The resistance, having high values are used in different electrical and electronic circuits. They are
generally made up of carbon, like 1k, 2 k,5 k etc. To know the value of resistance colour code is
used. These code are printed in form of set of rings of strips. By reading the values of colour bands,
we can estimate the value of resistance.
The carbon resistance has normally four coloured rings or strips say A, B, C and D as shown in
following figure.
Colour band A and B indicate the first two significant figures of resistance in ohm, while the C band
gives the decimal multiplier i.e. the number of zeros that follows the two significant figures A and B.
Last band (D band) indicate the tolerance in percent about the indicated value or in other ward it
represents the percentage accuracy of the indicated value.
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The tolerance in the case of gold is  5% and in silver is  10% . If only three bands are marked on
carbon resistance, then it indicate a tolerance of 20%.
The following table gives the colour code for carbon resistance.
Note: To remember the sequence of colour code following sentence should kept in memory.
B B ROY Great Britain Very Good Wife
LIMITATIONS OF OHM’S LAW
Although Ohm’s law has been found valid over a large class of materials, there do exist materials and
devices used in electric circuits where the proportionality of V and I does not hold. The deviations
broadly are one or more of the following types:
a) V ceases to be proportional to I
b) The relation between V and I depends on the sign of V. In other words, if lis the current for a certain
V, then reversing the direction of V keeping its magnitude fixed, does not produce a current of the
same magnitude as I in the opposite direction.
c) The relation between V and I is not unique, i.e., there is more than one value of V for the same
current I. A material exhibiting such behaviour is GaAs.
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Super conductors: At low temperature, the resistance of certain substances becomes exactly zero.
These substances are called super conductors and phenomenon super conductivity. The temperature
at which resistance becomes zero is called critical temperature and depends upon the nature of
substance.
1) Filament of electric bulb: Is made up of tungsten which has high resistivity, high melting point.
2) Element of heating devices (such as heater, geyser or press): Is made up of nichrome which has
high resistivity and high melting point.
3) Resistance of resistance boxes (standard resistance): Are made up of manganin, or constantan
as these materials have moderate resistivity which is practically independent of temperature so that
the specified value of resistance does not alter with minor changes in temperature.
4) Fuse-wire: Is made up of tin-lead alloy (63% tin + 37% lead). It should have low melting point and
high resistivity. It is used in series as a safety device in an electric circuit and is designed so as to
melt and thereby open the circuit if the current exceeds a predetermined value due to some fault. The
function of a fuse is independent of its length.
17
Safe current of fuse wire relates with it’s radius as i  r 3/ 2 .
ELECTRIC POWER AND ENERGY

Consider a conductor with end points A and B, in which a current I is flowing from A to B. The electric
potential at A and B are denoted by V(A) and V(B) respectively. Since current is flowing from A to B,
V(A) > V(B) and the potential difference across AB is V = V(A) - V(B) > 0.
In a time interval t , an amount of charge Q  I t travels from A to B.

The potential energy of the charge at A, by definition, was QV(A) and similarly at B, it is Q V(B). Thus,
change in its potential energy U is
U = Final potential energy - Initial potential energy
 Q  V  B   V  A    QV
 I Vt  0
If charges moved without collisions through the conductor, their kinetic energy would also change so
that the total energy is unchanged. Conservation of total energy would then imply that,
K  U pot that is, K  IVt  0

Thus, in case charges were moving freely through the conductor under the action of electric field,
their kinetic energy would increase as they move. We have, however, seen earlier that on the average,
charge carriers do not move with acceleration but with a steady drift velocity. This is because of the
collisions with ions and atoms during transit. During collisions, the energy gained by the charges thus
is shared with the atoms. The atoms vibrate more vigorously, i.e., the conductor heats up. Thus, in an
actual conductor, an amount of energy dissipated as heat in the conductor during the time interval t
is,
W  IVt
The energy dissipated per unit time is the power dissipated
P  W / t and we have, P = IV
using ohm’s law V = IR, we get
V2
P  I2 R 
R
as the power loss (“ohmic loss”) in a conductor of resistance R carrying a current I. It is the power
which heats up, for example, the coil of an electric bulb to incandescence, radiating out heat and light.
18
We need an external source to keep a steady current through the conductor. It is clearly this source
which must supply this power. In the simple circuit shown with a cell it is the chemical energy of the
cell which supplies this power for as long as it can.
Consider a device R, to which a power P is to be delivered via transmission cables having a resistance
Rc to be dissipated by it finally.
If V is the voltage across R and I the current through it, then P = VI
The connecting wires from the power station to the device has a finite resistance Rc.
The power dissipated in the connecting wires, which is wasted is Pc with,
P2R c
Pc  I2 R c 
V2
Thus, to drive a device of power P, the power wasted in the connecting wires is inversely proportional
to V2. The transmission cables from power stations are hundreds of miles long and their resistance
Rc is considerable. To reduce Pc, these wires carry current at enormous values of V and this is the
reason for the high voltage danger signs on transmission
19
The SI unit of electric power is same as for any kind of power, the watt (W). 1W = 1J/s.
HEATING EFFECT OF CURRENT
Cause of Heating
The potential difference applied across the two ends of conductor sets up electric field. Under the
effect of electric field, electrons accelerate and as they move, they collide against the ions and atoms
in the conductor, the energy of electrons transferred to the atoms and ions appears as heat.
• Joules’s Law of Heating
When a current I is made to flow through a passive or ohmic resistance R for time t, heat Q is
2 V2
produced such that Q  I R t  P t  V1t  t
R
Heat produced in conductor does not depend upon the direction of current.
•SI unit: joule; Practical Units: 1 kilowatt hour (kWh)
1kWh = 3.6×106 joule = 1 unit 1 BTU (British Thermal Unit) = 1055 J
V2
• Power: P  V I   I2 R • SI unit: Watt
R
The watt-hour meter placed on the premises of every consumer records the electrical energy
consumed.
COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
Series Combination
• Same current passes through each resistance

• Voltage across each resistance is directly proportional to it’s value
V1  IR 1 , V2  IR 2 , V3  IR 3
• Sum of the voltage across resistance is equal to the voltage applied across the circuit.
V  V1  V2  V3  IR S  IR 1  IR 2  IR 3  R S  R 1  R 2  R 3 Where RS = equivalent resistance
Equivalent resistance is greater than the maximum value of resistance in the combination
 R 
• Potential difference across any resistance V     .V
 R eq 
20
Where R  = Resistance across which potential difference is to be calculated, Req = equivalent

resistance of that line in which R  is connected, V = p.d. across that line in which R  is connected
e.g.
V
• If n identical resistance are connected in series Req = nR and p.d. across each resistance V 
n
• Series combination is called voltage divider circuit
• Power consumed are in the ratio of their resistance i.e., P  R  P1 : P2 : P3  R 1 : R 2 : R 3
effective conductance
1 1 1 1
•    ... 
G eq G1 G 2 Gn
Parallel Combination
• There is same drop of potential across each resistance.
• Current in each resistance is inversely proportional to the value of resistance. I  V , I  V .I  V

1 2 3
R1 R2 R3
• Current flowing in the circuit is sum of the currents in individual resistance.
21
Where Rp = equivalent resistance
1 1 1 1 R 1R 2 R 3
   1 1
  or R eq 
1 1
• R eq R1 R 2 R 3 or R eq  R 1  R 2  R 3
R 1R 2  R 2 R 3  R 2 R 1 equivalent
resistance is smaller than the minimum value of resistance in the combination.

• effective conductance
G eq  G 1  G 2  ...  G n
• Current through any resistance
 Resistance of opposite branch 

i  i   
 Total resistance 
Where i  required current (branch current)
i = main current
• Parallel combination is called current divider circuit
R
• In n identical resistance are connected in parallel R eq  and current through each resistance
n
i
i 
n
1 1 1 1
• Power consumed are in the reverse ratio of resistance i.e. P   P1 : P2 : P3  : :
R R1 R 2 R 3
Note: • In case of resistance in series, if one resistance gets open, the current in the whole circuit
become zero and the circuit stops working. Which don’t happen in case of parallel gouging.
• Decoration of lightning in festivals is an example of series grouping whereas all household appliances
connected in parallel grouping.
22
Example
Find the current in the circuit
Solution
v 30
R eq  1  2  3  6  is given circuit is equivalent to current i  R  6  5A
eq
Example
Resistance R, 2R, 4R, 8R ....  are connected in parallel. What is their resultant resistance?
Solution
SHORT AND OPEN CIRCUITS

When two points of circuit are connected together by a thick metallic wire (fig.) they are said to be
short-circuited. Since ‘short’ has practically zero resistance, it gives rise to two important facts:
i) no voltage can exist across it because V = IR = I × 0 = 0
ii) current through it (called short-circuit current) is very large (theoretically, infinity)
23
Two points are said to be open-circuited when there is no direct connection between them (fig.).
Obviously, an ‘open’ represents a break in the continuity of the circuit. Due to this break
i) resistance between the two points is infinite
ii) there is no flow of current between the two points.
SHORTS’ IN A SERIES CIRCUIT
Since a dead (or solid) short has almost zero resistance, it causes the problem of excessive current
which, in turn, causes power dissipation to increase many times and circuit components to burn out.
In figure is shown a normal series circuit where V  12V, R  R 1  R 2  R 3  6 
V 12
I   2A. P  I 2 R  22  6  24W
R 6
In figure 3 resistor has been shorted out by a resistanceless copper wire so that RCD = 0.
12
Now, total circuit resistance R  1  2  0  3  . Hence, I   4A and P  4 2  3  48 W
3
24
Figure shows the situation where both 2  and 3  resistors have been shorted out of the circuit. In
12
this case, R  1, I   12 A and P  122  1  144 W
1
Because of this excessive current (6 times the normal value), connecting wires and other circuit
components can become hot enough to ignite and burn out.
OPENS’ IN A SERIES CIRCUIT
In a normal series circuit like the one shown in figure, there exists a current flow and the voltage drops
across different resistors are proportional to their resistances. If the circuit becomes ‘open’ anywhere,
following two effects are produced.
i) since ‘open’ offers infinite resistance, circuit current becomes zero. Consequently, there is no
voltage drop across R1 and R2.
ii) whole of the applied voltage (i.e. 100V in this case) is felt across the ‘open’ i.e. across terminals A
and B (see figure).
The reason for this is that R1 and R2 become negligible as compared to the infinite resistance of the
‘open’ which has practically whole of the applied voltage dropped across it Hence, voltmeter in Figure
will read nearly 100V i.e. the supply voltage.
OPENS’ IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Since an ‘open’ offers infinite resistance, there would be no current in that part of the circuit where is
occurs. In a parallel circuit, an ‘open’ can occur either in the main line or in any parallel branch.
As shown in figure, an open in the main line prevents flow of current to all branches. Hence, neither of
the two bulbs glows. However, full applied voltage (i.e. 220V in this case) is available across the open
25
In this figure, ‘open’ has occurred in branch circuits of B1. Since there is no current in this branch, B1
will not glow. However, as the other bulb remains connected across the voltage supply, it would keep
operating normality.
It may be noted that if a voltmeter is connected across the open bulb, it will read full supply voltage of
220V.
SHORTS IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Suppose a ‘short’ is placed across R3. It becomes directly connected across the battery and draws
almost infinite current because not only its own resistance but that of the connecting wires AC and
BD is negligible. Due to this excessive current, the wires may get hot enough to burn out unless the
circuit is protected by a fuse.
Following points about the circuit of figure are worth noting.

1. not only is R3 short-circuited but both R1 and R2 are also shorted out i.e. short across one branch
means short across all branches.
2. there is no current in shorted resistors. If there were three bulbs, they will not glow
3. the shorted components are not damaged, for example, if we had three bubls in figure, they would
glow again when circuit is restored to normal conditions by removing the short-circuited.
It may, however, be noted from figure that a short-circuit across R3 may short out R2 but not R1 since
it is protected by R4.
26
Example: Effective resistance between points A and B is:
Effective value of 
i) In series: Suppose 1 and 2 are the temperature coefficient of resistance of the resistors R1 and
R2 respectively. Let  be their effective value.
Their equivalent resistance at any temperature in series is
R t  R1t  R 2t
or R 0 1  t   R 01 1  1t   R 02 1   2 t 
or  R 01  R 02 1  t    R 01  R 02    R 011  R 02  2  t
or  R 01  R 02    R 01  R 02  t   R 01  R 02    R 011  R 02 2  t
 R 011  R 02  2 
After solving, we get    
 R 01  R 02 
27
1   2
When R 01  R 02 
2
ii) In parallel:
At any temperature toC
Solving by Binomial theorem, we have
Aliter:
1 1 1
 
R 0 R 01 R 02 for small changes
28
1 R 0 1 R 01 1 R 02
2
 2  2
R 0 t R 01 t R 02 t
  
 1  2
R 0 R 01 R 02
  R 01  R 02  R 02 1  R 01 2

R 01R 02 R 01R 02
1R 02   2 R 02
 
R 01  R 02
1   2
when R 01  R 02 ,  
2
cell
The device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy is known as electric cell.
A cell neither creates nor destroys enarge but maintains the flow of charge present at various parts of
the circuit by supplying energy needed for their organised motion.
Cell is source of constant emf but not constant current.
Mainly cells are of two types:
(i) Primary cell : Cannot be recharged
(ii) Secondary cell: Can be recharged
Emf of cell (E): The energy given by the cell in the flow of unit charge in the whole circuit (including
W
the cell) is called it’s electromotive force (emf) i.e. emf of cell E  . It’s unit is volt
q
The potential difference across the terminals of a cell when it is not given any current is called it’s
emf.
• emf depends on: (i) nature of electrolyte (ii) metal of electrodes
• emf does not depend on: (i) area of plates (ii) distance between the electrode
(iii) quantity of electrolyte (iv) size of cell
TERMINAL VOLTAGE (V)
29
• When current is drawn through the cell or current is supplied to cell then, the potential difference
across its terminals called terminal voltage.
• When I current is drawn from cell, then terminal voltage is less than it’s e.m.f V = E - Ir
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Offered by the electrolyte of the cell when the electric current flows through it is known as internal
resistance. Distance between two electrodes increases  r increases
For an ideal cell internal resistance is zero

Area dipped in electrolyte increases  r decreases
Concentration of electrolyte increases  r increases
Temperature increases  r decreases

Terminal Potential Difference: The potential difference between the two electrodes of a cell in a
closed circuit i.e. when current is being drawn from the cell is called terminal potential difference.
a) When cell is discharging:
Current inside the cell is from cathode to anode.
E
Current I   E  IR  Ir  V  Ir  V  E  Ir
rR
When current is drawn from the cell potential difference is less than emf of cell. Greater is the current
drawn from the cell smaller is the terminal voltage. When a large current is drawn from a cell its
terminal voltage is reduced.
E 
Internal resistance of the cell r   1 .R
V 
2
2 V2  E 
Power dissipated in external resistance (load) P  Vi  i R    .R
R Rr
30
R 2  r 2  2Rr
Power is maximum when, is minimum, therefore
R
Thus,
 Power delivered will be maximum when R=r
E2 E2
So Pmax= 
4r 4R
Thus generally power transferred to the external circuit is maximum, when external resistance is
equal to the internal resistance. This is called “maximum power transfer theorem”
b) When cell is charging:

Current inside the cell is from anode to cathode.
VE
Current I   V  E  Ir
r
31
During charging terminal potential difference is greater than emf of cell.

c) When cell is in open circuit:
E
In open circuit R   I 0VE
R r
In open circuit terminal potential difference is equal to emf and is the maximum potential difference
which a cell can provide.
d) When cell is short circuited:
E E
In short circuit R = 0  I  and V  IR  0
Rr r
In short circuit current from cell is maximum and terminal potential difference is zero.
Above information/s can be summarized by the following graph
• It is a common misconception that “current in the circuit will be maximum when power consumed by
the load is maximum.
2
• Actually current i  E /  R  r  is maximum (=E/r) when R = min = 0 with PL   E / r   0  0 min . while
power consumed by the load E 2 R /  R  r 

2
is maximum  E 2
/ 4r  when R = r and
i   E / 2r   max   E / r 
• Emf is independent of the resistance of the circuit and depends upon the nature of electrolyte of the
cell while potential difference depends upon the resistance between the two points of the circuit and
current flowing through the circuit
• Emf is a cause and potential difference is an effect
• Whenever a cell or battery is present in a branch there must be some resistance (internal or external
or both) present in that branch. In practical situation it always happen because we can never have an
ideal cell or battery with zero resistance.
KIRCHOFF’S LAWS
1) Kirchoff’s first law: This law is also known as junction rule or current law (KCL). According to it
the algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction is zero i.e.  i  0 .
32
In a circuit, at any junction the sum of the currents entering the junction must equal the sum of the
currents leaving the junction. i1  i3  i 2  i 4
Here it is worthy to note that:

(i) If a current comes out to be negative, actual direction of current at the junction is opposite to that
assumed, i  i1  i 2  0 can be satisfied only if at least one current is negative, i.e., leaving the junction.
(ii) This law is simply a statement of “conservation of charge” as if current reaching a junction is not
equal to the current leaving the junction, charge will not be conserved.
2) Kirchoff’s second law: This law is also known as loop the rule or voltage law (KVL) and according
to it “the algebraic sum of the changes in potential in complete traversal of a mesh (closed loop) is
zero”, i.e.,  V  0
Here it is worthy to note that:

(i) This law represents “conservation of energy” as if the sum of potential changes around a closed
loop is not zero, unlimited energy could be gained by repeatedly carrying a charge around a loop.
(ii) If there are n meshes in a circuit, the number of independent equations in accordance with loop
rule will be (n-1)
3) Sign convention for the application of Kirchoff’s law: For the application of Kirchoff’s laws
following sign convention are to be considered
(i) The change in potential in traversing a resistance in the direction of current is -iR while in the
opposite direction +iR
(ii) The change in potential in traversing an emf source from negative to positive terminal is +E while
in the opposite direction -E irrespective of the direction of current in the circuit.
33
(iii) The change in potential in traversing a capacitor from the negative terminal to the positive terminals
q q
 while in opposite direction  .
C C
di
(iv) The change in voltage is traversing in inductor in the direction of current is L while in opposite
dt
di
direction it is  L .
dt
4) Guidelines to apply Kirchoff’s law

(i) Starting from the positive terminal of the battery having highest emf, distribute current at various
junctions in the circuit in accordance with ‘junction rule’. It is not always easy to correctly guess the
direction of current, no problem if one assumes the wrong direction.
(ii) After assuming current in each branch, we pick a point and begin to walk (mentally) around a
closed loop. As we traverse each resistor, capacitor, inductor or battery we must write down, the
voltage change for that element according to the above sign convention.
(iii) By applying KVL we get one equation but in order to solve the circuit we require as many equations
as there are unknowns. So we select the required number of loops and apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law
across each such loop.
(iv) After solving the set of simultaneous equations, we obtain the numerical values of the assumed
currents. If any of these values come out to be negative, it indicates that particular current is in the
opposite direction from the assumed one.
• The number of loops must be selected so that every element of the circuit must be included in at
least one of the loops
• While traversing through a capacitor or battery we do not consider the direction of current
• While considering the voltage drop or gain across as inductor we always assume current to be in
increasing function.
Example
In the circuit shown in figure, find the current through the branch BD.
34
1) 5A 2) 0A 3) 3A 4) 4A
Sol: 1) The current in the circuit are assumed as shown in the figure.
Applying KVL along the loop ABDA, we get
Example
The figure shows a network of currents. The magnitude of current is shown here. The current i will be
1) 3A 2) 13A 3) 23A 4) -3A

Sol: 3
i  15  3  5  23 A
Example
As the switch S is closed in the circuit shown in figure, current passed through it is
35
1) 4.5A 2) 6.0A 3) 3.0A 4) Zero

Sol: 1
Let V be the potential of the junction as shown in figure. Applying junction law, we have
Example
In the following circuit the potential difference between P and Q is
1) 15V 2) 10V 3) 5V 4) 2.5V

Sol: 3
By using KVL 5  2  VPQ  15  0  X  100 
Example
Figure represents a part of the closed circuit. The potential difference between points A and B
 VA  VB  is
1) +9V 2) -9V 3) +3V 4) +6V

Sol: 1
The given part of a closed circuit can be redrawn as follows. It should be remember that product of
36
current and resistance can be treated as an imaginary cell having emf = iR.
COMBINATION OF CELLS
• Series combination
When cells are connected in series the total emf of the series combination is equal to the sum of the
emf’s of the individual cells and internal resistance of the cells also come in series.
Equivalent internal resistance r  r1  r2  r3  ...... Equivalent emf  E  E1  E 2  E 3  ....
E net nE
Current I  . If all n cell are identical then I 
rnet  R nr  R
E nE
If nr >> R, I   current from one cell. If nr << R, I   n current from one cell
r R
V
• Potential difference across each cell V 
n
2
 nE 
• Power dissipated in the external circuit P    .R
 R  nr 
 E2 
• P
Condition for maximum power R = nr and max  n  
 4r 
• This type of combination is used when nr << R
• When m cells are wrongly connected, equivalent EMF = (n - 2m)E
37
If non-identical cell are connected in series
The rule for series combination clearly can be extended to any number of cells:
i) The equivalent emf of a series combination of n cells is just the sum of their individual emf’s, and
ii) The equivalent internal resistance of a series combination of n cells is just the sum of their internal
resistances.
PARALLEL COMBINATION OF CELLS
Consider a parallel combination of the cells I1 and I2 are the currents leaving the positive electrodes of
the cells. At the point B1. I1 and I2 flow in whereas the current I flows out. Since as much charge flows
in as out, we have
I = I1 + I2
Let V(B1) and V(B2) be the potentials at B1 and B2 respectively. Then, considering the first cell, the
potential difference across the terminals is V(B1) - V(B2). Hence,
V  V  B1   V  B2   1  I1r1
38
Points B1 and B2 are connected exactly similarly to the second cell. Hence considering the second
cell, we also have V  V  B1   V  B2    2  I2 r2
Combining the last three equations

I = I1 + I2
1  V  2  V  1  2  1 1
     V  
r1 r2  r1 r2   r1 r2 
Hence, V is given by,
if we want to replace the combination by a single cell, between B1 and B2, of emf eq and internal
resistance req, we would have
V  eq  I req
The last two equations should be the same and hence
1r2   2 r1
eq 
r1  r2
r1r2
req 
r1  r2
We can put these equations in a simpler way,
1 1 1
 
req r1 r2
eq 1  2
 
req r1 r2
1 1 1
For n cells in parallel combination r
  ... 
eq r1 rn
eq 1 
  ...  n
req r1 rn
39
m IDENTICAL CELLS IN PARALLEL COMBINATION

When the cells are connected in parallel, the total e.m.f. of the parallel combination remains equal to
the e.m.f. of a single cell and internal resistance of the cell also come in parallel. If m identical cell
r
connected in parallel then total internal resistance of this combination rnet  . Total e.m.f of this
m
combination = E
E mE
I 
Current in the circuit r mR  r
R
m
If r << mR I  E / R  Current from one cell
mE
If r >> mR I  m current from one cell
r
2
 E 
Current from each cell i  i (f) Power dissipated in the circuit P    .R (in external circuit)
m Rr/m
 E2 
P
Condition for max power R = r/m and max  m   . This type of combination is used when
 4r 
mr >> R
Note: In this combination if cell’s are connected with reversed polarity as shown in figure then:
40
E1r2  E 2 r1
Equivalent emf E eq  r1  r2
1 1 1
 
req r1 r2
eq 1 2
 
req r1 r2
MIXED GROUPING OF CELLS

If n cells connected in series and their are m such branches in the circuit then total number of identical
cell in this circuit is nm. The internal resistance of the cells connected in a row = nr. Since there are
such m rows,
nr
Total internal resistance of the circuit rnet 
m
Total e.m.f. of the circuit = total e.m.f. of the cells connected in a row Enet = nE
Current in the circuit
Current in the circuit is maximum when external resistance in the circuit is equal to the total internal
nr
resistance of the cells R 
m
• Potential difference across load V = iR
V
• Potential difference across each cell V 
n
41
i
• Current from each cell i 
n
nr E2
• Condition for maximum power R  and Pmax   mn 
m 4r
• Total number of cell = mn
Example
Two batteries A and B each of emf 2 volt are connected in series to external resistance R  1  .
Internal resistance of A is 1.9  and that of B is 0.9  , what is the potential difference between the
terminals of battery A
1) 2V 2) 3.8V 3) 0 4) None of these
Sol: 3
Example
To get maximum current in a resistance of 3 one can use n rows of m cells connected in parallel.
If the total no. of cells is 24 and the internal resistance of a cell is 0.5 then
1) m = 12, n = 2 2) m = 8, n = 4 3) m = 2, n = 12 4) m = 6, n = 4
Sol: 1
nr
In this question R  3 , mn  24, r  0.5  and R  . On putting the values we get n = 2 and
m
m = 12
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
The arrangement of four resistors in the circuit shown is called the Wheatstone bridge. The bridge
has four resistors R1, R2 , R3 and R4. Across one pair of diagonally opposite points (A and C in the
figure) a source is connected. This (i.e., AC) is called the battery arm. Between the other two vertices,
B and D, a galvanometer G (Which is device to detect currents) is connected. This line shown as BD
in the figure, is called the galvanometer arm. For simplicity, we assume that the cell has no internal
resistance.
42
Generally a current will flow through the galvanometer, but in a balanced Wheatstone-Bridge current
through galvanometer is zero.
When current through galvanometer (lg) is zero, the currents I I2  I4 and I1  I3
From Kirchhoff’s loop rule to closed loops ADBA and CBDC. For first loop,
...(1)
For the second loop
Therefore thus ...(2)
From the above equations, the ratio of the resistor is
This last equation relating the four resistors is called the balance condition for the galvanometer to
give zero or null deflection.
The Wheatstone bridge and its balance condition provide a practical method for determination of an
unknown resistance.
R2
In the given situation the unknown resistance R 4  R 3
R1
43
At balancing condition potentials at points B and D are equal i.e, VD = VB
• On mutually changing the position of cell and galvanometer balancing condition will not change.
• The bridge is most sensitive when the resistance in all the four branches of the bridge is of same
order.
• The measurement of resistance by Wheatstone bridge is not affected by the internal resistance of
the cell.
METRE BRIDGE
It is based on principle of Wheatstone bridge. It is used to find out unknown resistance of wire. AC is
1m long uniform wire R.B. is known resistance and S is unknown resistance. A cell is connected
across 1m long wire and Galvanometer is connected between Jockey and midpoint D. To find out
unknown resistance we touch jockey from A to C and find balance condition. Let balance is at B point
on wire.
AB   cm P  r
BC  100    cm Q  r 100    Where r = resistance per unit length on wire.
At balance condition:
If the temperature of the conductor placed in the right gap of metre bridge is increased, then the
balancing length decreases and the jockey moves towards left.
44
The percentage error in R can be minimised by adjusting the balance point near the middle of the
bridge.
Example
In the adjoining network of resistors each is of resistance r  . Find the equivalent resistance between
point A and B
Sol: Given circuit is balanced Wheat stone bridge
Example
For the following diagram the galvanometer shows zero deflection then what is the value of R?
Sol: For balanced Wheatstone bridge
Example
An electrical circuit is shown in figure. Calculate the potential difference across the resistor of 400
ohm as will be measured by the voltmeter V of resistance 400 ohm either by applying Kirchhoff’s
rules or otherwise.
45
Sol: The given circuit with the voltmeter reduces to a balanced Wheatstone bridge.
The effective resistance across the source  150 
10 1
Current drawn from the cell i   A
150 15
1
The current is equally divided into both the branches. Therefore current in 200  is A
30
1 20
 The p.d. across 200   200   V
30 3
Example
Answer the following questions.
(i) Why are the connections between the resistors in a meter bridge made of thick copper strips?
(ii) Why is it generally preferred to obtain the balance point in the middle of the meter bridge wire?
(iii) Which material is used for the meter bridge
wire and why?
46
(i) The connections are made of thick copper wires to minimize the resistance of connecting wires.
Because the connection resistance have not been accounted in the formula, (Resistance is inversely
proportional to cross-sectional area, so thick wire has low resistance).
(ii) The error in the measured value of unknown resistance using bridge wire will be minimum, when
the null point is obtained at the middle of bridge wire. In this situation, the end error of the bridge will be
ineffective.
(iii) Alloys, such as manganin or constantan are used for making meter bridge wire due to their low
temperature coefficient of resistance and high resistivity.
Potentiometer
Potentiometer is a device mainly used to measure emf of a given cell and compare emf’s of cells. It
is also used to measure internal resistance of a given cell.
(1) Superiority of potentiometer over voltmeter: An ordinary voltmeter cannot measure the emf
accurately because it does draw some current to show the deflection. As per definition of emf, it is the
potential difference when a cell is in open circuit or no current through the cell. Therefore voltmeter
can only measure terminal voltage of a give n cell.
Potentiometer is based on no deflection method. When the potentiometer gives zero deflection, it
does not draw any current from the cell or the circuit i.e. potentiometer is effectively an ideal instrument
of infinite resistance for measuring the potential difference.
(2) Circuit diagram: Potentiometer consists of a long resistive wire AB of length L (about 6m to 10 m
long) made up of manganine or constantan. A battery of known voltage e and internal resistance r
called supplier battery or driver cell. Connection of these two forms primary circuit.
One terminal of another cell (whose emf E is to be measured) is connected at one end of the main
circuit and the other terminal at any point on the resistive wire through a galvanometer G. This forms
the secondary circuit. Other details are as follows.
J = Jockey
K = Key
R = Resistance of potentiometer wire,
 = Specific resistance of potentiometer wire
Rh = Variable resistance which controls the current through the wire AB
(3) Points to be remember
(i) The specific resistance   of potentiometer wire must be high but its temperature coefficient of
resistance    must be low
(ii) All higher potential points (terminals) of primary and secondary circuits must be connected together
at point A and all lower potential must be connected to point B or jockey.
47
(iii) The value of known potential difference must be greater than the value of unknown potential
difference to be measured.
(iv) The potential gradient must remain constant. For this the current in the primary circuit must
remain constant and the jockey must not be slided in contact with the wire.
(v) The diameter of potentiometer wire must be uniform everywhere
(4) Potential gradient (x): Potential different (or fall in potential) per unit length of wire is called
potential gradient i.e.
x1 L 2
Note: When potential difference V is constant then 
x 2 L1
x1 R 1 L 2
Two different wire are connected in series to form a potentiometer wire then  .
x 2 R 2 L1
If the length of a potentiometer wire and potential difference across it’s ends are kept constant and if
it’s diameter is changed from d1  d 2 then potential gradient remains unchanged.
The value of x does not change with any change effected in the secondary circuit.
(5) Working: Suppose jockey is made to touch a point J on wire then potential difference between a
and J will be V  x
At this length    two potential difference are obtained.
(i) V due to battery e and

(ii) E due to unknown cell
If V > E then current will flow in galvanometer circuit in one direction
If V < E the current will flow in galvanometer circuit in opposite direction
If V = E then no current will flow in galvanometer circuit this condition to known as null deflection
position, length  is known as balancing length.
48
In balanced condition
(6) Standardization of potentiometer: The process of determining potential gradient experimentally

is known as standardization of potentiometer.
Let the balancing length for the standard emf E0 is  0 then by the principle of potentiometer
E0
E 0  x 0  x 
0
(7) Sensitivity of potentiometer: A potentiometer is said to be more sensitive, if it measures a

small potential difference more accurately.
(i) The sensitivity of potentiometer is assessed by the potential gradient. The sensitivity is inversely
proportional to the potential gradient.
(ii) In order to increase the sensitivity of potentiometer.
(a) The resistance in primary circuit will have to be increased
(b) The length of potentiometer wire will have to be increased so that the length may be measured
more accuracy.
(8) Difference between voltmeter and potentiometer
49
Application of Potentiometer
(1) To determine the internal resistance of a primary cell
(i) Initially in secondary circuit key K remains open and balancing length  1  is obtained. Since cell
E is in open circuit so it’s emf balances on length 1 i.e. E  x1 ...(i)
(ii) Now key K  is closed so cell E comes in closed circuit. If the process is repeated again then
potential difference V balances on length  2 i.e.V  x 2
R 
(iii) By using formula internal resistance r    1 R 
V 
   
r   1 2  .R 
 2 
(2) Comparison of emf’s of two cell: Let 1 and  2 be the balancing lengths with the cells E1 and E2
E1 1
respectively then E1  x 1 and E 2  x 2  
E2  2
Note: Let E1 > E2 and both are connected in series. If balancing length is 1 when cell assist each
other and it is  2 when they oppose each other as shown then:
50
(3) Comparison of resistances: Let the balancing length for resistance R1 (When XY is connected)
is 1 and let balancing length for resistance R1 + R2 (when YZ is connected) is  2
then iR1  x1 and i  R 1  R 2   x 2
R 2  2  1
 
R1 1
Note:
• In case of zero deflection in the galvanometer current flows in the primary circuit of the potentiometer,
not in the galvanometer circuit.
• A potentiometer can act an ideal voltmeter.
• Balancing condition is independent of the resistance connected in series to the galvanometer. Because
at balancing condition current through this resistance is zero.
• To obtain balancing length primary EMF must be greater than the secondary EMF
• The potentiometer has the advantage that it draws no current from the voltage source being measured.
As such it is unaffected by the internal resistance of the source.
• If the wire is of non-uniform cross-section , then the resistance of wire of same length at different
positions will be different. As the current is same through all sections, p.d. across the same length
will be different. Hence potential gradient will not be uniform upon the length of wire.
Example
A battery with negligible internal resistance is connected with 10m long wire. A standard cell gets
balanced on 600cm length of this wire. On increasing the length of potentiometer wire by 2m then the
null point will be displaced by
1) 200 cm 2) 120 cm 3) 720 cm 4) 600 cm
51
Sol: 2
Example
The resistivity of a potentiometer wire is 40 × 10-8  m and its area of cross section is 8 × 10-6m2. If
0.2 amp. Current is flowing through the wire, the potentiometer gradient will be
1) 10-2 volt/m 2) 10-1 volt/m 3) 3.2 × 10-2 volt/m 4) 1 volt/m
Sol: 1
Potential gradient
Example
A deniel cell is balanced on 125cm length of a potentiometer wire. When the cell is short circuited
with a 2  resistance the balancing length obtained is 100cm. Internal resistance of the cell will be
1) 1.5  2) 0.5  3) 1.25  4) 4 / 5 

Sol: 2
By using
Example
A potentiometer wire of length 10m and a resistance 30  is connected in series with a battery of
emf 2.5V and internal resistance 5  and an external resistance R. If the fall of potential along the
potentiometer wire is 50 V / mm , the value of R is  in  
1) 115 2) 80 3) 50 4) 100
Sol: 1
52
Example
A 2 volt battery, a 15 resistor and a potentiometer of 100 cm length, all are connected in series. If
the resistance of potentiometer wire is 5  , then the potential gradient of the potentiometer wire is
1) 0.005 V/cm 2) 0.05 V/cm 3) 0.02 V/cm 4) 0.2 V/cm
Sol: 1
By using
Example
In an experiment to measure the internal resistance of a cell by potentiometer, it is found that the
balance point is at a length of 2m when the cell is shunted by a 5  resistance; and is at a length of
3m when the cell is shunted by a 10  resistance. The internal resistance of the cell is, then
1) 1.5  2) 10  3) 15 4) 1
Sol: 2
By using
and
On solving (i) and (ii) r  10

ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES
Rated or Design Values:
Some of the values like; wattage, voltage etc. are printed on the electrical appliances are called rated
or design values.
The maximum potential difference can be applied to a device for its safe working is called rated
voltage and the corresponding maximum current is called rated current.
If Vr, Ir and Pr are the rated voltage, current and power of a device respectively, then resistance of the
device
Vr2 Vr
R 
Pr Ir
Now let a potential difference of V is applied across this device, then the power consumed is
2
V2  V 
P    Pr
R  Vr 
53
If V = V0, then P = P0.  An electric appliance consumes the rated power only when applied voltage
is rated voltage.
Two bulbs connected in series
Consider two bulbs of some voltage ratings Vr and rated powers P1 and P2 respectively. When they
Vr2 V2
are connected as shown the power consumed are P1  and P2  r
R1 R2
When these two bulbs are connected in series to the same source voltage V0, total power consumed
Vr2
P
R1  R 2
Vr2
P
Vr2 Vr2

P1 P2
1 1 1 PP
  or P 1 2
P P1 P2 P1  P2
54
1 1 1 1
For n bulbs    ... 
P P1 P2 Pn
If the applied voltage is not equal to rated voltage, then power consumed in series combination
V2
P
R1  R 2
2
V2  V  P1P2
P 2 2
 
Vr Vr  Vr  P1  P2

P1 P2
Two bulbs are connected in Parallel

2 2
From the above situation R1  Vr and R 2  Vr
P1 P2
In parallel combination
Vr2 Vr2
P 
R1 R 2
P  P1  P2
V 2 V 2 V2 V2
When the applied voltage is not equal Vr, then P    2 P1  2 P2
R 1 R 2 Vr Vr
55
2
V
P    (P1  P2 )
 Vr 
Example: An electric kettle has two heating coils. When one of the coils is switched on, boiling begins
in 6 minutes. When the other coil is switched on, boiling begins in 8 minute. In what time will the
boiling begin if both coils are switched on simultaneously (i) in series and (ii) in parallel.
Answer: Let the power of first coil is P1 and that of second coil is P2. Let it be the amount of heat
required to boil water. Then H  P1 t1  P2 t 2
(i) When the coils are connected in series
1 1 1
 
P P1 P2
H 1 1  t t 
time, t s   H    H 1  2 
P  P1 P2  H H 
t s  t1  t 2 t s  6  8  14 minute
(ii) When the coils are connected in parallel
H
P  P1  P2 time t p  P  P
1 2
H
tp  1 1 1
H H  
 t p t1 t 2
t1 t 2
tt
1 2 68
or t p  t  t tp   3.43 minute
1 2 68
SOME APPLICATIONS
(a) Fusing of bulb when it is switched on:
Usually filament bulbs get fused when they are switched on. This is because with the rise in
temperature, the resistance of the bulb increases and becomes constant in steady state. So the
2
 
power consumed by the bulb V / R initially is more than that in steady state and hence the bulb
glows more brightly in the beginning and may get fused.
Two wires made of tinned copper having identical cross section (=10-6 m2) and lengths 10 and 15cm
are to be used as fuses. Show that the fuses will melt at the same value of current in each case.
56
Sol: The temperature of the wire rises to a certain steady temperature when the heat produced per second
by the current just becomes equal to the rate of loss of heat from its surface.
2 2 
Heat produced per second by the current  I R  I , where  is the length, r is radius of the wire
r 2
and  is the specific resistance. Let H be heat lost per second per unit surface area of the wire. If we
neglect the loss of heat from the end faces of the wire, then heat lost per second by the wire is H ×
surface area of wire H  2r
At steady state temperature,
 2  2
H  2r  or H  ---(i)
r 2 2 2 r 3
I r 3/ 2
From Eq. (i) we not that the rate of loss of heat (H) which, in turn, depends upon the temperature of
the wire is independent of length of the wire. Hence, the fuses of two wires of the same values of r
and  but of different lengths will melt for the same value of current in each case.
(b) Decreases in the brightness of bulb after long use:
Also due to evaporation of metal from the filament (which deposits as black substance on the inner
side of glass wall), the filament of the bulb becomes thinner and thinner with use. This increases the
2
resistance  R  L / r  of the bulb and as P  V 2 / R the brightness of light emitted by a bulb
decreases gradually with time.
(c) Decrease in brightness of a bulb in a room when a heavy current appliance is switched
on:
As shown in figure, if the bulb draws a current I1 from the source, then terminal voltage of source
 V   E  I1r  and so power consumed by the bulb is
Now, when a heavy current appliance such as motor, heater or geyser is switched on, it will draw a
heavy current, sat I2, from the source so that terminal voltage will become.
and hence power consumed by the bulb will now be
57
So, the brightness of the bulb decreases.

Note: If the source is ideal, i.e., r = 0, V  V  E then P  P , i.e., there will be no change in the
brightness of the bulb, if the source is ideal.
(d) Fuse and its action:
It is a metallic conducting wire of 75% Pb and 25% Sn with low melting point and higher resistance
and is in series with an appliance
it is a safety device which protects the appliance from getting damaged, by melting and opening the
circuit, if the current in the circuit exceeds a specific predetermined value, called ‘current capacity’.
(e) The wires supplying current to a bulb are not heated while the filament of the bulb becomes hot. It
is because resistance of the wires is very small in comparison to the resistance of bulb. If alone the
wires are connected, then whole of the potential differences will be across the wires and because
their resistance is very small, a large amount of heat will be generated from P = V2/R. This happens
when wires are short circuited.
(f) The resistance of high electric power instrument will be smaller than that of low electric power
instrument. Because for a given voltage: P = V2/R. For example, iron, heater, geyser.
The heating element of these appliances is made of nichrome. It is an alloy of Ni and Cr. Its resistivity
is higher in comparison to platinum, tungsten and copper, etc. Nichrome is used because
i) it has high resistivity and high melting point,
ii) it is not oxidized when heated,
iii) it can be easily drawn into wires
V2 V 2 At
Resistivity is kept higher so that smaller length can be used, as H  t
R 
(g) Incandescent electric lamp:
It consists of a metal filament generally made of tungsten. It is enclosed in a glass bulb with some
inert gas and at suitable pressure. The filament gets heated, then it becomes white hot (known as
incandescent stage) and starts emitting white light. The filament should have high melting point.
Note: If the source voltage is greater than the rated voltage of a device, then a resistance is connected
in series to the device to reduce the voltage drop across the device to its rated value or to reduce the
current to its rated value.
R = resistance of the device
Rs = series resistance 58
V = applied voltage
The current through the circuit cannot be greater than the rated current I  I r
V V
 r VR  Vr R  Vr R s
R  Rs R
 V  Vr  R  V  Vr  R
 Rs   R s min 
Vr Vr
 2Vr  Vr  R
If V  2Vr , then  R s  min  R
Vr
• Some of the energy lost as heat energy across the series resistance.
Nodal Method of Circuit Analysis
It is based on Kirchhoff’s junction law. At any node or junction in an electrical circuit  I  0 . This
equation is referred to as nodal equation.
Assign potential of every junction of circuit taking potential of any one of the junctions of the circuit
zero. Apply nodal equation to solve for unknown potential introduced in the circuit.
Note: In electrical circuits potential at the points where earthed are taken as zero.
Example
The resistance and batteries are connected as shown in the figure. Find out the potential at point A.
59
Answer
Let the potential at A, be x. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law (nodal equation) at junction A,
 x  20  10   x  15  20  x  45  x   30   0

1 2 2 1
2x  60  x  35  x  45  2x  60
0
2
5
6x + 10 = 0 or x  V
3
• Currents through resistances can be found out by using the potential at A.

Example
Find out the current in the wire BD
60
Answer
Let potential at ‘B’ be zero, then the potentials at other points are as shown.
20  0
I2   4A
5
10  0
I1   5A
2
I1  I2  I3
 5  4  I3 I 3  1A
Example
Find the current in the wire BD.
61
Sol:
Potential at A is assumed to be zero.
x  10 x  10  0 x  20  0
Nodal equation at D   0
2 2 5
2x  20 x  20
 0
2 5
x  10 x  20
I3  x  10  0
2 5
5
I3  A from D to B 5x  50  x  20  0
2
5
I3  A from B to D 6x  30 x  5V
2
Example
Find out the current in each wire:
62
40
Sol: I1   20A
2
30
I2   15A
2
40
I3   40 A
1
I  I3  I2  I1
= 40 - 15 - 20
I  5A
• In the below circuit, the current in each resistance is:
Diagram shows that potential difference across each resistor is zero. So current through each resistor
is zero.
Example
Find out the power supplied by the 25V cell:
63
Sol:
55  0
I1   5A
11
45  0
I2   9A
5
30  0
I3   3A
10
5  0
I4   3A
5
 I  I1  I2  I3  I4  20 A
 Power supplied P  VI  20  25  500 W

EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE OF COMPLEX NETWORKS
(1) Method of successive reduction: It is the most common technique to determine the equivalent
resistance. So far, we have been using this method to find out the equivalent resistances. This method
is applicable only when we are able to identify resistances in series or in parallel. The method is
based on the simplification of the circuit by successive reduction of the series and parallel combinations.
For example to calculate the equivalent resistance between the point A and B the network shown
below successively reduced.
64
(2) Method of equipotential points: This method is based on identifying the points of same potential
and joining them. The basic rule to identify the points of same potential is the symmetry of the network.
The points of same potential can be found out by symmetry techniques. The most common symmetry
are
• Parallel axis of symmetry
• Perpendicular axis of symmetry
• Shifted symmetry or as symmetry
• Path symmetry
Parallel axis of Symmetry
This symmetry is along the direction of current flow.
About this axis, all characteristics such as current and potential should be symmetrical. Points lying
along the parallel axis of symmetry can never have same potential.
The network can be folded about the parallel axis of symmetry, and the overlapping nodes have same
potential.
Perpendicular Axis of Symmetry
It is perpendicular to the direction of current. Here circuit diagram is symmetric except for the fact that
the input and output are reversed.
Points lying on the perpendicular axis of symmetry may have same potential.
Path Symmetry
According to path symmetry, if all the paths from one point to another point have the same configuration
of resistance or capacitance, then the charge or current into the beginning of the path must be same.
Example
Find out the effective resistance between M and N
The axis MN is the parallel axis of symmetry. From parallel axis of symmetry I1  I2 , I3  I4 and
I7  I8 . Also potentials VA = VB  A and B can be connected together. Thus the circuit can be redrawn
as.
65
2R
So effective resistance R MN 
3
The above circuit has perpendicular axis of symmetry. From this I1  I4 , I6  I5 and I2 = I3. thus currents
s
through resistors (7) and (8) are zero and they can be removed from the circuit.
2R
Thus R MN 
3
• Find out Effective resistance between M and M 
66
The circuit has parallel axis of symmetry  MM  . Therefore the circuit can be folded about the axis
MM .
• The above circuit has perpendicular axis of symmetry about the axis AB. Therefore A, O and B can be
connected together.
67
Example:
The circuit has perpendicular

axis of symmetry.
Thus the circuit can
be redrawn as shown
Example
Consider a more complex example where you have resistors an all edges of a cube. The resistors
are all the same. Then find the equivalent resistance between the corners A and B as shown in figure.
I
From symmetry I12  I14  I18 
3
68
11 I
I27  I 23    
2 3 6
I
Similarly, we can say that I43  I 45  I 85  I87 
6
Therefore, to calculate the potential difference across 1-6 (see figure) the path A1276, we have
I I I R R R  5
V1  R  R  R  V6  V1  V6  I      IR
3 6 3 3 6 3 6
 V1  V6   5 R
Hence,
I 6
Therefore, the equivalent resistance is

5
R
6
Method 2: In between A and B, symmetry of the circuit indicates that 2,8,4 are at equal potential and
similarly 3,5,7. So the cube may be redrawn as
R R R
R eq  ' ' ' '
3 6 3
where ‘+’ stands for the series
R R R 5
    R
3 6 3 6
69
Example
Twelve equal wires each of resistance r are joined to form a skeleton cube. Find the equivalent
resistance between two corners on the same edge of the cube.
Answer
Out previous knowledge reveals that points 3 and 6 must be at the same potential. So must be 4 and
5. If points of equal potential are joint by a wire, the currents in the circuit do not change. The given
network of resistors can be reduced successively as shown in figure.
70
Example
Twelve wires, each having resistance r, are joined to form a cube as shown in figure. Find the equivalent
resistance between the ends of a face diagonal such as 1 and 8.
Sol:
from symmetry V5 = V6 and V4 = V3
71
Example
Determine the resistance RAO between points A and O of the frame by eight identical wires of resistance
R each
Sol:
From symmetry consideration the potentials of points C and D are equal. Therefore, this circuit can
be replaced by joining the junctions C and D.
The equivalent resistance between C and O.
72
R 3R

R CO  2 2  3R
R 3R 8

2 2
R 3R 7R
Resistance of arm ACO:  R AC  R CO   
2 8 8
Now resistance between A and O
 7R 
R 
8  7R
R AO   
7R 15
R
8
V V 15V
i  
Thus the current R AO 7R 7R
15
Example
Thirteen resistances each of resistance R  are connected in the circuit as shown in the following
figure. The effective resistance between A and B is
Sol:
2R
Hence R eq 
3
73
Shifted Symmetry
Shifted symmetry is the same as the parallel axis of symmetry and the perpendicular axis of symmetry
principles, except that the symmetry is shifted.
The first circuit has perpendicular axis of symmetry.  I1  I 4 and I2  I3 .
If we interchange the positions of (2) and (4) the circuit (b) becomes symmetric. This is called shifted
symmetry. If the circuit has shifted symmetry then the currents I1 = I3 and I2 = I4
74
For the loop ACDBA
I1 2R  I2 R   I  I1  R  0
3I1R  I2 R  IR  0
I  3I1  I 2 ...(1)
For loop MBDFNGHM
  I  I1  R  2RI1  V  0
 IR  I1R  V  0 ...(2)
From Kirchoff’s first law at junction C,
I1  I2  I  I1
I2  2I1  I ...(3)
Put (3) in (1)
I  3I1  2I1  I
2I
I1 
5
3I
I  I1 
5
I
I2 
5
I
I 2  from D ro C
5
2I
From equation (2) V  IR  R
5
V 7R V 7R
 But R eq   R eq 
I 5 I 5
75
Delta/Star Transformation
Suppose three resistances R12, R13 and R23 are connected in delta fushion between 1,2 and 3 as in
figure. These three resistance can be replaced by the three resistance R1, R2 and R3 connected in
star as shown. These two electrically equivalent.
R 12 R 31 R 12 R 23
R1  R2 
R 12  R 23  R 31 R 12  R 23  R 31
R 13 R 23
R3 
R 13  R 23  R12
Resistance of each arm of the star is given by the product of the resistance of the two delta sides that
meet at its end divided by the sum of the three delta resistances.
Star to Delta Transformation
R 1R 2 R 1R 3
R12  R 1  R 2  R13  R 1  R 3 
R3 R2
R 2R 3
R 23  R 2  R 3 
R1
The equivalent delta resistance between any two terminals is given by the sum of star resistances
between those terminals plus the product of these two star resistances divided by the third star
resistance.
76
Example
The delta CDE into equivalent star.
4  8 16
R CS   
18 9
4  6 12
R SD   
18 9
6  8 24
R SE   
18 9
16 35
R AB  4  
9 9
87
R AB  
9
77
Example
Star to delta
24
R AB  6  4   18 
3
63 16
R AC  6  3   9   13.5 
4 4
12
R BC  7   9
6
18 
R AB   
11

441 
R BC   effective resistances
550 
621 
R CA  
550 
Example
Find out the effective resistance between A and B
78
Sol: We can simplify the circuit by transforming delta A C D into star as follows.
R 1R 2 5  10 5
R12    
R 1  R 2  R 3 5  10  5 2
R 1R 3 5 5 5
R13    
R 1  R 2  R 3 5  10  5 4
R 2R 3 10  5 5
R 23    
R 1  R 2  R 3 5  10  5 2
5 9
R AB    7
2 2
79

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE LT-22 AIIMS PHYSICS (ONLINE)

 Current is a scalar quantity with its SI unit ampere

Types of current : Electric current is of two type

At room temperature T = 300K,  rms  105 m / s

total time taken

Relation between current and drift velocity

CURRENT DENSITY (J)

Here tan 1  tan 2 So R 1  R 2 i.e. T1  T2

1volt 108 emu of potential

Resistivity:   RA /  if   1m, A = 1 m2 then   R

1.6 × 10-8   m and fused quartz = minimum 1016   m

Resistivity of some electrical material: insulator  alloy  semi conductor  conductor

RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT DENSITY, CONDUCTIVITY AND ELECTRIC FIELD

Total number of electrons in dx distance = n (Adx)

 depends only on the material of the conductor and its temperature.

If a steady current flows in a metallic conductor of non uniform cross section.

(i) Along the wire I is same

i) directly on its initial resistance

Hence, the temperature-coefficient of a material may be defined as:

From Eq. (i), we find that R t  R 0 1  t  ...(ii)

The value of  is different at different temperature. Temperature coefficient of resistance averaged

1    t 2  t1   . This formula gives an approximate value.

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTIVITY

Safe current of fuse wire relates with it’s radius as i  r 3/ 2 .

ELECTRIC POWER AND ENERGY

In a time interval t , an amount of charge Q  I t travels from A to B.

U = Final potential energy - Initial potential energy

K  U pot that is, K  IVt  0

• Same current passes through each resistance

V  V1  V2  V3  IR S  IR 1  IR 2  IR 3  R S  R 1  R 2  R 3 Where RS = equivalent resistance

Where R  = Resistance across which potential difference is to be calculated, Req = equivalent

• Power consumed are in the ratio of their resistance i.e., P  R  P1 : P2 : P3  R 1 : R 2 : R 3

• There is same drop of potential across each resistance.

• Current in each resistance is inversely proportional to the value of resistance. I  V , I  V .I  V

• Current flowing in the circuit is sum of the currents in individual resistance.

Where Rp = equivalent resistance

resistance is smaller than the minimum value of resistance in the combination.

• Current through any resistance

 Resistance of opposite branch 

• Parallel combination is called current divider circuit

SHORT AND OPEN CIRCUITS

In figure is shown a normal series circuit where V  12V, R  R 1  R 2  R 3  6 

Following points about the circuit of figure are worth noting.

Example: Effective resistance between points A and B is:

Their equivalent resistance at any temperature in series is

At any temperature toC

Solving by Binomial theorem, we have

For an ideal cell internal resistance is zero

Concentration of electrolyte increases  r increases

Temperature increases  r decreases

 Power delivered will be maximum when R=r

b) When cell is charging:

During charging terminal potential difference is greater than emf of cell.

power consumed by the load E 2 R /  R  r 

Here it is worthy to note that:

Here it is worthy to note that:

4) Guidelines to apply Kirchoff’s law

1) 3A 2) 13A 3) 23A 4) -3A

1) 4.5A 2) 6.0A 3) 3.0A 4) Zero