Subject: Electronic

Semester5th all note

.‫ هغه وسیله دبرق ده چې یوخوابرق پریږدي بل خوایې بالک کوي‬:Semiconductor
.‫ داتوم اساسي ذره ده‬:Electrons
Holes: At low temperature the relationship between electrons in semiconductor are
very strong (Covalent), but while receiving additional energy the covalent between
the electrons break and the electrons jump from valance bond to conduction bond,
at valance bond a space is created where the electrons was present before, this
space is called Holes. Represented by a small circle and denoted by P which is
positive charge. CB

EG VB
………..Heat
‫کله چې الکترون حرکت نه کوي اواضافي انرژي ورکړل شي ددوي ترمنځ خالیګاپیداکیږي هماغه‬
.‫ ده‬P ‫ اوسمبول یې هم‬.‫ ویل کیږي اوچارج یې هم مثبت ده‬Holes ‫خالیګاته‬
Generation process: The process where electron jump from valance bond to
conductor bond due to increasing the temperature
.‫په نوم یادیږي‬GP‫دکوم پروسیس په نتیجه کې چې کله الکترون پورته الړشي د‬
Recombination process or RP: The process where the electrons return but from
conduction bond to valance bond due to decreasing the temperature is called
Recombination process.
.‫ ویل کیږي‬RP‫اوکله چې دکوم پروسیس په نتیجه کې الکترون ښکته راشي دې ته‬
Electrons: are present and conduction bond which are negative charge.
Holes: are present and valance bond which are positive charge.
P= Numbers of holes. N= Numbers of electrons.
Important of holes: The creation of holes causes the electrons to move and the
movement are routing but electricity.
.‫ تشکیل باعث حرکت دالکترون کیږي چې داعبارت له برق څخه ده‬Holes ‫دې‬

Prepared by: Engineer Asadullah Khatir 1

Law of mass action and semiconductor: At states that the number of electrons
multiplied by the number of holes is a constant (n2).
‫ دي‬n2‫ په یوه نیمه هادي کې مساوي له یوثابت عددسره دي ثابت عدد‬holes‫حاصل ضرب دالکترون او‬
:‫مثال‬.‫داقانون جمعي ده‬
N-----10-8 NXP= 10-8 *10-6 = 10-14
P-----10-6
Distribution of electrons and holes in semiconductor:
1: Let NC---- Effective density in conduction bond ‫کثافت موثر‬
2: NV-----Effective density in valance bond.
3: Eg-----Energy gap.
4: KT----Temperature degree.
5: EC----Energy in conduction bond.
6: EV---Energy in valance bond.
7: E+-----Fermi level ‫فاصله ددووالکترونواوددوواتومونوترمنځ دفیرمې لیول په نوم یادیږي‬.
-
1: Given! N= NC*EXP (EC –E+) ‫فرمول تعداالکترون‬
KT
–
2: P! NV*EP (E+ -EV) ‫فرمول تعدا هول‬
KT
Multiplying equation (1) and (2) we get.
–
N*P= NC*NV EXP (EC-E+ E+-EV)
KT
–
N2=NC*NV EXP (EC-EV) =
KT
( EG )
√ n 2=NC . NV exp− /√
KT

Prepared by: Engineer Asadullah Khatir 2

 −( EG )
N= NC.NV EXP .
2 KT

.‫ انرژي پاتې کیږي‬EG‫ انرژي کمه کړونو‬EV ‫انرژي څخه‬EC ‫که چیرته له‬
From this equation we can conclude the number of electrons in semiconductor is
directly proportional to temperature and inversely proportional to energy Gap.
1 1 1 1
= = = =0,5
−( EG ) 2 1 1 4
N= NC.NV EXP . N= (16) ( 16 ) 2 2
2 KT 2
(16)

P-N Junction: It is formed when P, Type of semiconductor is connected

with N, Type of semiconductor P, Type of semiconductor is the region
of where holes are present and N, Type of semiconductor where the
region where electrons are present is. P, Type N, Type
++++++ ----------

P-N Junction

+++++

.‫ په نوم یادیږي‬P-N Junction‫ ترمنځ دیوځای کیدومشترکې ساحه د‬N,Type ‫ اودې‬P,Type‫د‬

What happen when a P, N Junction is made? The electrons near the junction travel
from N-Type to P-Type and the holes near the junction travel from P-Type to N-
Type , A space or vacancy is set to be created this vacancy is called Depletion
layer. Which plays the rule of EG Gap.
‫ په نوم‬Depletion layer‫ تشکیل شي ددوي ترمنځ خالیګاپیداکیږي داخالیګاد‬P-N Junction ‫کله چې‬
.‫ هم ویلی شو‬EG ‫اودې ته‬.‫یادیږي‬
Working of P-N Junction. 1: Forward Biased Condition (F, B, C).
2: When P-Type of semiconductor is connected to positive terminal of the battery
and N-Type of semiconductor is connected to negative terminal the battery is
called (F, B, and C).
‫کله چې‬.‫ ویل کیږي‬F,B,C ‫ سره وصل شي دې عملې ته‬N ‫ له‬N‫ او‬P ‫له‬p ‫کله چې یوقیسم چارجونه یعنې‬
Diode = Si0,7v Ge0,3v.‫ کم شي الکترونونه حرکت کوي‬DL

Prepared by: Engineer Asadullah Khatir 3

Us we know that the same charges repels each other, are the voltage of battery is
greater than the P-N Junction voltages so positive holes and Negative terminal of
battery pushes the electrons. In result the Depletion layer decreases hence the
conductivity’s increases. 2: Reverse Biased Condition(R, B, C).
When P, Type of semiconductor is connected to terminal of battery is connected to
negative and N, Type of semiconductor is connected to positive is called reverse
biased condition.
.‫ ویل کیږي‬R,B,C ‫ سره وصل شي دې عملې ته‬P ‫ له‬N‫ سره او‬N ‫له‬P ‫کله چې‬
3: Diode: Is a P-N Junction that allows the unidirectional slow of current and it
blocks the current and reverse directional.
.‫ دی چې برق یوخواته پریږدي اوددوباره راګرځیدوڅخه مخنیوی کوي‬P-N Junction‫دایو‬
It acts us valve in electronic device.
V-I Characteristic of P-N Junction Diode: V=Voltage ‫( واحدیې دی‬Volt) Axis=X
I=Current ‫( واحدیې دی‬Amp) Axis=Y

I (mA)
60
50 F.B.C
40
30
Ge
20 Si
10

VD VD (Volt)
0, 1 0, 2 0, 3 0, 4 0, 5 0, 6 0, 7
R.B.C

I (ṂA

.‫ وکړي‬Diode Conduct‫ څخه زیات شي ترڅو‬0,3 ‫ له‬Volt‫ په حالت کې بایددبطرۍ‬F.B.C ‫دې‬

Prepared by: Engineer Asadullah Khatir 4

 ‫ قطع‬Diode ‫ وصل کړونوبرق نه تیره وي که برق زیات شي‬Diode‫ په حالت کې مونږ‬R.B.C ‫که د‬
Diode Current‫ د‬.‫ ویل کیږي‬Reverse Break down Voltage (R.B.V) ‫کیږي چې دې حالت ته‬
VD
( ID= IS ) :‫فرمول‬
e μ VT−1

ISReverse Saturation Current ‫ډایوډپه دې حالت کې برق نه تیره وي‬.

EEiller Number=2,718…
VDDiode Voltage (0,7vsi 0,3v Ge)
‫ثابت ده‬µIdeality Factor (constant) 1Si 2Ge
VTThermal Voltage (26mv at room temperature)
VD ID . RD VD
Practical and Ideal Diode: V=I.R VD=ID.RD= RD
= R.D
= ID= RD

Conduct ‫سره‬Diode ‫ له‬ID ‫ په حالت کې کوچنۍ دی نوپه دې حالت کې‬F.B.C ‫دې‬1Practical: RD

.‫نه کوي‬Conduct ‫ سره‬Diode ‫له‬ID ‫په حالت کې زیات دی نوپه دې حالت کې‬R.B.C ‫دې‬RD‫ او‬.‫کوي‬
VD VD
2: Ideal: F.B.C rd. (Reade stance is zero). ID= rd = 0 =∞ , ID−→ ∞

.‫ده‬Open switch ‫چې ده‬ID ‫په حالت کې‬R.B.C‫ خود‬.‫ دی‬Closed switch ‫ چې ده‬ID ‫په دې حالت کې‬
VD
R.B.C: rd. is Infinity ‫ یعنې بیخي زیات دی‬rd. = ∞, ID= ∞ =0 ID=0

V-I Characteristic of Ideal diode:

‫ په حالت کې چې په‬R.B.C‫ خود‬.‫ کوي‬Conduct‫ وصل کړو‬Diode ‫کې‬ID ‫په حالت کله چې په‬F.B.C‫د‬
.‫ نه کوي‬Conduct‫ وصل کړو‬Diode ‫کې‬VD
.‫ مستقیم ده‬DC ‫ ګراف دې‬:Direct Current (DC) Load line
Here we prove that the DC load line is a straight line. Y=mx+b ‫دمستقیم خط معادله‬
‫ له صفرڅخه‬m> 0 ‫ کله چې‬:m ) Sopel ‫ (میل‬.‫مستقیم خط هغه خط ده کوم چې په کوچنۍ فاصله کې ده‬
‫ دی‬m<0 ‫ کومه زاویه چې تشکیل کوي هغه‬x‫زیات شودلته دهغه معادله ګراف دمثبت جهت محور‬
‫حاده زاویه او‬m>0=∞<900 .‫ زاویه منفرجه دی‬900∞‫ شو‬m<0‫اوګراف معادله جهت مثبت محور‬
.‫ منفرجه زاویه ده‬m<0=∞900
Let us consider a diode connected in series with load resistor and the applied
voltage to the diode is DC such that the diode is in output applying KVL
(Kirchhoff’s Voltage Low) to the CKT (‫)قانون سرکیټ‬.

Prepared by: Engineer Asadullah Khatir 5

The total voltage of closed circuit =0 ‫مجموعه دپوتانشل په یوبسته سرکیټ کې مساوي صفر دی‬
KVL: -+=+ +-=- ID.R=V +vdc-VD-ID.RL=0… (1)
−VDC+ VD vdc VD
Solving equation one for ID we get –ID.RL= −RL
=¿ ID= −
RL RL
=¿

−1 vdc
ID= ( RL ) VD+ RL …. (2) Comparing equation to with straight line equation
−1 vdc
we get. M= RL Y=ID X= VD B= RL .

Hence mathematically we proved that the DC load line is a straight line.

−1 vdc
ID= ( RL ) VD+ RL …. (2)
Y VD
X ID

0 3
0 Vdc
-3 0
RL
Vdc
0

−1 vdc 1 vdc
0= RL VD+ RL => RL RL VD= RL .RL=> VD=vdc.

Hence graphically we proved that the DC load line is a straight line.

2 x −4
Y=2x-4 m=2>0=>∞900 0=2x-4. =
−2 x −2
=¿ x=2

Examples: 1 for the series diode configuration, Determine VD, ID and VR.

Si
+ _

8V +

ID 2,2KΩ/VR
_

Soln: 1 Analyzing the circuit: 2: The diode is in F.B.C and VB>VD

3: The diode is conducting. ‫ولټیج بطرۍ ازولټیج ډایوډزیات است نوځکه کانډکټ کوي‬.

Prepared by: Engineer Asadullah Khatir 6

Solving: VD=0, 7 Applying KVL for the CKT. 8v-0, 7v-ID.2, 2KΩ=0
7,3 v 2,2 K ∩∗ID 7,3 v 7,3 v
= =¿ ID= =ID ∗10−3 =3.31∗10−3 A =¿ ID=3,31mA
2,2 K ∩ 2,2 K ∩ 2,2∗10 3∩
2,2∩
According to Ohm’s Law. VR=ID.R=> VR=3, 31A*2,2KΩ.
VR=3, 31*10−3 A∗2,2∗103 ∩=VR=7,29V
Example2: VB=0,5v R=5,6KΩ ID, VD and VR? ‫پیداکړئ‬
When the diode is not conduct VD=VB=0,5V.
Analyzing the CKT.
The diode is in F.B.C but VB<VD Diode does not conduct. ID=0A
According to Ohm’s Law. VR=ID.R=>VR=0.R=>0V
VD=VB=0,5v=> 0, 5v-0, 5v-0=0. VD= 0=0 Example3:

Si Ge

5,6KΩ/VO
12+
ID

Ground

1: Analyzing the CKT. 2: The diode is in F.B.C and VI>VD

3: The diode conducts. Applying KVL to the CKT.
The diode voltage is equal to the input voltage. ID=? VO=?
12v-0, 7-0, 3v-ID*5, 6KΩ=0.
11 v 5,6 k ∩∗ID 11 v 2−3
= =¿ ID= ∗x 10 =¿ ID=1,29 mA . VO=ID.R = 1.9*
5,6 k ∩ 5,6 k ∩ 5,6 k ∩
x 10 ∗5,6∗x 10 ∩=¿ Vo=10,64 v ‫جواب است‬
2−3 −3

Prepared by: Engineer Asadullah Khatir 7

Diode resistance: Depending upon the applied input voltage to the diode there are
three types of diode resistance:
1. DC or static resistance
2. AC or dynamic resistance
3. Average AC resistance
Q point or ‫ باندې کومه نقطه قطع کوي هماغه نقطه د‬V-I Characteristic‫چې د‬DC load line
.‫ نقطې په نوم یادیږي‬Operating
‫ په نوم یادیږي اوپه دې کې‬Static resistance ‫ وي د‬DCV ‫ چې ده‬Input voltage‫ کله چې زمونږ‬:۱
.‫ تغیرنکوي‬Q Point ‫چې ده‬
‫ په نوم یادیږي اوپه دې‬Dynamic resistance ‫ وي د‬ACV ‫ چې ده‬Input voltage ‫ کله چې زمونږ‬:۲
.‫ تغیرکوي‬Q Point ‫کې چې ده‬
.‫په نوم یادیږي‬Average AC resistance‫ متوسطه اندازه د‬AC ‫ د‬:۳
AC or dynamic resistance: When the applied input voltage to the diode is AC, It’s
called AC resistance. And due to movement of Q-Point it’s also known as dynamic
resistance. ‫ځکه ورته ډاینامیک وایي چې قیوفواینټ یې تغیرکوي‬
There are two ways to calculate AC or dynamic resistance:
.‫ پیداکوالی شو‬Dynamic resistance ‫په دووطریقوسره‬
∆ VD change ∈voltage VD 2−VD 1
1: rd= ∆ ID = change∈currunt =¿ ID 2−ID 1 ‫جواب شو‬

26 mv
2: rd ID

Mathematically expression for AC or dynamic resistance, we know that:

VD
ID=IS ( eμVT −1)…. (1) We prove it

VD
ID=Is eμVT −Is suppose the diode is in R.B.C. Is<<:

VD 1
ID=Is. μVT =¿ ID=Is . eμVT . VD Differentiating with respect to VD. On both side,
we get.
∆ ID 1 1 ∆ ID 1 VD ∆ ID 1 ∆ ID ID ∆ VD μVT
=Is . . . VD=¿ = . Is =¿ = . ID=¿ = =¿ = =¿ rd
∆ VD μVT eμVT ∆ VD μVT eμVT ∆ VD μVT ∆ VD μVT ∆ ID ID
‫جواب‬

Prepared by: Engineer Asadullah Khatir 8

 Examples: Calculate AC or dynamic resistance for the diode current given bellow?
1: ID=10mA
26 mv
2: ID=5mA rd= ID

3: ID=6mA
26 mv
Rd= 1 oA =2,6 ∩

26 mv
Rd= 5 A =5,2 ∩

26 mv
Rd= 6 A =4,3∩

‫ کې‬Open Circuit ‫دی دوهم په‬Voltage=0 ‫ کې‬Short Circuit ‫ لرو اول په‬Voltage ‫دوه ډوله‬
.‫ دی‬Circuit=0
Capacitor (‫)ذخیره کوونکی‬
Is a passive device that store energy and it retires back the energy when required it
consist of two conductive plates separated by a dielectric material, it is also known
as temporary Battery.
‫داخپله انرژي نلري اماله برق څخه انرژي اخلي اودکم وخت لپاره یې ذخیره کوي چې کله ضرورت‬
:‫الندې شکل لري‬UPS ‫دکمپیوټر‬
+Q ‫شوپس انرژي ورکوي لکه‬
++++++++++++++
‫جوړشوی چې منځ کې‬ ‫ ددووهادي پلیټونوڅخه‬Capacitor
‫دی یعنې‬F ‫اوجودلري واحداندازه ګیري‬
Dielectric‫ یاعایق‬Insulator ‫یې‬
Insulator

‫ سمبول یې‬Unit=Farad
----
.‫لري اوهم دپالستیک‬-Q‫ هم داوسپنې شکل‬Capacitor
Working up capacitor:
1- Charging process ‫هغه پروسې ته ویل کیږي چې دهغه په نتیجه کې ذخیره کوونکی چارجیږي‬
The process in which a capacitor gets charge is called charging process.

A B
+ K
+
C Bulb
Vi -
Prepared
- by: Engineer Asadullah KhatirVC 9
VI=VCCapacitor is fully charged. 50v100պF ‫دچارج اندازه دی‬
2: Dis charging process: The process in which the capacitor gets dis charge is
called Dis charging process.
VC=0 Capacitor is fully dis charged.
‫ کله چې ولټیج دخازن صفرشي خازن‬.‫ چاج دالسه ورکوي‬Capacitor ‫هغه پروسه چې دهغه په نتیجه کې‬
.‫چارج دالسه ورکوي‬
Rectifier: Is an electronic device that convert alternating current (AC) to Diode
current (DC).ACRectifierDC ‫یوه اله دی چې ژوندی برق په مړه برق تبدیلوي لکه چارجر‬
The process of converting AC to DC is called rectification.
There are two types of rectifier:
1. Half rectifier (HWR) ‫نیمه ژوندی برق مړه ته تبدیلوي‬
2. Full rectifier (FWR) ‫ټول ژوندی برق مړه برق ته تبدیلوي‬
Half rectifier: It consist of a single phase transformer, a diode and a load
resistance. Transformer: ‫دترانسفرمر په واسطه کوالی شوبرق کم اوزیات کړو‬
.‫په دغه ځای کې مونږ کوالی شوچې دترانسفرمرپرځای ساکیټ استفاده کړو‬
ViInput voltage of Transformer (AC) Transformer is divided in two parts:
1. Step-up
2. Step-down
V2output voltage of Transformer (AC)
VoOutput voltage of (DC) IDDiode current
RLLoad resistor IoOutput current (DC)
2: Full Rectifier: It consist of two process:
1. During positive Half cycle. Here point –A is consider positive with respect
to point B the diode is in F.B.C So the diode conducts and the voltage across
the output Appears.

Prepared by: Engineer Asadullah Khatir 10

 2. Negative Half Cycle: Here point A is consider negative with respect to point
B, the diode is in R.B.C So is doesn’t conduct and the voltage across the
output voltage is 0.

2π
1
1: Average or DC load current (Iav or Idc): Iav= ∫ IL dwt
2π 0

.‫ددې فرمول ثبوت په نتیجه کې الندې فرمولونه السته راځي‬

.‫انتګرال دمساحت دپیداکولوپه خاطراستفاده کیږي‬
ℑ
1: Iav= ‫ثبوت شو‬Current
π

2: Average or DC load voltage (vav or vdc): we know that: V=I.R ‫قانون اوم‬
ℑ ℑ. RL Vm
Vav=Iav.R= Vav= . RL= = Vav= π ‫جواب شو‬
π π

3: RMS (Root Mean Squares)Value of load current (Irms):

2π
√ 1 ℑ
Ims= ∫ I L2dwt‫ ددې په واسطه یې ثبوته و‬Irms= ‫جواب شو‬
2π 0 2

4: RMS: Value of load voltage (vrms) we know that. V=I.R‫ قانون اوم‬Vrms=
ℑ ℑ . RL Vm
Irms.R1= Vrms= .RL = Vrms= =¿ Vrms= ‫جواب شو‬
2 2 2
ℑ ℑ ℑ ℑ
Iav= π Irms= 2 = π < 2 =Irms > Iav ‫جواب‬

5: DC output power (Pdc): P=V.i

Vm ℑ ℑ . RL . ℑ 2
Im
Pdc=Vav.Iav= Pdc= π . π = pdc= 2
=Pdc= 2 .RL ‫جواب شو‬
π π

6: AC input power (Pac): P=V.I Pac=Vrms. Irms

vm ℑ . RL
∗ℑ ∗ℑ 2
Pac= 2 =Pac=
2
=Pac=
I m . RL ‫جواب‬
2 2 4
output . power
7: Efficiency (µ) ‫موثریت‬: µ= input power

Prepared by: Engineer Asadullah Khatir 11

 ‫همیشه‬.‫ څخه دی‬Efficiency ‫دې اجراشوي کارنسبت په ورکړل شوي کارباندې عبارت له‬
.‫له صفرڅخه کوچني وی اوداپه فصدي سره اندازه کیږي‬
Pdc I m2 . RL 4 I m2 . RL 4
= =μ= =¿¿
Pac π 2 2 2
π . I m . RL
µ= 2 ‫ جواب‬Loss= 100-µ=Loss= 100-40, 6=
I m . RL
4
Loss= 59, 4% ‫جواب شو‬
Full wave Rectifier (FWR): It consist of a single phase transformer, 2
diode and a load resistance.
Working of Rectifier:
1. During positive (+ve) half cycle here point is consider positive
with respect to point B, the diode D1 is in forward Bios conduction
so it conducts and the voltage a cross the output appears the diode
D2 is in RBC so is does not conduct.
2. During negative (-ve) haf cycle here point is consider negative
with respect point B, the diode D1 is in “RBC” so it does not
conduct. The diode D2 is in “FBC” so it conducts the voltage a
cross the output appears.

Prepared by: Engineer Asadullah Khatir 12