What is grammar?

★ Some combinations of words are possible in English, while others are not possible.
○ Home computers are now much cheaper: grammatically correct.
○ Home computers now much are cheaper: Incorrect; ‘much’ is wrongly positioned.
★ The ability to recognize such distinctions is evidence that native speakers already know
the rules of grammar, even if they have never formally studied grammar.
★ native speakers apply the rules every time they speak or write and every time they
interpret what others say.
★ Grammar is a complex system of rules that governs how speakers organize sounds into
words and words into sentences. Other definitions of grammar:
○ the study of the classes of words, their inflections, and their functions and
relations in the sentence.
○ a study of what is to be preferred and what is avoided in inflection and syntax.
The characteristic system of inflections and syntax of a language.
○ a system of rules that defines the grammatical structure of a language. A
grammar textbook.
○ speech or writing evaluated according to its conformity to grammatical rules.

The components of grammar:

● Phonetics The inventory of sounds in a language

● Phonology Rules of how sounds are combined in a language
● Morphology Rules of word formation in a language
● Syntax Rules of sentence formation in a language
● Semantics Rules that govern how meaning is expressed by words and sentences in a
language
● Pragmatics is concerned with the use of particular utterances within particular contexts.
○ For example, ‘Will you join our group?’ is a question that, depending on the
speaker’s intention, is either a request for information or a request for action.

Prescriptive and Descriptive Grammar:

● Descriptive grammar: describes the rule system we use to produce sentences,

regardless of the social value we may attach to those sentences.
○ Descriptive grammatical rules simply describe what we actually say; they do not
assign a social value to one construction over another.
● Prescriptive grammar: a set of rules that prescribes or defines how we are supposed
to speak, typically according to some authority (your older sibling, your teacher, your
parents, a writing or grammar handbook).
○ Prescriptive rules have positive social value, and sentences that do not conform
to prescriptive rules often have negative social value.
○ They specify which usages should be adopted or avoided.
Why study grammar?

1. Grammar provides insight into the way a language works; medium of expression.
2. Helps one become a more effective writer or speaker; ensures effective communication
(enhances communication).
3. Essential for punctuation (grammatical structures).
4. Helps interpret literature (analysis).
5. Useful in composition; evaluate choices when revising drafts.

Noam Chomsky’s Grammar:

● Generative Grammar.
● Chomsky is one of the leading intellectuals in the 21st century and is among the most
quoted authors in the world.

Universal Grammar:

● Universal Grammar (UG) is the set of linguistic rules common to all languages;
hypothesized to be part of human cognition.
● Chomskyan linguistics’ goal: study languages in order to learn more about what they
have in common and to learn more about UG.
○ E.g.: all languages seem to combine subjects and predicates to form larger units,
clauses. Word order within the clause, however, can differ across languages.

What is Syntax:

Etymology: putting together or in order, arrangement, a grammatical construction, from the

stem of syntass ein put in order, from syn -together (see syn-) + tassein arrange (see tactics).
Formally: the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form phrases and
sentences in a language.

Why study Syntax?

★ To help us illustrate the patterns of English more effectively and clearly.

★ To enable us to analyze the structure of English sentences in a systematic and explicit
way.
Multifunction words:

● The part of speech a word belongs to depends on how the word is used in a sentence.

1. Whenever the door slams, the lamp rocks back and forth. Verb: preceded by a vowel and
followed by an adverbial phrase. It has the 3rd person singular ‘s’ morpheme, can take an
auxiliary (can, will, has, have, etc.).
2. The garden wall is made of rocks. Noun: It takes plural form and is preceded by a
preposition.
4. The college's geology department has a large rock collection. Noun: preceded by an
adjective and takes the determiner ‘a’.
5. Feathers are so light that they seem to float. Adjective: it’s preceded by the adverb ‘so’ and
follows the linking verb ‘be’.
6. Please turn on the light. Noun: preceded by a determiner.
7. The pancakes are delicious and light. Adjective: follows the linking verb ‘are’ and another
adjective.
8. These glasses suit people with round faces. Adjective: modifies the noun ‘faces’.
9. The space capsule came down in the ocean. Adverb: modifies the verb ‘came’.
10. They sailed the boat down the river. Preposition: followed by the noun phrase ‘the river’.
11. The whole plant is covered with fine down. Noun: preceded by the adjective ‘fine’.

Subject-verb agreement:

1. He __________ his neighbour jogging. Sees; singular.

2. Most tests __________ a treadmill. Determine; plural.
3. Walking on an elevated fast-moving treadmill __________ hard work. Is; gerund takes
singular forms.
4. That you shouldnʼt over-exert yourself __________ without saying. Goes; singular.
5. Exercise improves the heart, __________ it? Doesn’t; dummy operator.

Indefinite pronouns; sexist bias:

1. Each student must fill out an application form if he wishes to be considered for a
postgraduate studentship.
a. Students must fill out an application form if they wish to be considered…

The noun clause:

● Always singular when it occurs as a subject.

● It’s a subordinate clause that’s used as a noun.
● Functions exactly like a noun; can be a subject, subject complement, direct/indirect
object, or an object of preposition.
● Begin with ‘wh- word’ or the subordinate ‘that’.
 1. Whoever wants to come with us is welcome. Subject
2. Dinner will be whenever you arrive. Subject complement
3. I understand how the machine works. Direct object
4. John will give whoever asks some help. Indirect object, followed by direct object
5. Sam told his story to whoever would listen. Object, or complement to the preposition ‘to’
6. Whether or not there is life on other planets is still a matter of speculation.
7. That Mary passed the driving test made everyone happy.
8. How he became an inventor is a mystery to me.

Adjectives functioning as plural nouns:

The + Adj = plural noun.

● E.g.: Blind, elderly, rich, poor, homeless, innocent, jobless, unemployed, privileged, sick,
famous, wealthy, young, old, etc.
● Adding the definite article ‘the’ turns these adjectives into plural nouns because they
describe a group of people.
○ E.g.: The rich should help the poor.
○ The accused were found guilty.

Collective Nouns:

● Indicates a group of people.

● Depends whether we use the word referring to them as a unit or as individuals.
● E.g.: Army, audience, committee, crew, crowd, family, government, jury, public, team.
● Pronouns they/them/their = are.
● Indefinite article (A) = treated as a unit = plural = is.
● Definite (the) = singular = are.
● Its pronoun = singular verb.

BRE: Refer to them as a unit or as individuals.

➔ My family is a happy family (one unit).
➔ My family are having their lunch in the backyard (individual members)
AME: Treated as singular nouns, except when there’s a key context.
➔ Our team is not playing well these days (unit).
➔ Our team are having their showers after the game ended (individual).

1. A troop of Boy Scouts (is, are) a welcome sight to a lost hiker. Singular; use of indefinite
article (A).
2. The visiting band (is, are) staying with families of our own band (individuals).
3. The herd of cows (is, are) waiting for the rancher to bring them hay.
4. The public (voice, voices) its opinion by voting in elections (unit).
5. My whole family was eager to meet its new neighbors.
 6. A large number (indefinite article = plural) have received their rebates in the mail.

★ John and Mary are getting married next summer.

★ Both Alex and Sam are going to the party.
★ Your kitchen, your living room, and your dining room are too small.
★ Bread and butter is good for you (as a unit)
★ Bread and butter have recently gone up in price (individual items).

Quantity phrases:

Ten pounds is enough (unit).

Two years seems too long to wait (unit).
5 miles was as far as they would walk (unit).

Names of sciences ending in -ics, diseases ending in -s:

● Treated as singular.
● Economics, linguistics, semantics, phonetics, physics, mathematics, statistics.
○ Science - singular = statistics is difficult to understand.
○ Figures - plural = The statistics in this study are not reliable.
● Measles, mumps, AIDS.

Case with -ing clause:

➔ Nominative: I, he, she, we, they.

➔ Accusative: Me, him, her, us, them.

● They were surprised at Paul’s refusing to join the club.

● They were surprised at his refusing to join the club.
● My forgetting the name amused everybody.
● We watched them leaving the concert. Had a glimpse/short time.
● We watched them leave the concert. From beginning to end.

Double negation:

● They didn’t say nothing. They didn’t say anything.

● Nobody never believes nothing I say (triple negation). Nobody believes anything I say.
● I ain’t have nothing. I don’t have anything.
● I can’t hardly tell the difference. I can hardly tell the difference.
● Hardly can I tell the difference, little does she know about movies, Never will I forget the
day when we met (subject-operator inversion).
Dangling modifiers:

● A modifying word, phrase, or clause that does not clearly and sensibly modify a word or
the word group in a sentence is a dangling modifier. To correct a dangling modifier, add
or replace words to make the meaning clear and logical.
○ DANGLING After winning the Pulitzer Prize for Fences,The Piano Lesson was
written. [Who won the Pulitzer Prize?]
○ CLEAR After winning the Pulitzer Prize for Fences, August Wilson wrote The
Piano Lesson.

Misplaced modifiers:

● To correct a dangling modifier, add or replace words to make the meaning clear and
logical.
○ DANGLING After looking on every street in the neighborhood, the lost cat was
found.
○ CLEAR After looking on every street in the neighborhood, Cynthia found the lost
cat.
● Place modifying words, phrases, and clauses as near as possible to the words they
modify.
○ MISPLACED Blaring from the stereo, I didn’t recognize the strange music.
○ CLEAR I didn’t recognize the strange music blaring from the stereo.

Troublesome verbs:

BASE FORM PRESENT PARTICIPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE

lie [is] lying lay [have] lain
lay [is] laying laid [have] laid
sit [is] sitting sat [have] sat
Set [is] setting set [have] set
Rise [is] rising rose [have] risen
raise [is] raising raised [have] raised

● The verb lie means “to rest,” “to recline,” or “to be in a certain place.” Lie does not take a
direct object.
● The verb lay means “to put [something]in a place.” Lay generally takes a direct object.
● The verb sit means “to be in a seated, upright position” or “to be in a place.” Sit seldom
takes a direct object.
● The verb set means “to put [something]in a place.” Set generally takes a direct object.
● The verb rise means “to go up” or “to get up.” Rise does not take a direct object.
● The verb raise means “to lift up” or “to cause [something]to rise.” Raise generally takes a
direct object.
Cleft sentences

Cleave cleft cleft clefts [to divide]

Clefts: a variation of basic declarative sentences, differing from them in that constituents that
have been made prominent through changes that include splitting or ‘clefting’ the sentence.

John bought a small red convertible [declarative sentence]

The types of clefts:

1. It-clefts:
a. It was a small red convertible that John bought.
b. It was John who bought a small red convertible.
2. Wh-clefts:
a. What John bought was a small red convertible.
b. What John did was (to) buy a small red convertible.
3. Reversed wh-clefts:
a. A small red convertible was what John bought.

It-clefts formula: it + be + focused constituent + that/wh-clause.

E.g.: It is his outlandish sense of humor that I’m complaining about.

John saw Bill yesterday in the university

It was John who saw Bill…(NP) or It was Bill who John saw…(NP) It was yesterday
when John saw…(ADVP) It was in the university where John saw Bill yesterday (PP).

He got his promotion six months ago (ADVP).

It was six months ago when he got his promotion.

They cancelled the trip because it was raining.

It was because it was raining that they cancelled the trip.

★ We can never focus verb phrases in it-clefts.

Wh-clefts (pseudoclefts) formula: wh-clause + be + focused constituent.

1. She wants a glass of milk (NP) - What she wanted was a glass of milk/
2. He promised to have it ready today (to-infinitive complement) - What he promised was to
have it today.
3. I don’t know why she consented (Noun clause) - What I don’t know is why she
consented.
4. I really dislike having to listen to nonsense like that - What I really dislike is having to
listen to…
 5. VP: John sells used cars - What John does is (to) sell used cars.

In wh-clefts we can focus verb phrases.

Reversed wh-clefts:

1. I really need a vacation - What I really need is a vacation - A vacation is what I really
need/All I need is a vacation.

★ Reversed wh-clefts are used primarily in conversation and fiction. They are not as
common as it or wh-clefts.

1. Nick was late because he overslept, wasn’t he?

a. No, it was because he got stuck in a traffic jam that he was late.
2. How on earth did Nick let the boss know he’d be late?
a. Well, what he did was call her from his mobile phone.
3. Wasn’t Nick late on Wednesday?
a. No, it was on Monday that he was late.
4. Nick’s boss had to start the meeting without him, didn’t she?
a. No, what she did was reschedule the meeting for the afternoon.
5. Didn’t Nick get stuck in a traffic jam in the town center?
a. No, not in the town centre; it was on the ring road where he got stuck.
6. I heard the boss was a little annoyed with Nick for being late.
a. No, she wasn’t “a little annoyed”. What she was was furious!
● What Mary did (NP - acts like a subject) annoyed her family.
● Why you came early (NP) surprised everyone.
● What she was (NP) was furious (Main verb).

Front-focus: Inversion after negative adverbials.

Pattern 1: Negative inversion with adverbs of frequency: never, rarely, hardly, seldom.
- He had never eaten such a huge meal. Never had he eaten such a huge meal.
- You rarely meet a woman of such integrity. Rarely do you meet a woman...
- The party had hardly started when Mary left. Hardly had the party started when Mary
left.
- We seldom receive an apology when mistakes are made. Seldom do we receive an
apology when mistakes are made.

Pattern 2: Negative inversion with adverbs of time meaning “only just” or “immediately after”.
- I left the house. It started to rain (no sooner, than). No sooner did I leave the house than
it started to rain.
- We got the new car home. It broke down (scarcely, when). Scarcely did we get the car
home when it broke down.
 - She arrived. She was surrounded by admirers (hardly, when). Hardly did she arrive
when she was surrounded by admirers.

Pattern 3: Inversion with “little”.

- She knows little about physics. Little does she know about physics.

Pattern 4: Inversion with “only + time expression”: only then; only after; only when…
- I only found out the truth much later. Only later did I find out the truth.
- He was only happy when he was sailing his yacht. Only when he was sailing his yacht
was he happy.

Pattern 5a: Inversion with “at no time” or “nowhere”.

- She didn’t at any time realize to what extent he had been lying to her. At no time did she
realize to what extent he had been lying to her.
- I haven’t read anywhere that a degree is necessary for this job. Nowhere have I read
that a degree….
- You can’t get such a good pizza anywhere else. Nowhere can you get such a good
pizza.
- The city is not so peaceful at any time of the year. At no time of the year is the city so
peaceful.

Pattern 5b: Inversion with “on no account” or “under no circumstances”.

- Credit will not on any account be given to John. On no account will credit be given to
John.
- Staff may not smoke on the job under any circumstances. Under no circumstances may
staff smoke on the job.

Pattern 5c: Expressions with “not”: not until; not for….

- We can’t give you a refund until we’ve heard from the insurance company. Not until
we’ve heard from the insurance company can we give you a refund.
- I wouldn’t miss this match for the world. Not for the world would I miss this match.
- Not for a million Dirhams will I join your company. Not for all the tea in China
would I take that job.

Pattern 5d: Inversion with “not only...but also…”

- He plays the piano and he is an accomplished violinist. Not only does he play the piano
but he is also an accomplished violinist.
- Not only is he intelligent but he’s also incredibly attractive.

Pattern 6: Inversion with conditional sentences.

- It would be a serious setback if the talks were to fail. It would be a serious setback were
the talks to fail. Were the talks to fail, it would be a serious setback.
- If you should need more information, please telephone our main office. Should you need
more information, please…
 - If Alex had asked, I would’ve been able to help. Had Alex asked, I would’ve been able to
help.

Front-focus: mainly for emphasis or special effect. If we place an expression in an unusual

position, the effect is to make the expression more conspicuous.
1. Verb fronted before the subject.
- Marijuana they used occasionally, but cocaine they never touched.
- Most distressing of all is the plight of the refugees.
- Attitudes will not change overnight, but change they will.
2. Adverbial fronted before the subject.
- Out you go.
- Now you tell me!
- Across the harbour stands a disused warehouse.
- In goal for England is Joe Hart.
3. When a negative adverbial is fronted, it gains stronger emphasis. The operator comes
before the subject.

Fronting: putting at the beginning of the sentence something that usually comes later. It’s done
for emphasis or special effect.
- PPs: At the back of the room stood a couple, chatting. A couple stood at the back of the
room chatting.
- Comparative adjectives: The salmon was good, but even better was the desert that
followed it. The desert that followed the salmon was even better.
- Objects: He bought a sandwich and a soft drink. The soft drink he downed immediately.
- I don’t like milk chocolate, but I like dark chocolate more. Milk chocolate I don’t like, but
dark chocolate I like more.
- Participle clauses: An old man was lying in the doorway. Lying In the doorway was an
old man.
- Running (gerund) is good for your health. I like running (gerund - direct object) early in
the morning. We talked about running (gerund - object of the preposition) for the
president of the club. Running (participle clause) in the middle of the street, I was run
over by a car.
- Walking stick - A stick for walking; a stick which walks (not possible)., swimming pool - a
pool for swimming, reading room, boring movie - a movie which bores, dancing teacher -
A teacher who dances, a teacher of dancing, exciting meeting - a meeting which excites.
- So and such: so + adj/adv + that clause and noun + linking verb + such + that clause
1. She was so exhausted that she went straight to bed. So exhausted was she that
she went straight to bed.
2. He played the tune so badly that nobody recognized it. So badly did he play the
tune that nobody recognized it.
3. The extent of the damage was such that the car was a total write-off. Such was
the extent of the damage that the car was a total write-off.