Lecture 3: Crystal Optics Homogeneous, Anisotropic Media

Introduction
Outline
material equations for homogeneous anisotropic media
~ = E
D ~
1
Homogeneous, Anisotropic Media
~ = µH
B ~
2
Crystals
tensors of rank 2, written as 3 by 3 matrices
3
Plane Waves in Anisotropic Media
: dielectric tensor
4
Wave Propagation in Uniaxial Media µ: magnetic permeability tensor
examples:
5
Reflection and Transmission at Interfaces
crystals, liquid crystals
external electric, magnetic fields acting on isotropic materials
(glass, fluids, gas)
anisotropic mechanical forces acting on isotropic materials

Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 1 Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 2

Properties of Dielectric Tensor Uniaxial Materials

Maxwell equations imply symmetric dielectric tensor
  isotropic materials: nx = ny = nz
11 12 13 for any coordinate system
 = T =  12 22 23  anisotropic materials:
13 23 33 nx 6= ny 6= nz
symmetric tensor of rank 2 ⇒ coordinate system exists where uniaxial materials: nx = ny 6= nz
tensor is diagonal ordinary index of refraction:
orthogonal axes of this coordinate system: principal axes no = nx = ny
elements of diagonal tensor: principal dielectric constants extraordinary index of refraction:
ne = nz
3 principal indices of refraction in coordinate system spanned by
principal axes rotation of coordinate system
around z does not change
 2 
nx 0 0
~ =  0 n2 0  E
D ~ anything
y
0 0 nz 2 most materials used in polarimetry
are (almost) uniaxial
x, y , z because principal axes form Cartesian coordinate system
Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 3 Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 4
 Crystals Plane Waves in Anisotropic Media

Crystal Axes Terminology

Displacement and Electric Field Vectors
optic axis is the axis that has a different index of refraction
~ E,
plane-wave ansatz for D, ~ H
~
also called c or crystallographic axis
fast axis: axis with smallest index of refraction E ~ 0 ei (~k ·~x −ωt )
~ =E
ray of light going through uniaxial crystal is (generally) split into ~ 0 ei (~k ·~x −ωt )
~ =D
D
two rays
~ 0 ei (~k ·~x −ωt )
~ =H
H
ordinary ray (o-ray) passes the crystal without any deviation
extraordinary ray (e-ray) is deviated at air-crystal interface ~ = 0)
no net charges in medium (∇ · D
two emerging rays have orthogonal polarization states
~ · ~k = 0
D
common to use indices of refraction for ordinary ray (no ) and
extraordinary ray (ne ) instead of indices of refraction in crystal ~ perpendicular to ~k
D
coordinate system ~ and E
~ not parallel ⇒ E
~ not perpendicular to ~k
D
ne < no : negative uniaxial crystal
wave normal, energy flow not in same direction, same speed
ne > no : positive uniaxial crystal
Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 5 Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 6

Magnetic Field ~ and E

Relation between D ~
combine Maxwell, material equations in principal coordinate
constant, scalar µ, vanishing current system
density ⇒ H~ kB~
  
~ =0⇒H ~ ⊥ ~k ~ i = n2 E
µDi = µi E ~ i − si E~ · ~s i = 1···3
∇·H
∇×H~ = 1 ∂ D~ ⇒ H
~ ⊥D~
c ∂t ~s = ~k /|~k |: unit vector in direction of wave vector ~k
~ = − µ ∂ H~ ⇒ H
∇×E ~ ⊥E
~ n: refractive index associated with direction ~s, i.e. n = n(~s)
c ∂t
~ E,
D, ~ and ~k all in one plane 3 equations for 3 unknowns E ~i
~ B~ perpendicular to that plane ~ assuming E
eliminate E ~ 6= ~0 ⇒ Fresnel equation
H,
~ = cE
Poynting vector S ~ ×H~ sy2
4π sx2 sz2 1
~ and H
perpendicular to E ~ ⇒S ~ (in 2
+ 2
+ 2
= 2 ,
n − µx n − µy n − µz n
general) not parallel to ~k
energy (in general) not transported in with ni2 = µi
direction of wave vector ~k 2 2
sx n x
“
2 2
n − ny
”“
2 2
”
2 2
“
2 2
n − nz + sy ny n − nx
”“
2 2
”
2 2
“
2 2
n − nz + sz nz n − nx
”“
2 2
”
n − ny = 0

Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 7 Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 8
 Electric Field in Anisotropic Material
Non-Absorbing, Non-Active, Anisotropic Materials
with arbitrary constant a, electric field vector given by
~k not parallel to a principal axis ⇒ ratio of 2 electric field
 sx 
components k and l
n2 −nx2
sy
~ = a
E

sk n2 − µl


 n2 −ny2  Ek
sz =

n2 −nz2 El sl n2 − µk

quadratic equation in n ⇒ generally two solutions for given ratio is independent of electric field components
direction ~s n2 and i real ⇒ ratios are real ⇒ electric field is linearly polarized
electric field can also be written as in non-absorbing, non-active, anisotropic material, 2 waves
propagate that have different linear polarization states and
 
~ · ~s
n2~sk E
~k =
E different directions of energy flows
n2 − µk ~ corresponding to 2 solutions are
direction of vibration of D
system of 3 equations can be solved for Ek orthogonal to each other (without proof)
denominator vanishes if ~k parallel to a principal axis ⇒ treat ~1 · D
D ~2 = 0
separately
Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 9 Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 10

Wave Propagation in Uniaxial Media Propagation in General Direction

(unit) wave vector direction in spherical coordinates
Introduction    
uniaxial media ⇒ dielectric constants: sx sin θ cos φ
~s =  sy  =  sin θ sin φ 
x = y = no2 sz cos θ
z = ne2
θ: angle between wave vector and optic axis
second form of Fresnel equation reduces to φ: azimuth angle in plane perpendicular to optic axis
 h     i
n2 − no2 no2 sx2 + sy2 n2 − ne2 + sz2 ne2 n2 − no2 = 0
1 cos2 θ sin2 θ
= +
two solutions n1 , n2 given by n22 no2 ne2
no ne
n12 = no2 n2 (θ) = q
no2 sin2 θ + ne2 cos2 θ
1 sx2 + sy2 sz2
= +
n22 ne2 no2 take positive root, negative value corresponds to waves
propagating in opposite direction
Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 11 Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 12
 Ordinary Beam
Ordinary and Extraordinary Rays ordinary beam speed independent of wave vector direction
  
from before ~ i = n2 E
for µDi = µi E ~ i − si E~ · ~s , i = 1 · · · 3 to hold for any
~ o · ~s = 0 and Eo,z = 0
direction ~s, E
1 cos2 θ sin2 θ
= +
n22 no2 ne2
no ne electric field vector of ordinary beam
n2 (θ) = q (with real constant ao 6= 0)
no2 sin2 θ + ne2 cos2 θ  
sin φ
n2 varies between no for θ = 0 and ne for θ = 90◦ E~ o = ao  − cos φ 
first solution propagates according to ordinary index of refraction, 0
independent of direction ⇒ ordinary beam or ray
ordinary beam is linearly polarized
second solution corresponds to extraordinary beam or ray ~ o perpendicular to plane formed by
E
index of refraction of extraordinary beam is (in general) not the wave vector ~k and c-axis
extraordinary index of refraction ~ o = no E
~o k E
~o
displacement vector D
~ o k ~k
Poynting vector S
Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 13 Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 14

Dispersion Angle
Extraordinary Ray
angle between ~k and Poynting vector S ~ = angle between E ~ and D~
~ e · ~k = 0 and D
since D ~e · D
~ o = 0 ⇒ unique solution (up to real
= dispersion angle
constant ae )  
cos θ cos φ 
~

~ e 
Ee × D ne2 − no2


D~ e = ae  cos θ sin φ  (ne2 − no2 ) tan θ sin 2θ
tan α = = 2 =
− sin θ ~e · D
E ~e ne + no2 tan2 θ 2 no2 sin2 θ + ne2 cos2 θ

~e equivalent expression
since Ee · Do = 0, De = E
no2
 2   
ne cos θ cos φ α = θ − arctan tan θ
~ e = a  n2 cos θ sin φ 
E ne2
e
−no2 sin θ
for given ~k in principal axis system, α fully determines direction of
uniaxial medium ⇒ E ~o · E
~e = 0 energy propagation in uniaxial medium
however, E~ e · ~k 6= 0 for θ approaching π/2, α = 0
for θ = 0, α = 0

Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 15 Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 16
 Propagation Direction of Extraordinary Beam
~ and optic axis
angle θ0 between Poynting vector S
Propagation Along c Axis
no2 plane wave propagating along c-axis ⇒ θ = 0
tan θ0 = tan θ c
ne2 ordinary and extraordinary beams propagate at same speed no
electric field vectors are perpendicular to c-axis and only depend
ordinary and extraordinary wave do (in general) not travel at the
on azimuth φ
same speed
ordinary and extraordinary rays are indistinguishable
phase difference in radians between the two waves given by
uniaxial medium behaves like an isotropic medium
ω
(n2 (θ)de − no do ) example: “c-cut” sapphire windows
c
do,e : geometrical distances traveled by ordinary and extraordinary
rays

Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 17 Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 18

Propagation Perpendicular to c Axis

plane wave propagating perpendicular to c-axis ⇒ θ = π/2 Phase Delay between Ordinary and Extraordinary Rays
  ordinary and extraordinary wave propagate in same direction
sin φ c
~ o =  − cos φ 
E ordinary ray propagates with speed no
c
0 extraordinary beam propagates at different speed ne
~ o, E
E ~ e perpendicular to each other ⇒ plane wave with arbitrary
~ o perpendicular to plane formed by ~k and c-axis
E polarization can be (coherently) decomposed into components
electric field vector of extraordinary wave ~ o and E
parallel to E ~e
 
0 2 components will travel at different speeds
~e =  0 
E (coherently) superposing 2 components after distance d ⇒ phase
1 difference between 2 components ωc (ne − no )d radians
phase difference ⇒ change in polarization state
~ e parallel to c-axis
E basis for constructing linear retarders
direction of energy propagation of extraordinary wave parallel to ~k
since E~e k D
~e

Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 19 Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 20
 Reflection and Transmission at Uniaxial Interfaces
Summary: Wave Propagation in Uniaxial Media
ordinary ray propagates like in an isotropic medium with index no General case
extraordinary ray sees direction-dependent index of refraction from isotropic medium (nI ) into uniaxial medium (no , ne )
no ne θI : angle between surface normal and ~kI for incoming beam
n2 (θ) = q
no2 sin2 θ + ne2 cos2 θ θ1,2 : angles between surface normal and wave vectors of
(refracted) ordinary wave ~k1 and extraordinary wave ~k2
n2 direction-dependent index of refraction of the extraordinary ray phase matching at interface requires
no ordinary index of refraction
~kI · ~x = ~k1 · ~x = ~k2 · ~x
ne extraordinary index of refraction
θ angle between extraordinary wave vector and optic axis
~x : position vector of a point on interface surface
extraordinary ray is not parallel to its wave vector
angle between the two is dispersion angle nI sin θI = n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

(ne2 − no2 ) tan θ n1 = no : index of refraction of ordinary wave

tan α =
ne2 + no2 tan2 θ n2 : index of refraction of extraordinary wave

Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 21 Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 22

Extraordinary Ray Refraction for General Case

Ordinary and Extraordinary Rays
s “ ”
“ ” 2 n2 +n2 c 2 n2 −n2
no “ ”“ ”
e e x e o
cx cy no2 − ne2 ± no − no2 − ne2 − no2 cx2 + cy2
sin2 θI
ordinary wave ⇒ Snell’s law cot θ2 = “
no2 + cx2 ne2 − no2
”

nI propagation vector of extraordinary ray

sin θ1 = sin θI
n1 ` ´
sin α sin θ2 cx sin θ2 − cy cos θ2
Sx = cos α cos θ2 + q
cz2 + cx sin θ2 − cy cos θ2 2
` ´
law for extraordinary ray not trivial ` ´
sin α cos θ2 cx sin θ2 − cy cos θ2
Sy = cos α sin θ2 − q
cz2 + cx sin θ2 − cy cos θ2 2
` ´
nI sin θI = n2 (θ(θ2 )) sin θ2
sin α
Sz = cz ∗ q
cz2 + cx sin θ2 − cy cos θ2 2
(in general) θ2 and therefore ~k2 will not determine direction of
` ´

extraordinary beam since Poynting vector (in general) not parallel

to wave vector ~c optic axis vector ~c = (cx , cy , cz )T
solve for θ2 ⇒ determine direction of Poynting vector S~ propagation direction of extraordinary ray S
~ = (Sx , Sy , Sz )T
special cases reduce complexity of equations θI angle between ~kI and interface normal
θ2 angle between ~ke and interface normal
α dispersion angle
Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 23 Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 24
 Normal Incidence Optic Axis in Plane of Incidence and Plane of Interface
ne
θ + θ2 = π/2 ⇒ cot θ2 = no cot θ1
θ1 : angle between surface normal and ordinary ray or wave vector
(sin θI = no sin θ1 )
extraordinary wave sees equivalent refractive index
s
ne2
 
2 2
ny = ne + sin θI 1 − 2
no

direction of Poynting vector

normal incidence ⇒ θI = 0, θ1 = θ2 = 0
choose plane formed by surface normal and crystal axis Sx = cos(θ2 + α)
both wave vectors and ordinary ray not refracted Sy = sin(θ2 + α)
extraordinary ray refracted by dispersion angle α Sz = 0
 2 
no determine dispersion angle α and add to θ2 to obtain direction of
α = θ − arctan tan θ
ne2 extraordinary ray

Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 25 Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 26

Interface from Uniaxial Medium to Isotropic Medium

ordinary ray follows Snell’s law
transmitted extraordinary wave vector and ray coincide
Optic Axis Perpendicular to Plane of Incidence
exit of extraordinary wave on interface defined by extraordinary ray
c-axis perpendicular to plane of incidence ⇒ θ = π2 , n2 π


2 = ne
extraordinary wave vector follows Snell’s law with index n2 (θ)
nI sin θI = ne sin θ2
nI sin θE = n2 sin θU
extraordinary wave vector obeys Snell’s law with index ne
π
θ= 2 ⇒ dispersion angle α = 0 nI index of isotropic medium
Poynting vector k wave vector, extraordinary beam itself obeys θE angle of wave/ray vector with surface normal in isotropic medium
Snell’s law with ne n2 , θU corresponding values for extraordinary wave vector in
uniaxial medium
double refraction only for non-normal incidence
n2 is function of θ normally already known from beam propagation
in uniaxial medium
θU is function of geometry of interface,
plane-parallel slab of uniaxial medium, θE = θI , (in general)
extraordinary beam displaced on exit
Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 27 Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 28
 Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

TIR also in anisotropic media

no 6= ne ⇒ one beam may be totally
reflected while other is transmitted
principal of most crystal polarizers
example: calcite prism, normal incidence, 40°
optic axis parallel to first interface, exit face
inclined by 40◦ no, ne

⇒ extraordinary ray not refracted, two rays

propagate according to indices no ,ne
40° e
at second interface rays (and wave vectors)
at 40◦ to surface c
o
632.8 nm: no = 1.6558, ne = 1.4852
nU
requirement for total reflection nI sin θU > 1
with nI = 1 ⇒ extraordinary ray transmitted,
ordinary ray undergoes TIR
Christoph U. Keller, Utrecht University, C.U.Keller@uu.nl Lecture 3: Crystal Optics 29