Programming Fundamentals using C++

UNIT I

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 LIMITATIONS OF C LANGUAGE

⚫ No data security
⚫ No reusability of code
⚫ Does not support exception handling
⚫ No runtime checking mechanism
⚫ No namespace feature

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 PROCEDURAL PROGRAMMING

⚫ The procedural programming is defined as a programming

paradigm that allows the program to be organized as set of
functions.
⚫ In procedural programming, the program code is divided into
group of smaller programs called functions.
⚫ Each function performs a specific task depending upon the
program logic.
⚫ As the name suggests, the procedural programming program code
is organized in the form procedures.
⚫ These procedures are also called as subroutines or functions.

3
 PROCEDURAL PROGRAMMING

⚫ The function can access and operate upon its own local data as
well as global data shared by all the functions.
⚫ Any function can be called many times in the program code as and
when required to perform the same task.
⚫ Features:
⚫ Top Down Approach
⚫ Header Files Declaration
⚫ Predefined Functions
⚫ User defined functions
⚫ Global and local variable
⚫ Variable Scope
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5
 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING
⚫ C++ is regarded as a middle-level language, as it comprises a
combination of both high-level and low-level language features.
⚫ C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell
Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey, as an enhancement to the C
language and originally named C with Classes but later it was
renamed C++ in 1983.
⚫ C++ fully supports object-oriented programming, including the
four pillars of object-oriented development −
⚫ Encapsulation
⚫ Data hiding
⚫ Inheritance
⚫ Polymorphism

6
 Procedural vs Object Oriented
Programming
Procedural
->Emphasis is on doing things.(algorithms)
->Many data items are placed as global so
that they may be accessed by all the
functions without any restriction. It has
reduced data security.
->Problem is divided into functions
->Employs top-down approach in
program design.
->E.g. Procedural - FORTRAN, COBOL
7
Object Oriented
->Emphasis is on data rather than
on algorithm.
->Data is hidden and cannot be accessed
by external functions. It provides security.
->Problem is divided into objects.
-> Follows bottom-up approach in
program design.
->E.g. C++, Java
 CHARACTERISTICS OF OBJECT
ORIENTED PROGRAMMING
Class- A class is a collection of objects of similar type. For example
bba, bca, b.com are members of a class Course. Classes are user
defined data types and behave like built-in data type of a
programming language.
Objects

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF OBJECT
ORIENTED PROGRAMMING
Data Abstraction and encapsulation

9
 CHARACTERISTICS OF OBJECT
ORIENTED PROGRAMMING
Dynamic Binding

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF OBJECT
ORIENTED PROGRAMMING
Polymorphism: The word polymorphism means having many forms. In simple words, we can
define polymorphism as the ability of a message to be displayed in more than one form. A real-life example

of polymorphism, a person at the same time can have different characteristics. Like a man at the same time

is a father, a husband, an employee. So the same person posses different behavior in different situations.

This is called polymorphism. Polymorphism is considered as one of the important features of Object

Oriented Programming.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF OBJECT
ORIENTED PROGRAMMING
Inheritance

12
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN C AND C++
C++, as the name suggests is a superset of C. As a matter of fact,
C++ can run most of C code while C cannot run C++ code.
Here are the 10 major differences between C++ & C...
⚫ 1. C follows the procedural programming paradigm while C++ is
a multi-paradigm language(procedural as well as object oriented).
In case of C, importance is given to the steps or procedure of the
program while C++ focuses on the data rather than the process.
Also, it is easier to implement/edit the code in case of C++ for
the same reason.
⚫ 2. In case of C, the data is not secured while the data is
secured(hidden) in C++. This difference is due to specific
OOP features like Data Hiding which are not present in C.

13
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN C AND C++
⚫ 3. C is a low-level language while C++ is a middle-level
language. C is regarded as a low-level language(difficult
interpretation & less user friendly) while C++ has features
of both low-level(concentration on whats going on in the
machine hardware) & high-level languages(concentration on
the program itself) & hence is regarded as a middle-level
language.
⚫ 4. C uses the top-down approach while C++ uses the
bottom-up approach. In case of C, the program is formulated
step by step, each step is processed into detail while in C++,
the base elements are first formulated which then are
linked together to give rise to larger systems.

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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN C AND C++
⚫ 5. C is function-driven while C++ is object-driven.
Functions are the building blocks of a C program while
objects are building blocks of a C++ program.
⚫ 6. C++ supports function overloading while C does not.
Overloading means two functions having the same name
in the same program. This can be done only in C++ with
the help of Polymorphism.
⚫ 7. We can use functions inside structures in C++ but not in
C. In case of C++, functions can be used inside a structure
while structures cannot contain functions in C.

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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN C AND C++
⚫ 8. The NAMESPACE feature in C++ is absent in case of
C. C++ uses NAMESPACE which avoid name collisions.
For instance, two students enrolled in the same university
cannot have the same roll number while two students in
different universities might have the same roll number.
The universities are two different namespace & hence
contain the same roll number(identifier) but the same
university(one namespace) cannot have two students with
the same roll number(identifier).

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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN C AND C++
⚫ 9. The standard input & output functions differ in the two
languages. C uses scanf & printf while C++ uses cin>> &
cout<< as their respective input & output functions
⚫ 10. C++ allows the use of reference variables while C
does not. Reference variables allow two variable names to
point to the same memory location. We cannot use these
variables in C programming.

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 BEGINNING WITH C++
⚫ It was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at AT&T Bell Laboratories
in Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA, in the early 1980’s.
⚫ Stroustrup, an admirer of simula67 and a strong supporter of C,
wanted to combine the best of both the languages and create a
more powerful language that could support object-oriented
programming features and still retain the power and elegance of
C. The result was C++.
⚫ C++ is a superset of C.

18
 BEGINNING WITH C++
⚫ A C++ program to calculate average of two numbers.
⚫ #include<iostream.h>
⚫ #include<conio.h>
⚫ void main()
⚫ {
⚫ float num1, num2, sum, avg; //variable declaration
⚫ cout<<”Enter two numbers”;
⚫ cin>>num1;
⚫ cin>>num2;
⚫ sum = num1 + num2;
⚫ avg = sum/2;
⚫ cout<<”Sum =” << sum <<”\n”;
⚫ cout<<”Average =” << avg <<”\n”;
⚫ getch();
⚫ }

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20
21
22
 STRUCTURE OF C++ PROGRAM
⚫A typical C++ program would
contain four sections. These sections
may be placed in separate code files
and then compiled independently.
⚫ It is common practice to organize a
program into three separate files. The
class declarations are placed in a
header file and the definitions of
member functions go into another
file. Finally the main program that
uses the class is placed in a third file
which includes the previous two files
23 as well as any other files required.
 TOKENS

24
 KEYWORDS

25
 IDENTIFIERS AND CONSTANTS
Identifiers
Identifiers refers to the name of variables, functions, arrays, classes, etc. created by the user. Identifiers are the fundamental
requirement of any language.

Identifier naming conventions

 Only alphabetic characters, digits and underscores are permitted.

 First letter must be an alphabet or underscore (_).
 Identifiers are case sensitive.
 Reserved keywords can not be used as an identifier's name.

Constants
Constants refers to fixed values that do not change during the execution of a program.

Declaration of a constant :

const [data_type] [constant_name]=[value];

 Consider the example

#include <iostream.h>
int main()
{
const int max_length=100; // integer constant
const char choice='Y'; // character constant
const char title[]="www.includehelp.com"; // string constant
const float temp=12.34; // float constant

cout<<"max_length :"<<max_length<<endl;
cout<<"choice :"<<choice<<endl;
cout<<"title :"<<title<<endl;
cout<<"temp :"<<temp<<endl;
return 0;
}

Output

max_length :100
choice :Y
title :www.includehelp.com
temp :12.34

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 DATATYPES IN C++

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 DATATYPES IN C++
⚫ Built-In Data Types- The basic (fundamental) data types
provided by c++ are integral, floating point and void data type.
Among these data types, the integral and floating-point data types
can be preceded by several type modifiers.
⚫ Integral Data Type: The integral data type is used to store
integers and includes char (character) and int (integer) data types.
⚫ Char: Characters refer to the alphabet, numbers and other
characters (such as {, @, #, etc.) defined in the ASCII character
set. In C++, the char data type is also treated as an integer data
type as the characters are internally stored as integers that range in
value from -128 to 127.
⚫ Int: Numbers without the fractional part represent integer data. In
C++, the int data type is used to store integers such as 4, 42,
28 52P3re3pa,re-d3By2:
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 DATATYPES IN C++
⚫ Floating-point Data Type: A floating-point data type is used to
store real numbers such as 3 .28, 64. 755765, 8.01, -24.53. This
data type includes float and double' data types.
⚫ Void: The void data type is used for specifying an empty parameter
list to a function and return type for a function. When void is used
to specify an empty parameter list, it indicates that a function does
not take any arguments and when it is used as a return type for
a function, it indicates that a function does not return any value.
For void, no memory is allocated and hence, It cannot store
anything.
⚫ Bool Data type: The bool data type can hold only Boolean values,
that is; either true or false, where true represents 1 and false
represents O. It requires only one bit of storage, however, it is
stored as an integer in the memory. Thus, it is also considered as
29 an integral data type.
 DATATYPES IN C++
⚫ Derived Data Types- Data types that are derived from the built-in data
types are known as derived data types. The various derived data
types provided by C++ are arrays, junctions, references and pointers.
⚫ Array An array is a set of elements of the same data type that are
referred to by the same name. All the elements in an array are stored at
contiguous (one after another) memory locations and each element is
accessed by a unique index or subscript value.
⚫ Function A function is a self-contained program segment that carries
out a specific well-defined task.
⚫ Reference A reference is an alternative name for a variable. That is, a
reference is an alias for a variable in a program. A variable and its
reference can be used interchangeably in a program as both refer to the
same memory location.
⚫ Pointer A pointer is a variable that can store the memory address of
another variable. Pointers allow to use the memory dynamically. That
is, with the help of pointers, memory can be allocated or de-allocated
30 to thePrvepaarreidaBby:lMess. Cahtarruul Nnig-atmime, thus, making a program
more efficient.
 DATATYPES IN C++
⚫ User-Defined Data Types- Various user-defined data types
provided by C++ are structures,unions,enumerations and classes.
⚫ Structure, Union and Class: Structure and union are the
significant features of C language. Structure and union provide
a way to group similar or dissimilar data types referred to by a
single name. However, C++ has extended the concept of
structure and union by incorporating some new features in
these data types to support object -oriented programming.
⚫ C++ offers a new user-defined data type known as class, which
forms the basis of object-oriented programming. A class acts as a
template which defines the data and functions that are included in
an object of a class. Classes are declared using the keyword class.
31 OnPrcepearead Bcyl:aMss.sChharausl Nbigeamen declared, its object can be
easily create7/d1./2021
32
 typedef KEYWORD
⚫ C++ provides a typedef feature that allows to define new data type
names for existing data types that may be built-in, derived or user-
defined data types. Once the new name has been defined, variables
can be declared using this new name. For example, consider
this declaration.
typedef int integer;
⚫ In this declaration, a new name integer is given to the data type
into This new name now can be used to declare integer variables as
shown here.
integer i, j,
k;
 SYMBOLIC CONSTANTS

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 REFERNCE VARIABLES

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 OPERATORS IN C++
⚫ C++ has a rich set of operators. All C operators are valid in C+
+ also. C++ introduces some new operators such as:
⚫ Input Operator
⚫ Output Operator
⚫ Scope Resolution Operator
⚫ Memory Management Operators
⚫ Manipulators
⚫ Comma Operator
⚫ Type Cast Operator

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 OPERATORS IN C++
⚫ Scope Resolution Operator- In C++ program we can use the same variable names but in
separate blocks. The declaration of same variable names refers to different memory locations.
When we declare a variable it is available only to a specific block of the program. The remaining
block cannot access the variable.
⚫ The scope resolution operator :: allows a programmer to access a global variable name even if it is
hidden by a local re-declaration of that name. The syntax of scope resolution operator is:
⚫ :: variable_name
⚫ Example:
⚫ #include <iostream.h>
⚫ #include <conio.h>
⚫ int a= 10;
⚫ void main()
⚫ {
⚫ clrscr();
⚫ int a=20;
⚫ cout<<”::a=”<<::a;
⚫ cout<<”a=”<<a;
⚫ getch();
⚫ }
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 OPERATORS IN C++
⚫ Memory Management Operator
⚫ There are two types of memory management operators in C++:
⚫ new
⚫ delete
⚫ new operator- The new operator in C++ is used for dynamic storage
allocation. This operator can be used to create object of any type. The general
syntax of new operator in C++ is as follows:
⚫ pointer variable = new datatype;
⚫ For example:
⚫ int *a=new int;
⚫ In the above example, the new operator allocates sufficient memory to hold
the object of datatype int and returns a pointer to its starting point. The pointer
variable a holds the address of memory space allocated.
⚫ The assignment can be made in either of the two ways:
⚫ int *a = new int;*a = 20; or
⚫ int *a = new int(20);
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 OPERATORS IN C++
⚫ delete operator: The delete operator in C++ is used for
releasing memory space when the object is no longer needed. Once
a new operator is used, it is efficient to use the corresponding delete
operator for release of memory.
⚫ The general syntax of delete operator in C++ is as follows:
⚫ delete pointer variable;

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 OPERATORS IN C++
⚫ Example:
⚫ #include <iostream>
⚫ #include<conio.h>
⚫ void main()
⚫{
⚫ int *a= new int;
⚫ *a=100;
⚫ cout << " The Output is:a= " << *a;
⚫ delete a;
⚫ getch();
⚫}
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 MANIPULATORS

endl manipulator

setw manipulator

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 MANIPULATORS

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 COMMA OPERATOR
⚫ In C every statement is terminated by a semi-colon (;). It is also applicable in c++ and in addition,
c++ allows us to terminate a statement using comma operator after satisfying the following
rules:-
⚫ The variable declaration statements should be terminated by semi-colon.
⚫ The statements followed by declaration statements like clrscr(), cin, cout can be terminated by
comma operator.
⚫ C++ permits declaration of variables at any place in the program but such declaration is not
allowed in between the statements terminated by comma operator. The initialization of
previously declared variables can be done.
⚫ The last statement of the program must be terminated by a semi-colon.
⚫ Example:
⚫ void main()
⚫ {
⚫ int x;
⚫ clrscr(),
⚫ x=10,
⚫ cout<<”x=”<<x,
⚫ cout<<endl;
⚫ getch();
⚫ }
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 CONTROL STRUCTURES

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45
46
47
 FUNCTIONS IN C++
⚫ Functions are used to provide modularity to a program. Creating an
application using function makes it easier to understand, edit, check
errors etc.
⚫ Syntax of Function
⚫ return-type function-name (parameters)
⚫{
⚫ // function-body
⚫}
⚫ return-type: suggests what the function will return. It can be int, char,
some pointer or even a class object. There can be functions which does
not return anything, they are mentioned with void.
⚫ Function Name: is the name of the function, using the function name it is
called.
⚫ Parameters: are variables to hold values of arguments passed while
function is called. A function may or may not contain parameter list.
48⚫ FunPcretpiaorend Bby:oMds.yC:hairsul htNeigampart where the code
statements are written.
 FUNCTIONS IN C++
⚫ void sum(int x, int y)
⚫{
⚫ int z;
⚫ z = x + y;
⚫ cout << z;
⚫}
⚫ int main()
⚫{
⚫ int a = 10;
⚫ int b = 20;
⚫ sum (a, b);
⚫}
⚫ Here, a and b are sent as arguments, and x and y are parameters which
will hold values of a and b to perform required operation inside function.
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 FUNCTIONS IN C++
⚫ Declaring, Defining and Calling Function
⚫ Function declaration, is done to tell the compiler about the existence of the function. Function's
return type, its name & parameter list is mentioned. Function body is written in its definition.
⚫ #include < iostream>
⚫ #include<conio.h>
⚫ int sum (int x, int y); //declaring function
⚫ void main()
⚫ {
⚫ int a = 10;
⚫ int b = 20;
⚫ int c = sum (a, b); //calling function
⚫ cout << c;
⚫ getch();
⚫ }
⚫ int sum (int x, int y) //defining function
⚫ {
⚫ return (x + y);
⚫ }
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 FUNCTIONS IN C++
⚫ There are many advantages in using functions in a program they are:
⚫ It makes possible top down modular programming. In this style of
programming, the high level logic of the overall problem is solved first
while the details of each lower level functions is addressed later.
⚫ The length of the source program can be reduced by using functions at
appropriate places.
⚫ It becomes uncomplicated to locate and separate a faulty function for
further study.
⚫ A function may be used later by many other programs this means that a c
programmer can use function written by others, instead of starting
over from scratch.
⚫ A function can be used to keep away from rewriting the same block of
codes which we are going use two or more locations in a program. This is
especially useful if the code involved is long or complicated
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 FUNCTIONS IN C++
⚫ A function may belong to any one of the following categories:
⚫ Functions with no arguments and no return values.
⚫ Functions with arguments and no return values.
⚫ Functions with arguments and return values.
⚫ Functions that return multiple values.
⚫ Functions with no arguments and return values.

52
 FUNCTIONS IN C++
⚫ Calling a Function
⚫ Functions are called by their names. If the function is without
argument, it can be called directly using its name. But for functions
with arguments, we have two ways to call them,
⚫ Call by Value
⚫ Call by Reference
⚫ Call by Value
⚫ In this calling technique we pass the values of arguments which are
stored or copied into the formal parameters of functions. Hence, the
original values are unchanged only the parameters inside function
changes.

53
 FUNCTIONS IN C++
⚫ int calc(int x);
⚫ int main()
⚫{
⚫ int x = 10;
⚫ x = calc(x);
⚫ printf("%d", x);
⚫}
⚫ int calc(int x)
⚫{
⚫ x = x + 10 ;
⚫ return x;
⚫}
⚫ Output : 20
54
 FUNCTIONS IN C++
⚫ Call by Reference
⚫ In this we pass the address of the variable as arguments. In this case the formal
parameter can be taken as a reference or a pointer, in both the case they will
change the values of the original variable.
⚫ void calc(int *p);
⚫ int main()
⚫{
⚫ int x = 10;
⚫ calc(&x); // passing address of x as argument
⚫ printf("%d", x);
⚫}
⚫
⚫ void calc(int *p)
⚫{
⚫ *p = *p + 10;
⚫ }
55
 RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS
⚫ A recursive function is one which calls itself.
⚫ Example of finding a factorial in c++
⚫ Include <iostream.h>
⚫ int factorial(int);
⚫ void main(void)
⚫ {
⚫ int number;
⚫ cout << "Please enter a positive integer: ";
⚫ cin >> number;
⚫ if (number < 0)
⚫ cout << "That is not a positive integer.\n";
⚫ else
⚫ cout << number << " factorial is: " << factorial(number) << endl;
⚫ }
⚫ int factorial(int number)
⚫ { int temp;
⚫ if(number <= 1) return 1;
⚫ temp = number * factorial(number - 1);
⚫ return temp;
56⚫ }
 INLINE FUNCTION
⚫ C++ has a different solution to this problem. To eliminate the cost of calls
to the small functions, C++ proposes a new feature called as inline
function.
⚫ An inline function is a function that is expanded in a line when it is
invoked. That is the compiler replaces the function call with the
corresponding function code.
⚫ An inline function can be defined as follows:-

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 INLINE FUNCTIONS
⚫ Following are the situations where inline function may not work:-
⚫ The function should not be recursive.
⚫ Function should not contain static variables.
⚫ For functions containing control structure statements such as
switch, if etc.
⚫ The function main() cannot work as inline.
⚫ The inline functions are similar to macros of C. The main limitation
with macros is that they are not functions and errors are not
checked at the time of compilation. The function offers better type
testing and do not contain side effects as present in macros.

58
 INLINE FUNCTIONS
⚫ Example: Calculate square using inline and macros.
⚫ #include<iostream.h>
⚫ #include<conio.h>
⚫ #define SQUARE(v) v * v
⚫ inline float square (float j)
⚫ {
⚫ return (j * j);
⚫ }
⚫ void main()
⚫ {
⚫ clrscr();
⚫ int p = 3, q = 3, r,s;
⚫ r = SQUARE (++p);
⚫ s= square (++q);
⚫ cout<<”r=”<<r<<”\n”<<”s=”<<s;
⚫ getch();
⚫ }
⚫ Output
⚫ r=25
59 s=16
 INLINE FUNCTIONS
⚫ Macros vs Inline functions
⚫ Macros are not type safe, and can be expanded regardless of
whether they are syntactically correct - the compile phase will
report errors resulting from macro expansion problems.
⚫ Macros are more flexible, in that they can expand other macros -
whereas inline functions don't necessarily do this.
⚫ Macros can result in side effects because of their expansion,
since the input expressions are copied wherever they appear in
the pattern.
⚫ Inline function are not always guaranteed to be inlined - some
compilers only do this in release builds, or when they are specifically
configured to do so. Also, in some cases inlining may not be
possible.
60
 FUNCTION WITH DEFAULT ARGUMENTS
⚫A default argument is an argument to a function that a programmer is not
required to specify. C++ allows the programmer to specify default
arguments that always have a value, even if one is not specified when
calling the function. For example, in the following function declaration:
⚫ int my_func(int a, int b, int c=12);
⚫ This function takes three arguments, of which the last one has a default of
twelve. The programmer may call this function in two ways:
⚫ result = my_func(1, 2, 3);
⚫ result = my_func(1, 2);
⚫ In the first case the value for the argument called c is specified as normal.
In the second case, the argument is omitted, and the default value
of 12 will be used instead.
⚫ There is no means to know if the argument has been specified by the
caller or if the default value was used.
61
 FUNCTION WITH DEFAULT ARGUMENTS
⚫ Example of default arguments in C++
⚫ #include<iostream.h>
⚫ void showVolume(int len, int width, int height=12)
⚫{
⚫ cout<<”Volume =”<<len*width*height;
⚫}
⚫ void main()
⚫{
⚫ showVolume(2,3,4); //takes the height as 4
⚫ showVolume(2,3); // takes the height as default 12
⚫}
⚫ Output:
⚫ Volume=24
⚫ Volume=72
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 FUNCTION OVERLOADING

63
 FUNCTION OVERLOADING

64
 FUNCTION OVERLOADING
⚫ #include<iostream.h>
⚫ #include<conio.h>
⚫ int sqr (int);
⚫ float sqr (float);
⚫ void main()
⚫ {
⚫ clrscr();
⚫ int a=15;
⚫ float b=2.5;
⚫ cout<<”Square=”<<sqr(a)<<”\n”;
⚫ cout<<”Square=”<<sqr(b)<<”\n”;
⚫ getch();
⚫ }
⚫ int sqr(int s)
⚫ {
⚫ return (s * s);
⚫ }
⚫ float sqr(float j)
⚫ {
⚫ return (j * j);
⚫ }
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