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Sensors, measurements and smart metering

3.3 - Power and energy metering
Gabriele D’Antona
Politecnico di Milano - Dipartimento di Energia
Milano, AY 2018-2019 - II Semester
G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

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Outline
1 Power meters
Ideal power meters
Actual power meters
2 Energy meters

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Outline
1 Power meters
Ideal power meters
Actual power meters
2 Energy meters

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Instantaneous power: p(t) = v(t) · i(t)

Zt
1
Active power: P(t) = p(τ ) dτ
T
t−T
1
Zt i(t)
p(t) T
(·) dτ P(t) W 1
t−T
v(t) p(t), P(t)
2

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Zt
1
p(t) T
(·) dτ P(t)
t−T
Zt Zt
1
P(t) = p(τ ) dτ ⇒ P(t) = p(τ )h(t − τ ) dτ
T
t−T −∞
The function h(t) is the system response to a unit impulse

(Dirac’s delta function) at time τ = 0:
h(t − τ ) h(t)
1 1
T T
τ t
t−T t T

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Zt
1
p(t) T
(·) dτ P(t)
t−T
p(f ) H(f ) P(f )
The system transfer function H(f ) is the Fourier transform of

the function h(t):
+∞
Z ZT
−j2πft 1
H(f ) = h(t)e dt = e−j2πft dt =
T
−∞ 0
1 e−j2πfT − e−j2πf 0 sin(πfT)
= = e−jπfT
T −j2πf πfT

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−jπfT sin(πfT)
sin(πfT)
H(f ) = e ⇒ |H(f )| =

πfT πfT
h |H|
1
1
T
t f
T 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
− − − − + + + +
T T T T T T T T
p(f ) H(f ) P(f )

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|H|2dB
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
− − − − + + + +
T T T T T T T T sin(πfT)
f |H(f )| =
πfT
p(f ) H(f ) P(f )
Zt
1
The averaging operation in the time domain (·) dτ is equivalent
T
t−T
to a lowpass filter in the frequency domain. Ideally this filter fully
rejects all frequencies that are integer multiples of 1/T (either 50 Hz
or 60 Hz).

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For what concerns the filtered signal p(t) (the instantaneous

power) in the time domain it is defined as:
p(t) = v(t) · i(t)
and in the frequency domain:
p(f ) = v(f ) ∗ i(f )

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Since voltage and current are periodic signals with period T,

their Fourier transforms are impulsive:
+∞ +∞
X m X n
v(f ) = Vm δ f − , i(f ) = In δ f − ,
m=−∞
T n=−∞
T
the Fourier transform of the instantaneous power is also

impulsive:
+∞ +∞
X X m+n
p(f ) = Vm In δ f −
m=−∞ n=−∞
T
with impulses at frequancies (m and n are any integers):

m+n k
fk = = , with k = m + n
T T

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Time domain Frequency domain
|v|
v
V−1 V1
V−2 V2
t f
2 1 1 2
− − + +
T T T T
T
(·) (∗)
|i|
i
I−1 I1
I−3 I3
t f
3 1 1 3
− − + +
T T T T
(=) T
|p| (=)
V−1 I1 + V1 I−1
V−1 I−1 + V1 I−3 V−1 I3 + V1 I1
p
V−1 I−3 V−2 I1 + V2 I−3 V−2 I3 + V2 I−1
V1 I3
V−2 I−3 V−2 I−1 V2 I1 V2 I3
t f
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5
− − − − − + + + + +
T T T T T T T T T T
T

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|p|
V−1 I1 + V1 I−1
V−1 I−1 + V1 I−3 V−1 I3 + V1 I1
V−1 I−3 V−2 I1 + V2 I−3 V−2 I3 + V2 I−1

V1 I3
V−2 I−3 V−2 I−1 V2 I1 V2 I3
f
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5
− − − − − + + + + +
T T T T T T T T T T
|P|
V−1 I1 + V1 I−1
The filter |H| removes from the instantaneous power all the harmonics
at frequencies ±k/T with k 6= 0, leaving the DC component only.
The DC component is due to the pair of voltage and current
harmonics such that k = m + n = 0, i.e. with m = −n

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Averaging filters
The averaging filter with transfer function H(f ) can be realized

either with continuous time (analog) or with discrete time
(numerical) techniques.
There are three possible approaches to the synthesis of the
averaging filter:
1 CT linear time invariant filter;
2 CT linear time variant filter;
3 DT linear time invariant filter.

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CT-LTI averaging filter

The simplest way to remove the harmonic frequencies ±k/T is
by continuous time (CT) low-pass (LP) filtering of the
instantaneous power, rather than averaging (which is
impossible to realize with a CT time invariant filter).
v(t) V(f )
t = kTS t = kTS
p(t) C.T. P(t) p(f ) p(f )
× PD (t) ∗ HLP (f ) pD (f )
LP filter
sampler sampler
i(t) I(f )
analog multiplier
+∞
X
PD (t) = P(kTS )δ(t − kTS )
k=−∞

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If the continuous time LP filter is a simple 1st order RC filter with
HLP = (1 + j2πfRC)−1 the harmonics at frequency k/T, with k 6= 0, are
attenuated. The larger the time constant RC the greater the attenuation of the
power harmonics.
|p|
f
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5
− − − − − + + + + +
T T T T T T T T T T
|p|
ripple noise
f
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
− − − − + + + +
T T T T T T T T

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|p|
p
t f
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5
− − − − − + + + + +
T T T T T T T T T T
T
|p|
P
With filter HLP (f )
t f
4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4
− − − − + + + +
T T T T T T T T
T
|p|
P
With ideal filter H(f )
t f

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Example #1: CT-LTI averaging filter
Single phase system, in steady state.
+∞ +∞
X (V) X (I)
v(t) = Vk cos(2πkft + ϕk ), i(t) = Ik cos(2πkft + ϕk )
k=0 k=0
+∞
X Vk Ik
(V) (I)

p = v(t) · i(t), P= cos ϕk − ϕk
k=0
2

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50 
 
 0 rad for k = 1
25 kV for k = 1
0  

π
(V)
-50
Vk = 5 kV for k = 2 ϕk = rad for k = 2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

0 kV elsewhere


 4


200 0 rad elsewhere
π
0

 rad for k = 1
 3

130 A for k = 1
-200

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 



 π

20 A for k = 2  rad
 for k = 2
(I) 6
4000 Ik = ϕk =
2000

 5A for k = 3 
 π


0A elsewhere


 rad for k = 3
0 

 2
-2000


0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 rad elsewhere
V1 I1
(V) (I)
V2 I2
(V) (I)

P= cos ϕ1 − ϕ1 + cos ϕ2 − ϕ2 = 860.80 kW
2 2

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The instantaneous power is filtered by an analog LP filter having a time constant τ = 40 ms. The filter response is
quite slow and a strong ripple is superimposed to the active power measurement.
1 1000
0.9 900
0.8 800
0.7 700
0.6 600
0.5 500
0.4 400
0.3 300
0.2 200
0.1 100
0 0
-500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

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The instantaneous power is filtered by an analog LP filter having a time constant τ = 100 ms. The ripple is reduce
compared to the previous example, but the dynamic response is much slower because of the increased filter time
constant.
1 1000
0.9 900
0.8 800
0.7 700
0.6 600
0.5 500
0.4 400
0.3 300
0.2 200
0.1 100
0 0
-500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

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CT-LTV averaging filter

The time average operation can be realized with a CT time
variant filter which integrates for a time interval T after reset
(gated integrator) and sampling the output signal with period T.
t = kT +
C
v(t) V(f )
R
p(t) p(f ) p(t, f ) t = kT
× − t = kT ∗ W ∗ (t, f ) pD (f )
PD (t) sampler
+ sampler
i(t) I(f )
analog multiplier
+∞
X
PD (t) = P(kT)δ(t − kT)
k=−∞

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+
t = kT
C
v(t) V(f )
R
p(t) p(f ) p(t, f ) t = kT
× − t = kT ∗ W ∗ (t, f ) pD (f )
PD (t) sampler
+ sampler
i(t) I(f )
analog multiplier
This filter is linear time variant

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This filter is linear time variant
u u
1 · δ(t) 1 · δ(t − τ )
t t
τ
w(t, 0) w(t, τ )
1 1
T T
t t
T τ T

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Z +∞
y(t)= {u(τ )} w(t, τ ) dτ
−∞
Z +∞ Z +∞
+j2πf τ
= U(f )e df w(t, τ ) dτ =
−∞ −∞
Z +∞ Z +∞
= U(f ) w(t, τ )e+j2πf τ dτ df =
−∞ −∞
Z +∞ Z +∞
= U(f )W(t, −f ) df = U(f )W ∗ (t, f ) df
−∞ −∞

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u
1 · δ(t − τ )
t w(t, τ )
τ
1
1

 , τ ≤t≤T T

w(t, τ ) = T

0, elsewhere

w(t, τ ) τ
1 t T
T
t
τ T

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+∞
Z
−j2πf τ
W(t, f ) = w(t, τ )e dτ =
−∞
Zt
1 −j2πf τ |W(T, f )|
= e dτ =
w(t, τ ) T 1
0
1 −j2πft
1 e −1 t −jπft sin(πft)
T = = e
T −j2πf T πft
f
3 1 1 3
τ sin(πfT) − − + +
t T W(T, f ) = e
−jπft T T T T
πfT
∗ +jπfT sin(πfT)
W (T, f ) = e
πfT

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Example #2: CT-LTV averaging filter
50 
 
 0 rad for k = 1
25 kV for k = 1
0  

π
(V)
-50
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

0 kV elsewhere


 4


200 0 rad elsewhere
π
0

 rad for k = 1
 3

130 A for k = 1
-200

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 



 π

20 A for k = 2  rad
 for k = 2
(I) 6
4000 Ik = ϕk =
2000

 5A for k = 3 
 π


0A elsewhere


 rad for k = 3
0 

 2
-2000


0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 rad elsewhere
V1 I1
(V) (I)
V2 I2
(V) (I)

P= cos ϕ1 − ϕ1 + cos ϕ2 − ϕ2 = 860.80 kW
2 2

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Example #2: CT-LTV averaging filter
The instantaneous power is filtered by a gated integrator having an integration period TINT = 20 ms. The filter
response is fast and no ripple is superimposed to the active power measurement.
1 1000
0.9 900
0.8 800
0.7 700
0.6 600
0.5 500
0.4 400
0.3 300
0.2 200
0.1 100
0 0
-500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

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DT-LTI averaging filter

The time average operation can be realized with a DT time
invariant filter which numerically computes the time average on
the instantaneous power samples.
v(t) V(f )
t = kTS t = kTS
p(t) pD (t) DT p(f ) pD (f )
× PD (t) ∗ HD (f ) pD (f )
LP filter
sampler sampler
i(t) I(f )
analog multiplier
+∞
X +∞
X
pD (t) = p(kTS )δ(t − kTS ), PD (t) = P(kTS )δ(t − kTS )
k=−∞ k=−∞

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The time average operation can be realized with a DT time

invariant filter which numerically computes the time average of
the instantaneous power samples.
t = kTS t = kTS
v(t) V(f )
pD (t) DT pD (f )
× PD (t) ∗ HD (f ) pD (f )
LP filter
t = kTS t = kTS
i(t) I(f )
digital multiplier
+∞
X +∞
X
pD (t) = p(kTS )δ(t − kTS ), PD (t) = P(kTS )δ(t − kTS )
k=−∞ k=−∞

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A moving average FIR filter can be used for approximating the

CT integration, using the rectangular formula (with NTS = T):
pD (k)TS + pD (k − 1)TS + . . . pD (k − N + 1)TS

PD (k) =
NTS
⇓
N−1
1 X T
PD (k) = pD (k − m), N =
N TS
m=0

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PD (t) = pD (t) ∗ hD (t)

N−1
X 1
hD (t) = δ(t − kTS )
N
k=0
hD
1 1 1 1 1 1
6 6 6 6 6 6
N=6
t
0 TS 2TS 3TS 4TS 5TS 6TS

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|HD |
N−1
1 X −j2πfkTS
HD (f ) = e
N f
k=0 2 1 1 2
− − + +
T T T T
1 f −
3
=−
fS
+
3
=+
fS
fS = , Ω = 2π T 2 T 2
TS fS |HD |
N−1
1 X −jkΩ
HD (Ω) = e
N
k=0 −π 2π 2π 2π 2π +π
Ω
−2 − + +2
N N N N

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Example #3: DT-LTI averaging filter
50 
 
 0 rad for k = 1
25 kV for k = 1
0  

π
(V)
-50
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

0 kV elsewhere


 4


200 0 rad elsewhere
π
0

 rad for k = 1
 3

130 A for k = 1
-200

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 



 π

20 A for k = 2  rad
 for k = 2
(I) 6
4000 Ik = ϕk =
2000

 5A for k = 3 
 π


0A elsewhere


 rad for k = 3
0 

 2
-2000


0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 rad elsewhere
V1 I1
(V) (I)
V2 I2
(V) (I)

P= cos ϕ1 − ϕ1 + cos ϕ2 − ϕ2 = 860.80 kW
2 2

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Example #3: DT-LTI averaging filter
The instantaneous power is filtered by a moving average filter having an sampling frequency fS = 10 kHz. The filter
response is fast (T = 20 ms) and no ripple is superimposed to the active power measurement.
1 1000
0.9 900
0.8 800
0.7 700
0.6 600
0.5 500
0.4 400
0.3 300
0.2 200
0.1 100
0 0
-500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

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Example(*)
Input instantaneous power
The instantaneous power in this example is produced by the product of a perfectly sinusoidal voltage at 50 Hz and a
current which is zero up to T1 , then is perfectly sinusoidal up to T2 when a third harmonic is superimposed. At T3 a
second harmonic is added to both current and voltage.

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Example(*)
Active power by analog LP filter
The instantaneous power is filtered by an analog LP filter having a time constant τ = 40 ms. The filter response is
quite slow and a strong ripple is superimposed to the active power measurement.

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Example(*)
Active power by analog LP filter
The instantaneous power is filtered by an analog LP filter having a time constant τ = 80 ms. The ripple is reduce
compared to the previous example, but the dynamic response is much slower because of the increased filter time
constant.

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Example(*)
Active power by gated integrator
The instantaneous power is filtered by a gated integrator having an integration time TINT equal to the nominal signal
period T: TINT = T = 20 ms. The gated integrator output (dotted line) is sampled (marks) and hold (solid line) with
sampling period equal to the integration time. The ripple is totally rejected and the dynamic response is greatly
increased with comparison to the previous examples.

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Example(*)
Active power by discrete time moving average filter
The instantaneous power is filtered by a moving average (MA) filter having a sampling frequency fS = 10 kHz and
an integration period equal to the nominal signal period T: TINT = T = 20 ms, i.e. N = TINT fS = 200 samples.The
ripple is totally rejected and the overall dynamic response and accuracy are very good.

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Example(*)
Results comparison

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Example(*)
Frequency mismatch
The following examples show the results of active power measurements when there is a mismatch between the
actual signal frequency (here the fundamental signal frequency is assumed to be 55 Hz) and the nominal frequency
adopted for the power meter design (50 Hz). The consequent error can be mitigated by adopting larger integration
period, at the cost of a slower dynamic performance (i.e. a larger dynamic error). In case of gated integration or
moving average filtering the algorithm can be adapted to the measured signal fundamental frequency, at a cost of a
greater meter complexity and cost. Analog LP filters are not significantly sensitive to signal frequency fluctuations.

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Example(*)
Frequency mismatch

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Example(*)
Frequency mismatch

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Example(*)
Frequency mismatch

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Example(*)
Frequency mismatch

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Example(*)
Frequency mismatch

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Outline
1 Power meters
Ideal power meters
Actual power meters
2 Energy meters

Power meters
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References
131-11-57
active energy
integral of the instantaneous power p over a time interval [t1 , t2 ]
Zt2
W= p dt
t1
Note 1 to entry: The coherent SI unit of active energy is joule, J. Another unit
is watt hour (131-11-58). Its multiple kilowatt hour, kWh, is commonly used
for billing consumers of electric energy and is therefore indicated on electric
energy meters.
IEC, IEC 60050-131:2002 International Electrotechnical Vocabulary - Part 131: Circuit theory, second edition, 2002
(http://http://www.electropedia.org)

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Active energy meters measure the active energy:
p(t) = v(t) · i(t)
Zt
Active energy: W(t) = p(τ )dτ + W(t0 )
t0
Zt +
p(t) (·) dτ
+ W(t) Wh
t0
i(t)
1
W(t0 )
v(t) W(t)
2

Power meters
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References
Energy billing refers to an assigned and constant period ∆T

(typically 1-2 months, 1 year):
Zt
Active energy: ∆W(t) = W(t) − W(t − ∆t) = p(τ )dτ
t−∆T
k∆T
k∆T
Z ∆W(t)
p(t) (·) dτ ∆W(k∆T)
(k−1)∆T
sampler

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k∆T
k∆T
Z ∆W(t)
p(t) (·) dτ ∆W(k∆T)
(k−1)∆T
sampler
k∆T
Z k∆T
Z
∆W(k∆T) = p(τ ) dτ ⇒ ∆W(k∆T) = p(τ )w(k∆T, τ ) dτ
(k−1)∆T −∞
The function w(t, τ ) is the system response to a unit impulse (Dirac’s delta
function) at time τ (system’s Green function):
w(t, τ ) w(t, τ )
1 1
τ
t τ
k∆T (k − 1)∆T t
(k − 1)∆T k∆T

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k∆T
k∆T
Z ∆W(t)
p(t) (·) dτ ∆W(k∆T)
(k−1)∆T
sampler
p(f ) W ∗ (k∆T, f ) ∆W(k∆t)
The system function W(k∆T, −f ) is the Fourier transform:

+∞
Z k∆T
Z
W(k∆T, −f ) = w(k∆T, τ )e+j2πf τ dτ = e+j2πf τ dτ =
−∞ (k−1)∆T
e−j2πf 0 − e−j2πf ∆T sin(πf ∆T) −jπf (2k+1)∆T

= e−j2πk∆T = ∆T e
j2πf πf ∆T

Power meters
Energy meters
References

sin(πf ∆T) +jπf (2k+1)∆T sin(πf ∆T)
W ∗ (k∆T, f ) = ∆T e ⇒ |W ∗ (k∆T, f )| = ∆T
πf ∆T πf ∆T
w(t, τ ) |W ∗ (k∆T, f )|
∆T
τ f
(k − 1)∆T t
k∆T 3 1 1 3
− − + +
∆T ∆T ∆T ∆T
p(f ) W ∗ (k∆T, f ) ∆W(k∆t)

Power meters
Energy meters
References
|W ∗ (k∆T, f )|dB
3 1 1 3
− − + +
∆T ∆T ∆T ∆T sin(πf ∆T)
f |W ∗ (k∆T, f )| = ∆T
πf ∆T
p(f ) W ∗ (∆T, f ) ∆W(k∆T)
k∆T
Z
The integral operation in the time domain (·) dτ is equivalent to
(k−1)∆T
a lowpass filter in the frequency domain.

Power meters
Energy meters
References
Dynamic range
The dynamic range (i.e. the ratio between meter full scale and
the uncertainty) of energy meters is quite demanding.
As will be shown later standards prescribe that the
measurement relative error (with relation to the true energy
value) must lay within a prescribed interval, of the order of few
percent accordingly to the meter accuracy class, for a broad
interval of the meter current.

Power meters
Energy meters
References
Dynamic range
Let us suppose that the the energy relative error must be:
ė ≤ 1%
Let us suppose that the relative measurement error prescription

has to be guaranteed for constant RMS voltage V and RMS
current I varying in the interval (Ib is the rated current of the
meter):
0.05Ib ≤ I ≤ 80Ib

Power meters
Energy meters
References
Dynamic range
The full scale (FS) of the energy meter is:
FS = V · 80Ib
The minimum measured power with specified error is:
Wmin = V · 0.05Ib
The minimum expected error is:
emin = ė · Wmin = 0.01 · V · 0.05Ib

Power meters
Energy meters
References
Dynamic range
The meter dynamic range must be larger than:
FS V · 80Ib 80 160 000

DR = = = −4
= = 104 dB
emin 0.01 · V · 0.05Ib 5 × 10 1
If the energy meter is realized as a digital system this dynamic

range requires an effective resolution of the ADC system better
than:
N ≥ log2 DR = 17 bit

Power meters
Energy meters
References
Standards
Many important aspects related to performance, specification and testing of energy meters are provided by
international standards. The most relevant are:
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)

IEC 62052 series: Electricity metering equipment (a.c.) - General requirements, tests and test
conditions
IEC 62053 series: Electricity metering equipment (a.c.) - Particular requirements
IEC 62054 series: Electricity metering equipment (a.c.) - Tariff and load control
IEC 62056 series: Electricity metering - Data exchange for meter reading, tariff and load control
European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC)

EN 50470-1 Electricity metering equipment (a.c.). General requirements, tests and test conditions.
Metering equipment (class indexes A, B and C)
EN 50470-2 Electricity metering equipment (a.c.). Particular requirements. Electromechanical
meters for active energy (class indexes A and B)
EN 50470-3 Electricity metering equipment (a.c.). Particular requirements. Static meters for active
energy (class indexes A, B and C)
Directives of the European Parliament and of the Council

Measurement Instruments Directive (MID) 2014/32/EU
Corrigendum to Directive 2014/32/EU
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

ANSI C12 series

Power meters
Energy meters
References
IEC
Meters accuracy

Power meters
Energy meters
References
3.5.1.1
starting current (Ist )
the lowest (RMS) value of the current at which the meter starts
and continues to register
3.5.1.2
basic current (Ib )
(RMS) value of current in accordance with which the relevant

performance of a direct connected meter are fixed
IEC, IEC 62052-11:2003+AMD1:2016 CSV - Electricity metering equipment (a.c.) - General requirements, tests and
test conditions - Part 11: Metering equipment, edition 1.1, 2016

Power meters
Energy meters
References
3.5.1.3
rated current (In )
(RMS) value of current in accordance with which the relevant

performance of a transformer operated meter are fixed
3.5.2
maximum current (Imax )
highest (RMS) value of current at which the meter purports to

meet the accuracy requirements of this standard

Power meters
Energy meters
References
3.5.3
reference voltage (Un )
(RMS) value of the voltage in accordance with which the

relevant performance of the meter are fixed

Power meters
Energy meters
References
3.5.6
class index
number which gives the limits of the permissible percentage

error, for all values of current between 0, 1Ib and Imax , or
between 0, 05In and Imax , for the unity power factor (and in the
case of polyphase meters with balanced loads) when the meter
is tested under reference conditions (including permitted
tolerances on the reference values) as defined in the parts
defining particular requirements

Power meters
Energy meters
References
3.5.7
percentage error
percentage error is given by the following formula:

energy registered by the meter − true energy
Percentage error = × 100
true energy
NOTE: Since the true value cannot be determined, it is approximated by a

value with a stated uncertainty that can be traced to standards agreed upon
between manufacturer and user or to national standards.

Power meters
Energy meters
References
IEC 62052-11:2003 - Electricity metering equipment

Power meters
Energy meters
References

Power meters
Energy meters
References

Part 21: Static meters for active energy (classes 1 and 2)

Power meters
Energy meters
References

Part 21: Static meters for active energy (classes 1 and 2)

Power meters
Energy meters
References

Part 22: Static meters for active energy (classes 0,2 S and 0,5 S)

Power meters
Energy meters
References

Part 22: Static meters for active energy (classes 0,2 S and 0,5 S)

Power meters
Energy meters
References

Part 23: Static meters for reactive energy (classes 2 and 3)

Power meters
Energy meters
References

Part 23: Static meters for reactive energy (classes 2 and 3)

Power meters
Energy meters
References

Part 24: Static meters for reactive energy at fundamental frequency (classes 0,5 S, 1 S
and 1)

Power meters
Energy meters
References

Part 24: Static meters for reactive energy at fundamental frequency (classes 0,5 S, 1 S
and 1)

Power meters
Energy meters
References
EUROPEAN DIRECTIVE (MID)

Meters accuracy

Power meters
Energy meters
References
EU Measurement Instruments Directive (MID)
DIRECTIVE 2014/32/EU OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE

COUNCIL
of 26 February 2014
on the harmonisation of the laws of the Member States relating to the
making available on the market of measuring instruments (recast)
ANNEX V
The relevant requirements of Annex I, the specific requirements of this Annex

and the conformity assessment procedures listed in this Annex, apply to
active electrical energy meters intended for residential, commercial and light
industrial use.
Note: Electrical energy meters may be used in combination with external

instrument transformers, depending upon the measurement technique
applied. However, this Annex covers only electrical energy meters but not
instrument transformers.
Power meters
Energy meters
References
MID definitions are compliant with EN 50470

Power meters
Energy meters
References
3.5.3
starting current (Ist )
the lowest (RMS) value of the current at which the meter is

declared to register active electrical energy at unity power
factor (polyphase meters with balanced load)
3.5.4
minimum current (Imin )
the lowest (RMS) value of the current at which this European

Standard specifies accuracy requirements. At and above Imin ,
up to Itr relaxed accuracy requirements apply
CENELEC, EN 50470-1:2006 - Electricity metering equipment (a.c.) - Part 1: General requirements, tests and test
conditions - Metering equipment (class indexes A, B and C), first edition, 2006

Power meters
Energy meters
References
3.5.5
transitional current (Itr )
the (RMS) value of the current at, and above which, up to Imax
full accuracy requirements of this European Standard apply
3.5.6
reference current (Iref )
for direct connected meters, 10 times the transitional current
(RMS value)
Note 1: This value is the same as basic current, Ib defined in IEC 62052-11,
3.5.1.2.
for current transformer operated meters, 20 times the

transitional current (RMS value)
Note 2: This value is the same as rated current, In .

Power meters
Energy meters
References
3.5.7
rated current (In )
in case of a transformer operated meter, the (RMS) value of the

current for which the meter has been designed
Note: In case of transformer operated meters, the terms "reference current"

and "rated current" are synonymous
3.5.8
maximum current (Imax )
highest (RMS) value of current at which the meter purports to

meet the accuracy requirements of this European Standard [EN
62052-11, 3.5.2]
Power meters
Energy meters
References
3.5.9
voltage (U)
the (RMS) voltage of the circuit to which the meter is connected
3.5.10
reference voltage (Un )
(RMS) value of the voltage in accordance with the relevant

performance of the meter is fixed
Note: The reference voltage can take more than one value.
[EN 62052-11, 3.5.3 modified]

Power meters
Energy meters
References
ANNEX I
Allowable Errors
1 Under rated operating conditions and in the absence of a disturbance, the error of measurement shall not
exceed the maximum permissible error (MPE) value as laid down in the appropriate instrument-specific
requirements.
Unless stated otherwise in the instrument-specific annexes, MPE is expressed as a bilateral value of the
deviation from the true measurement value.
2 Under rated operating conditions and in the presence of a disturbance, the performance requirement shall
be as laid down in the appropriate instrument-specific requirements.
Where the instrument is intended to be used in a specified permanent continuous electromagnetic field the
permitted performance during the radiated electromagnetic field-amplitude modulated test shall be within
MPE.
3 The manufacturer shall specify the climatic, mechanical and electromagnetic environments in which the
instrument is intended to be used, power supply and other influence quantities likely to affect its accuracy,
taking account of the requirements laid down in the appropriate instrument-specific annexes.
ANNEX V
Accuracy
The manufacturer shall specify the class index of the meter. The class indices are defined as: Class A, B and C.

Power meters
Energy meters
References
3.5.14
class index
a designation that identifies:

– the set of limits of percentage error at reference conditions,
additional percentage error due to influence quantities and
maximum permissible error at rated operating conditions
the meter shall comply with;
– the set of critical change values caused by long term
disturbances the meter shall comply with.
Note: A meter may be assigned to different class indexes for different rated
operating conditions.

Power meters
Energy meters
References

EN 50470-3:2006

Power meters
Energy meters
References

EN 50470-3:2006

Power meters
Energy meters
References

EN 50470-3:2006

Power meters
Energy meters
References

EN 50470-1:2006

Power meters
Energy meters
References

Power meters
Energy meters
References

Power meters
Energy meters
References
Commercial meters

Power meters
Energy meters
References
Commercial meters

Power meters
Energy meters
References
ENEL meters (2005)

Power meters
Energy meters
References
ENEL meters (2005)

Power meters
Energy meters
References
ENEL meters (2005)

Power meters
Energy meters
References
ENEL meters (2005)

Power meters
Energy meters
References
References
1 IEC, IEC 62052-11:2003+AMD1:2016 CSV - Electricity metering equipment (a.c.) - General requirements,
tests and test conditions - Part 11: Metering equipment, edition 1.1, 2016
2 IEC, IEC 62053-21:2003+AMD1:2016 CSV - Electricity metering equipment (a.c.) - Particular requirements
- Part 21: Static meters for active energy (classes 1 and 2), edition 1.1, 2016
- Part 22: Static meters for active energy (classes 0,2 S and 0,5 S), edition 1.1, 2016
- Part 23: Static meters for reactive energy (classes 2 and 3), edition 1.1, 2016
- Part 24: Static meters for reactive energy at fundamental frequency (classes 0,5 S, 1 S and 1), edition 1.1,
2016
6 Official Journal of the European Union, Measurement Instruments Directive (MID) 2014/32/EU, 29 March
2014
(http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1497611252312&uri=CELEX:
32014L0032)
7 Official Journal of the European Union, Corrigendum to Directive 2014/32/EU, 20 January 2016
(http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1497611252312&uri=CELEX:
32014L0032R(04))
8 CENELEC, EN 50470-1:2006 - Electricity metering equipment (a.c.) - Part 1: General requirements, tests
and test conditions - Metering equipment (class indexes A, B and C), first edition, 2006
9 CENELEC, EN 50470-3:2006 - Electricity metering equipment (a.c.) - Part 3: Particular requirements -
Static meters for active energy (class indexes A, B and C), first edition, 2006

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Power meters

Sensors, measurements and smart metering

Politecnico di Milano - Dipartimento di Energia

Milano, AY 2018-2019 - II Semester

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

Instantaneous power: p(t) = v(t) · i(t)

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

The function h(t) is the system response to a unit impulse

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

p(f ) H(f ) P(f )

The system transfer function H(f ) is the Fourier transform of

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

p(f ) H(f ) P(f )

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

p(f ) H(f ) P(f )

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

For what concerns the filtered signal p(t) (the instantaneous

p(t) = v(t) · i(t)

and in the frequency domain:

p(f ) = v(f ) ∗ i(f )

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

Since voltage and current are periodic signals with period T,

the Fourier transform of the instantaneous power is also

with impulses at frequancies (m and n are any integers):

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

Time domain Frequency domain

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

V−1 I−3 V−2 I1 + V2 I−3 V−2 I3 + V2 I−1

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

The averaging filter with transfer function H(f ) can be realized

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

CT-LTI averaging filter

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

CT-LTI averaging filter

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

CT-LTI averaging filter

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

Example #1: CT-LTI averaging filter

Single phase system, in steady state.

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

Example #1: CT-LTI averaging filter

Single phase system, in steady state.

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

Example #1: CT-LTI averaging filter

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

Example #1: CT-LTI averaging filter

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

CT-LTV averaging filter

Time domain Frequency domain

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

CT-LTV averaging filter

Time domain Frequency domain

This filter is linear time variant

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

CT-LTV averaging filter

This filter is linear time variant

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

CT-LTV averaging filter

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

CT-LTV averaging filter

G. D’Antona Sensors, measurements and smart metering

FS V · 80Ib 80 160 000