CE 313 Highway and Railroad Engineering

Chapter 3

Design Criteria for Highways

A. Desired Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Explain the basic considerations in designing the highway.

2. Enumerate the factors influencing in the design of highway.
3. Identify the different types and discuss the parts of the highway.
4. Explain the importance of the parts of the highway.

B. Introduction

Standards have been developed as guide in the design of highways and to ensure that
motorist’s convenience, environmental safety and aesthetic considerations are implemented in the
most economical manner consistent with highway service considerations.

C. Input

Designing the Highway

The highway is a transportation medium, and therefore it is necessary that it be constructed

to endure and to provide adequate safe passage of vehicles. To achieve this objective, the design must
adopt certain criteria or standards for strength and uniformity.

Sources of Standards

 A Policy on Geometric Design of Rural Highways, 1965

 A Policy on Design of Urban Highways and Arterials Streets, 1973
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 Standard Specifications for Highways and Bridges, Revised 1972

 General Specifications for Roads and Bridges, 1976

Basic Considerations
In preparing the design of a new highway or re-design of an old one, the designer must give
attention to the following basic considerations:
 The design must be suitable for the traffic volume, both daily and at the design peak hour;
for the design speed and for the character of the vehicles to use the facility.
 The design must be consistent and must avoid surprise changes in alignment, grade and sight
distance.
 The design must be pleasing to the user and to those who live along it.
 The design must be complete.
 The design shall be simple as possible from the standpoint of the builder.
 The design should be such that the finished road can be maintained at the least cost.
 The design must be safe for driving and should ensure confidence for the motorists.

Factors Influencing Highway Design

Highway design is based on specified design standards and controls which depend on the
following roadway system factors:
 Functional classification
 Anticipated traffic volume
 Character of traffic
 Design speed
 Design vehicle
 Cross section of the highway, such as lanes, shoulders, and medians
 Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades
 Topography of the area that the highway traverses
 Level of service
 Available funds
 Safety

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 Social and environmental factors

DEFINITIONS
AASHTO – American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Publications
include: (a) Transportation materials, specifications and tests; (b) Specifications for highway
bridges; (c) Geometric design standards; and (d) Numerous policy statements and guides.

Roads and highways – is defined as strips of land that have been cleared and further improved for the
movement of people and goods.

Road – road has somewhat broader application in usage while generally used to describe a public
thoroughfare. It can also refer to a railway.

Highway – the term highway was first used in England to describe a public road built by digging
ditches on both sides and heaping up the earth in the middle creating a way higher than the adjacent
land. Highway now connotes, a higher state of development than road, but the words are almost
interchangeable.

A. Road Classification According to Primary Functions:

Highways and streets are categorized as rural or urban roads, depending on the area in
which they are located. This initial classification is necessary because urban and rural areas have
significantly different characteristics with respect to the type of land use and population density, which
in turn influences travel patterns. Within the classification of urban and rural, highways are categorized
into the following:

(a) Expressway – an arterial highway with at least partial control of access, which may or may not
be divided or have grade separations at intersections. Designed for high volumes of traffic.
(b) Freeway – a divided arterial highway with full control of access and with grade separations at
intersections. Designed for high speeds.

Control of access – means a condition where the rights of owners or occupants of adjoining
land and other persons access to light, air or view in connection with a highway is fully
or partially controlled by public authority.

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Full control of access – means that the authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic by providing access connections to selected public roads
only. Crossing at grade or direct private driveway connections is not permitted.

Partial control of access – means that the authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic. Although in addition to access connections with selected
public roads, there may be some crossings at grade and some private driveway
connections allowed.

Through street or through highway – every highway or portion thereof on which vehicular
traffic is given preferential right of way, and at the entrance to which vehicular traffic
from intersecting highways is required by law to yield right of way to vehicles on such
through highway in obedience to either a stop sign or a yield sign erected thereon.

(c) Parkway – an arterial highway for non-commercial traffic, with full or partial control of access,
and usually located within a park or a ribbon or park-like development.
(d) Arterial street – an arterial route that carry traffic to the nearest access points or through traffic.
It oftenly serve as the most advantageous routes for relatively long distance route. Most arterials
are existing highways or streets of considerable length along which cross traffic is regulated by
signals or stop signs. Designed for moderate or high volumes. Lower speeds than highways and
expressways.
(e) Collector street – form a smaller grid pattern which picks up traffic from service streets and carries
it to the arterials. Large commercial enterprises or amusement facilities such as drive in theaters
almost always front on arterial roads. Designed for low or moderate capacity road.
(f) Local roads – is defined as a street or road primarily for access to residence, business or other
adjoining property. It is also defined as a road constructed and maintained by the local government.
Low capacity, low speed.

B. Traffic Volume
Traffic and vehicle data forms the major controls for highway design. The design of a
highway or any part thereof should consider jointly all data relating to traffic such as traffic volume,
character of traffic and axle loading. Traffic information serves to establish the “loads” for geometric
highway design.

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A road should be designed so that it will accommodate or can be readily changed to

accommodate the number of vehicles that is estimated to pass it towards the end of its life. This number
is called the design volume. In estimating the design volume, the minimum life is assumed to be 10 to
15 years for a flexible pavement and 20 years for a rigid pavement. Traffic volumes are usually the
annual average daily traffic (AADT), though at critical points on a road, such as intersections, peak
traffic figures are also taken into account. The number of vehicles using a road in a given time
determines the number of traffic lanes required and indicates whether there is a need for auxiliary lanes
for slow speed traffic and or whether speed change lanes are required at intersections.
The design hourly volume (DHV) should be representative of the future year chosen for
design. It should be predicated on current traffic (existing and attracted) plus all traffic increases
(normal traffic growth, generated traffic, and development traffic) that would occur during the period
between the current and the future year chosen for design. A period of 20 years is widely used as basis
for design, for which the usual traffic increase on a highway improvement is in the range of 50 to 150
percent. Where the highway is to be a freeway, traffic increase is likely to be higher, in the range of
80 to 200 percent.
On minor, low volume roads, average daily traffic (ADT) normally is sufficient. On most
highways, the DHV, usually the 30th highest hourly volume is used for design. It has also been shown
that, excluding rural highways with unusually high or low fluctuation in traffic volume, the 30th-
highest hourly volume for rural highways is usually between 12 and 18 percent of the ADT, with the
average being 15 percent. The 30th-highest hourly volume may also be used as the DHV for urban
highways. It is usually determined by applying between 8 and 12 percent to the ADT.

C. Character of Traffic
All roads should be designed to accommodate trucks, buses, and passenger vehicles with
safety and convenience. A thorough knowledge of the design vehicle’s weight, dimensioning,
mobility, and other characteristics, is essential for good design.
The vehicle that should be used in design for normal operation is the largest one which
represents a significant percentage of the traffic for the design year. For design of most highways
accommodating truck traffic, one of the design semi-trailer combinations should be used. A design
check should be made for the largest vehicle expected to insure that such vehicle can negotiate the
designated turns, particularly if pavements are curbed.

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Knowing the predominant character of traffic to use the highway, the required width of lane
could be determined. The total width of a highway is the sum of the widths of traffic lanes required,
dividing islands, curb and gutter, shoulders and/or walkways, ditches or gutters, drains and other
special features.

D. The Design Speed

Design speed are defined as follows:

 The speed determined for design and correlation of the physical feature of a highway that
influence vehicles operations. It is the maximum speed that can be maintained over a
specified section of the highway when weather and traffic conditions are so favourable that
the design feature of the highway govern. (AASHTO)
 A speed selected to establish specific minimum geometric design elements for a particular
section of highway. These design elements include vertical and horizontal alignment, and
sight distance.

The choice of design speed is influenced by: (a) topography or the character of terrain, (b)
economic considerations, (c) environmental factors, (d) type and anticipated volume of traffic, (e)
functional classification of the highway, and (f) whether the area is rural or urban.

For highway design, topography is generally classified into three groups: level, rolling, and
mountainous terrain. Level terrain is relatively flat. Horizontal and vertical sight distances are
generally long or can be achieved without much construction difficulty or major expense. Rolling
terrain has natural slopes that often rise above and fall below the highway grade with occasional steep
slopes that restrict the normal vertical and horizontal alignments. Mountainous terrain has sudden
changes in ground elevation in both the longitudinal and transverse directions, thereby requiring
frequent hillside excavations to achieve acceptable horizontal and vertical alignments.

The design speed is basically higher than the anticipated average speed. AASHTO
recommend that: “The design speed be set to the greatest degree possible, to satisfy the needs of nearly
all drivers both today and throughout the road anticipated life.”

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Controls used for design of speed are as follows: (a) reduced super elevation; (b) easement
curves; (c) delineators; (d) stripping signs; and (e) rumble strip.

Selection of the proper road design speed is one of the most important decision because it
sets the limits to curvature, sight distance and other geometric features. But because of limited funds,
there is a strong temptation to reduce the design speed in order to save money. Such decision is unwise
because the alignment grade and sight distance after the roadway has been constructed and paved along
the landscape and rights of way become more difficult and expensive to adjust or to correct.

The AASHTO practice is to classify first the highway as Rural or Urban, then as Freeways,
Arterials, Collectors and Local. Rural collectors and local facilities are classified as either flat, rolling
or mountainous.

FACILITY Design Speed

URBAN km/hr RURAL km/hr

Freeway 80-95 preferred 95-110 mountainous

Arterial 64-95 but 48 in built up areas 80-100

Collectors 48 km/hr See Table 3-2

Local 32-48 km/hr See Table 3-2

Table 3-1 MINIMUM RECOMMENDED DESIGN SPEED

CLASS TERRAIN AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC

Collector 0-400 400-750 750-2000 2000-4000 Over 4000

Level 60 75 75 75 90

Rolling 45 60 60 75 75

Mountainous 30 45 45 60 60

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Local 0-50 50-250 250-400 Over 400

Level 45 45 60 75

Rolling 30 45 45 60

Mountainous 30 30 30 45

TABLE 3-2 AASHTO MINIMUM DESIGN SPEED KM/HR FOR RURAL COLLECTORS AND RURAL
ROADS BASED ON CURRENT ADT

Although the design speed presently used is 80 km. per hour, higher designers project
design speed up to 120 km. per hour to guarantee against future obsolescence as well as increased
margin of operating safety. The high speed road design must anticipate future generation high speed
vehicles and advanced transportation systems that may operate on many of these road alignments.

E. Design Vehicle
A design vehicle is selected to represent all vehicles on the highway. Its weight, dimensions,
and operating characteristics are used to establish the design standards of the highway.

The vehicle type selected as the design vehicle is the largest that is likely to use the highway
with considerable frequency. The selected design vehicle is used to determine critical design features
such as radii at intersections and turning roadways as well as highway grades.

The following guidelines apply when selecting a design vehicle:

 When a parking lot or a series of parking lots are the main traffic generators, the passenger
car may be used.
 For the design of intersections at local streets and park roads, a single-unit truck may be used.
 At intersections of state highways and city streets that serve buses with relatively few large
trucks, a city transit bus may be used.
 At intersections of highways and low-volume county highways or township/local roads with
less than 400 ADT, either an 84-passenger large school bus 40 ft long or a 65-passenger
conventional bus 36 ft long may be used. The selection of either of these will depend on the
expected usage of the facility.

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 At intersections of freeway ramp terminals and arterial crossroads, and at intersections of

state highways and industrialized streets that carry high volumes of traffic, the minimum size
of the design vehicle should be WB-20.

F. Cross Section of Typical Highway

The principal elements of a highway cross section consist of the travel lanes, shoulders,
and medians (for some multilane highways). Marginal elements include median and roadside barriers,
curbs, gutters, guard rails, sidewalks, and side slopes. Figure 3.1 shows a typical cross section for a
two-lane highway, and Figure 3.2 on the next page shows that for a multilane highway.

Figure 3.1 Typical Cross Section for Two-Lane Highways

Figure 3.2 Typical Cross Section for Multilane Highways (half section)

The cross section of a typical highway has a latitude of variables to consider such as:

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1. The volume of traffic

2. Character of the traffic
3. Speed of the traffic
4. Characteristics of motor vehicles and the driver

Highway design usually adopt a cross section that is uniform in thickness from end to end
of the improvement. This is acceptable on high volume traffic road facilities. For a low volume or
reconstruction of old roads, modification of the features such as the shoulder width in rough areas
are usually employed to reduce the costs.

Width of Travel Lane

The standard width of road:

 3.00 meters for one lane highway

 3.60 meters for freeways and other major highways

For a Two Lane Rural Highways – A 7.20 meters wide surface is required for a safe clearance between
commercial vehicles and is recommended for main highways.
For a Collector Roadway – 6.00 meters wide surface is acceptable only for a low volume traffic
including few trucks travelling thereon.

For Local Rural Roadway – The minimum surface width is 4.80 meters for a 30 km/hr design speed.

For Urban Roadway – The minimum design width is 3.60 meters although 3.00 meters is allowed
where space is limited.

Road Shoulders
Road shoulder or verge is defined as that portion of the roadway between the edge of the
traffic lane and the edge of the ditch, gutter, curb or side slope. AASHTO requires that its usable
pavement width shall be strong enough to support a vehicle.

Importance of road shoulder:

1. Serves as a place for vehicles to stop when disabled, or for some other purposes.

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2. Reduces road accidents.

3. Add structural strength to the road pavement.
4. Increases the horizontal sight distance on curves.

 Most road shoulders are unpaved having a width from 60-120 cm wide. Disadvantage? Drivers
hesitate to occupy it during rainy days.
 A continuous narrow white strip at the edge of roadway separates the shoulder and serves as guide
to drivers especially during bad weather and poor visibility condition.

The Policy on Geometric Design Recommended that:

1. Outside shoulder should be paved for at least 3.00 or 3.60 meters wide if truck volume is more
than 250 in the design hour (ADT).
2. The recommended width for the left (median) shoulder is 1.20 to 2.40 meters with at least 1.20
meters paved.
3. If there are 6 or more lanes, the median shoulder should be 3.00 meters wide or 3.60 meters if
truck volume in the design hour exceeds 250.
4. For arterials with ADT less than 400, the usable shoulder width is fixed at 1.20 meters
minimum, although 2.40 meter wide is much preferred.
5. When the design hour volume ADT exceeds 400, the usable minimum shoulder width is 2.40
meters although 3.60 meters is recommended.
6. For Urban Arterial road, similar shoulder without curb is suggested unless needed for proposed
drainage.
7. The width of the median shoulders without curb is suggested unless needed for proposed
drainage.
8. For six or more lanes, a 2.40 to 3.00 meters shoulder width is recommended.
9. For rural collectors roadway, a graded shoulder of 60 centimeters wide is required for ADT’s
less than 400.
10. For ADT’s over 2000, a 2.40 meters wide shoulder is advisable.

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Width is defined as “extending from the edge of the surfacing to the point where shoulder
slope intersect the side slope”. The urban collector road usually has no shoulder, instead parking lanes
of 2.40 meters or preferably 3.00 meters wide with gutters are specified.

The Cross Slope

Pavements on straight sections of two-lane and multilane highways without medians are
sloped from the middle downward to both sides of the highway, resulting in a transverse or cross slope,
with a cross section shape that can be curved, plane or a combination of the two. A parabola is generally
used for curved cross sections, and the highest point of the pavement (called the crown) is slightly
rounded, with the cross slope increasing toward the pavement edge. Plane cross slopes consist of
uniform slopes at both sides of the crown. The curved cross section has one advantage which is that
the slope increases outward to the pavement edge, thereby enhancing the flow of surface water away
from the pavement. A disadvantage is they are difficult to construct.
Cross slopes on divided highways are provided by either crowning the pavement in each
direction, as shown in Figure 3.3(a), or by sloping the entire pavement in one direction, as shown in
Figure 3.3(b). The advantage of sloping the pavement in each direction is that surface water is quickly
drained away from the traveled roadway during heavy rain storms, whereas the disadvantage is that
additional drainage facilities, such as inlets and underground drains, are required. This method is
mainly used at areas with heavy rain and snow.

Figure 3.3 Basic Cross Slope Arrangements for Divided Highways

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For a high type pavement, the crown or slope is often 1% to 2%. High-type pavements have
wearing surfaces that can adequately support the expected traffic load without visible distress due to
fatigue and are not susceptible to weather conditions. However, steeper slopes are strongly
recommended because rainwater flow away more rapidly and thereby reducing the water thickness on
the road pavement. A cross slope in one direction of a multi-lane highways makes driving comfortable,
but with heavy rainfall, the water depth increases on the roadway.
The paved shoulder cross slope ranges from 3% to 6% although 4% is the most common.
For a gravel shoulder, 4% to 6% slope is satisfactory and 8% slope is effective drainage for turf (grass)
surfaces.

Side Slopes
Side slopes are provided on embankments and fills to provide stability for earthworks. They
also serve as a safety feature by providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles. When being
considered as a safety feature, the important sections of the cross slope are the hinge point, the
foreslope, and the toe of the slope, as shown in Figure 3.4. The hinge point should be rounded since it
is potentially hazardous and may cause vehicles to become airborne while crossing it, resulting in loss
of control of the vehicle. The foreslope serves principally as a recovery area, where vehicle speeds can
be reduced and other recovery maneuvers taken to regain control of the vehicle. The gradient of the
foreslope should therefore not be high. Slopes of 3:1 (horizontal:vertical) or flatter are generally used
for high embankments. This can be increased based on conditions at the site. Recommended values
for foreslopes and backslopes are provided in Table 3.1. As illustrated in Figure 3.4, the toe of slope
is rounded up in order to facilitate the safe movement of vehicles from the foreslope to the backslope.

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Figure 3.4 Designation of Roadside Regions

Table 3.1 Guide for Earth Slope Design

 Earth fill of normal height is safe on a slope of 1:2 ratio.

 Ordinary undisturbed earth fill – 1:1 ratio
 Rock cuts – 1:2 up to 1:4 ratio
 Slopes are lowered to facilitate plant growth which reduces erosion and decrease
maintenance cost.

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The Advantages of a Flat Side or Back Slopes:

(a) With a back slope of 3:1 or even flatter, cars could be directed to back into the road and will
come to stop or continue down the slope with no risk of over-turning.
(b) Flat fill slopes are visible from the vehicles at full extent giving the road a safer appearance.
(c) With visible slope for being low and flatter, vehicles could be positioned or parked closer to the
edge and on two lane roadway facilities, parking would be farther from the opposing traffic.

Recommended Policy on Geometric Design

1. A 6:1 slope ratio be adopted on embankment less than 1.20 meters height and a ratio of 4:1 on
a higher fill.
2. A 2:1 slope is allowed to heights greater than 6.00 m.
3. Cut slope should not be steeper than 2:1 ratio except on solid rock or special kind of soil.

The AASHTO policy stipulated that where cut or fill slopes intersect the original ground
surface, the cross section has to be rounded to blend the slope in the natural ground surfaces. When
the side slope requires embankment with suitable retaining wall, any of the following materials could
be used depending upon the natural conditions:
1. Hand placed stones
2. Cement rubble masonry
3. Concrete blocks
4. Conventional reinforced concrete
5. T or counterforted designs
6. Cribs assembled from timber
7. Precast concrete
8. Metal elements
9. Tied back piling
10. Earth reinforced with metal or plastic bands

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Median
A median is the section of a divided highway that separates the lanes in opposing directions.
The width of a median is the distance between the edges of the inside lanes, including the median
shoulders. The functions of a median include:
 Providing a recovery area for out-of-control vehicles
 Separating opposing traffic
 Providing stopping areas during emergencies
 Providing storage areas for left-turning and U-turning vehicles
 Providing refuge for pedestrians
 Reducing the effect of headlight glare
 Providing temporary lanes and cross-overs during maintenance operations

Medians can either be raised, flush, or depressed. Raised medians are frequently used in
urban arterial streets because they facilitate the control of left-turn traffic at intersections by using part
of the median width for left-turn-only lanes. Some disadvantages associated with raised medians
include possible loss of control of the vehicle by the driver if the median is accidentally struck, and
they cast a shadow from oncoming headlights, which results in drivers finding it difficult to see the
curb.
Flush medians are commonly used on urban arterials. They can also be used on freeways,
but with a median barrier. To facilitate drainage of surface water, the flush median should be crowned.
The practice in urban areas of converting flush medians into two-way left-turn lanes is common, since
the capacity of the urban highway is increased while maintaining some features of a median.
Depressed medians are generally used on freeways and are more effective in draining
surface water. A side slope of 6:1 is suggested for depressed medians, although a slope of 4:1 may be
adequate.
Median widths vary from a minimum of 4 to 80 ft or more. Median widths should be as
wide as possible but should be balanced with other elements of the cross section and the cost involved.
In general, the wider the median, the more effective it is in providing safe operating conditions and a
recovery area for out-of-control vehicles. A minimum width of 10 ft is recommended for use on four-
lane urban freeways, which is adequate for two 4-ft shoulders and a 2-ft median barrier. A minimum
of 22 ft, preferably 26 ft, is recommended for six or more lanes of freeway.

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Median widths for urban collector streets vary from 2 to 40 ft, depending on the median
treatment. For example, when the median is a paint-striped separation, 2 to 4 ft medians are required.
For narrow raised or curbed areas, 2 to 6 ft medians are required, and for curbed sections, 16 to 40 ft.
The larger width is necessary for curbed sections because it provides space for protecting vehicles
crossing an intersection and also can be used for landscape treatment.

Roadside and Median Barriers

A median barrier is defined as a longitudinal system used to prevent an errant vehicle from
crossing the portion of a divided highway separating the traveled ways for traffic in opposite directions.
Roadside barriers, on the other hand, protect vehicles from obstacles or slopes on the roadside. They
also may be used to shield pedestrians and property from the traffic stream. The provision of median
barriers must be considered when traffic volumes are high and when access to multilane highways and
other highways is only partially controlled. However, when the median of a divided highway has
physical characteristics that may create unsafe conditions, such as a sudden lateral drop-off or
obstacles, the provision of a median barrier should be considered regardless of the traffic volume or
the median width.
Roadside barriers should be provided whenever conditions exist requiring the protection
for vehicles along the side of the road. For example, when the slope of an embankment is high or when
traveling under an overhead bridge, the provision of a roadside barrier is warranted. There are a wide
variety of roadside barriers and the selection of the most desirable system should provide the required
degree of shielding at the lowest cost for the specific application. A steel-backed timber guard rail is
an aesthetic alternative to conventional guardrail systems.
Median barriers can be composed of cable or post and beam systems or concrete. For major
arterials, concrete barriers are commonly used because of their low life-cycle cost, effective
performance, and easy maintenance.
Additional information on selecting, locating, and designing roadside and median barriers
can be obtained from the AASHTO Roadside Design Guide.

Curbs and Gutters

Curbs are raised structures made of either Portland cement concrete or bituminous concrete
(rolled asphalt curbs) that are used mainly on urban highways to delineate pavement edges and

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pedestrian walkways. Curbs are also used to control drainage, improve aesthetics, and reduce right of
way. Curbs can be generally classified as either vertical or sloping.
Gutters or drainage ditches are usually located on the pavement side of a curb to provide
the principal drainage facility for the highway. They are sloped to prevent any hazard to traffic, and
they usually have cross slopes of 5 to 8 percent and are 1 to 6 ft wide. Gutters can be designed as V-
type sections or as broad, flat, rounded sections.

Guard Rails
Guard rails are longitudinal barriers placed on the outside of sharp curves and at sections
with high fills. Their main function is to prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway. They are installed
at embankments higher than 8 ft and when shoulder slopes are greater than 4:1. Shapes commonly
used include the W beam and the box beam. The weak post system provides for the post to collapse
on impact, with the rail deflecting and absorbing the energy due to impact.

Sidewalks
Sidewalks are usually provided on roads in urban areas, but are uncommon in rural areas.
Nevertheless, the provision of sidewalks in rural areas should be evaluated during the planning process
to determine sections of the road where they are required.
Generally, sidewalks should be provided when pedestrian traffic is high along main or high-
speed roads in either rural or urban areas. When shoulders are not provided on arterials, sidewalks are
necessary even when pedestrian traffic is low. In urban areas, sidewalks should also be provided along
both sides of collector streets that serve as pedestrian access to schools, parks, shopping centers, and
transit stops, and along collector streets in commercial areas. Sidewalks should have a minimum clear
width of 4 ft in residential areas and a range of 4 to 8 ft in commercial areas.

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D. Reference(s)

 Garber, Nicholas; Hoel, Lester. Traffic and Highway Engineering 4th Edition. 2012.
Cengage Learning Asia Pte. Ltd.
 Fajardo, Max. Elements of Roads and Highways 2nd Edition. 1998. 5138 Merchandising

Publisher

 Highway Design Manual (New York Department of Transportation). Retrieved last

August 5, 2020 from https://www.dot.ny.gov/divisions/engineering/design/dqab/hdm/hdm-
repository/chapt_02.pdf

Prepared by:

ENGR. MAY B. CHAN

Instructor I

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