Pérotin

Pérotin[a] (fl. c. 1200) was a composer associated with the

Notre Dame school of polyphony in Paris and the broader
Pérotin
ars antiqua musical style of high medieval music. He is Nationality French
credited with developing the polyphonic practices of his Other names Perotinus,
predecessor, Léonin, with the introduction of three and Perrotinus,
four-part harmonies. Perotinus Magnus,
Other than a brief mention by music theorist Johannes de Magister Perotinus
Garlandia in his De Mensurabili Musica, virtually all Occupation Composer
information on Pérotin's life comes from Anonymous IV, a Years active fl. c. 1200
pseudonymous English student. Anonymous IV names
seven titles from a Magnus Liber—including Viderunt Known for Polyphony
omnes, Sederunt principes and Alleluia Nativitas—that Notable work Viderunt omnes,
have been identified with surviving works and gives him the Sederunt principes,
title Magister Perotinus (Pérotinus the Master) meaning he Alleluia Nativitas
was licensed to teach. It is assumed that Perotinus was
French and named Pérotin, a diminutive of Peter, but attempts to match him with persons in
contemporary documents remain speculative.

Contents
Life, and problems of identification
Historical context
Notre Dame School
Magnus liber organi
Music
Forms and style
Compositions
List of works
Influence
List of selected recordings
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links

Life, and problems of identification

Pérotin, about whom little is known, most likely lived
around the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th century
and is presumed to have been French.[1] The closest thing to
a contemporary account of his life comes from two much
later reporters: a brief mention attributed to the music
theorist Johannes de Garlandia[b][c] (fl. c. 1270–1320) in his
De Mensurabili Musica,[3][4][5] and four mentions[6] in the
works of a late 13c English student known as Anonymous
IV,[d][8][9] including this paragraph:[10]

These rules were used in many older books; this

was so during and after the time of Perotinus the
Great. Nevertheless, they did not know how to
distinguish these notes from those which will be
presented shortly. This was so even since the
time of Leo, because two ligated notes were put Notre-Dame and the rest of Paris in
for the durational value of a brevis longa, and in the background of a c. 1452–1460
a similar manner, three ligated notes were quite illuminated manuscript by Jean
often used for a longa brevis, longa. People say Fouquet
Maître Leonin was the best composer of
Organum (optimus organista), he composed the
Great Organum Book for the gradual and
antiphonary in order to prolong the divine
service. This book remained in use until the time
of the great Perotin who abridged it and
composed clausules and sections that were many
in number and better because he was the best
composer of descant (optimus discantor). This
Magister Perotinus made the best quadrupla,
such as Viderunt and Sederunt, with an
abundance of striking musical embellishments
[colores armonicae artis]; likewise, the noblest
tripla, such as Alleluia, Posui adiutorium and
[Alleluia], Nativitas etc. He also made three-
voice conductus, such as Salvatoris hodie, and
two-voice conductus, such as Dum sigillum
summi Patris, and also, among many others,
monophonic conductus, such as Beata viscera
etc. The book, that is, the books of Magister 15c choir, from a Parisian Book of
Perotinus, were in use in the choir of the Paris Hours.
cathedral of the Blessed Virgin up to the time of
Magister Robertus de Sabilone,[e] and from his
time up to the present day.[f][12][13][1]

There have been many speculative attempts to identify Pérotin with members of the Notre
Dame administration,[g] but these have not generally been accepted.[1][15] Of the several people
with that name (Petrus) that have been suggested, the commonest are Petrus Cantor (died
1197), who was a theologian, and another Petrus who was Succentor at Notre Dame ca. 1207–
1238.[11][14][16] Of these two, Petrus Succentor has been suggested as more probable, in part on
chronological grounds, and partly because of the succentor's role in overseeing the celebration
of the liturgy in the cathedral (whose choir was dedicated 1182),[1] but this is purely speculative,
resting on an assumption that the composer held some important rank in the cathedral
hierarchy.[16][17]

Pérotin is considered to be the most important member of the Notre Dame school of polyphony,
a group of composers working at or near the cathedral in Paris from about 1160 to 1250,
creators of the ars antiqua style.[18] The dates of Pérotin's life and works have long been a
subject of debate,[19] but are generally thought to be from about 1155/60 (or earlier) to around
1200/05 (or later), based on the evolution of French choral writing during this time (see
Works), in particular, his apparent absence from the flowering of the French motet that
occurred after 1210.[16][20][21]

Pérotin was one of very few composers of his day whose name has been preserved, and can be
reliably attached to individual compositions, most of which have been transcribed.[22]
Anonymous IV called him Magister Perotinus (Pérotinus the Master).[23] The title, employed
also by Johannes de Garlandia, means that Perotinus, like Léonin, earned the degree magister
artium, almost certainly in Paris, and that he was licensed to teach. However, only Anonymous
IV employed the epithet Perotinus Magnus (Perotinus the Great).[8] The name Perotinus, the
Latin diminutive of Petrus, is assumed to be derived from the French name Pérotin, diminutive
of Pierre. However "Petrus" was one of the most common names in the Ile de France during the
High Middle Ages, making further identification difficult.[8] The diminutive was presumably a
mark of respect bestowed by his colleagues. The title Magnus was a mark of the esteem in which
he was held, even long after his death.[1]

Historical context

Notre Dame School

The reign of Louis VII (1137–1180) witnessed a period of cultural innovation, in which appeared
the Notre Dame school of musical composition, and the contributions of Léonin, who prepared
two-part choral settings (organa) for all the major liturgical festivals.[25] This period in musical
history has been described as a paradigm shift of lasting consequence in musical notation and
rhythmic composition, with the development of the organum, clausula, conductus and
motet.[26] The innovative nature of the Notre Dame style stands in contrast to its predecessor,
that of the Abbey of St Martial, Limoges, replacing the monodic (monophonic) Gregorian chant
with polyphony (more than one voice singing at a time). This was the beginning of polyphonic
European church music. Organum at its roots involves simple doubling (organum duplum or
organum purum) of a chant at intervals of a fourth or fifth, above or below.[27] This school also
marked a transition from music that was essentially performance to a less ephemeral entity that
was committed to parchment, preserved and transmitted to history. It is also the beginning of
the idea of composers and compositions, the introduction of more than two voices and the
treatment of vernacular texts. For the first time, rhythm became as important as pitch, to the
extent that the music of this era came to be known as musica mensurabilis (music that can be
measured). These developments and the notation that evolved laid the foundations of musical
practice for centuries. The surviving manuscripts from the thirteenth century together with the
contemporaneous treatises on musical theory constitute the musical era of ars antiqua. The
Notre Dame repertory spread throughout Europe. In Paris polyphony was being performed in
the late 1190s but later sources imply that some of the
compositions date back as far as the 1160s. Although often
linked to the construction of the cathedral itself,
construction commenced in 1163 and the altar consecrated
in 1182. However there was evidence of musical creativity
there from the early twelfth century.[17]

Léonin's work was distinguished by two distinctive

organum styles, purum and discantus.[27][16] This early
polyphonic organa was still firmly based on Gregorian
chant, to which a second voice was added. The chant was
called the tenor (cantus firmus or vox principalis),[28]
which literally “holds” (Latin: tenere) the melody.[28] The
tenor is based on an existing plainsong melody from the
liturgical repertoire (such as the Alleluia, Verse or Gradual,
from the Mass, or a Responsory or Benedicamus from the
Office). This quotation of plainchant melody is a defining
characteristic of thirteenth century musical genres.[29] In
Eugène Viollet-le-Duc's
organum purum the tenor part was drawn out into long
reconstruction of the medieval choir
pedal points, while the upper part or duplum contrasted
of Notre Dame de Paris (1856) [24]
with it in a much freer rhythm, consisting of melisms
(melismatic or several notes per syllable, compared to
syllabic, a single note per syllable). In the second, discantus, style, the tenor was allowed to be
melismatic, and the notes were quicker and more regular with the upper part becoming equally
rhythmic. These more rhythmic sections were known as clausulae (puncta).[16] Another
innovation was the standardization of note forms, and Léonin's new square notes were quickly
adopted. Although he developed the discantus style, Léonin's strength was as a writer of
organum purum.[16] The singing of organa fell into disuse by the mid thirteenth century.[11]
Associated with the Notre Dame school, was Johannes de Garlandia, whose De mensurabili
provided a theoretical basis, for Notre Dame polyphony is essentially musica mensurabilis,
music that is measured in time. In his treatise, he defines three forms of polyphony, organum in
speciali, copula, and discant, which are defined by the relationship of the voices to each other
and by the rhythmic flow of each voice.[17]

Magnus liber organi

Léonin compiled his compositions into a book, the Magnus liber organi (Great Organum
Book), around 1160. Pérotin's works are preserved in this compilation of early polyphonic
church music, which was in the collection of the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris.[i] The
Magnus liber also contains the work of his successors.[30] In addition to two-part organa, this
book contains three- and four-part compositions in four distinct forms: organa, clausulae,
conducti and motets, and three distinct styles. In the organum style the upper voices are highly
mobile over a tenor voice moving in long unmeasured notes. The discant style has the tenor
moving in measured notes, but still more slowly than the upper voices. The third style has all
voices moving note on note, and is largely limited to conductus.[31] The surviving sources all
commence with a four-voice organal setting of the Christmas Gradual, Viderunt omnes,[j]
believed to be Pérotin's, as most likely did the original Liber.[32] However, the manuscripts and
fragments that survive[k] date well into the thirteenth century, meaning that they are preserved
in a form notated by musicians working several generations following Léonin and
Pérotin.[34][35] This collection of music constitutes the earliest
known record of polyphony to have the stability and circulation
achieved earlier by monophonic Gregorian chant.[17]

Music

Forms and style

Louis VII was succeeded by his son Philip II in 1179 and his reign
was marked by integration and revision of the cultural shifts that
had transpired under his father.[16] It was during this time that the Illuminated page of Magnus
compositions of Pérotin first appeared, and a shift towards a more liber[h]
predominant discantus style.[16] Pérotin is best known for his
composition of both liturgical organa and non-liturgical
Alleluia nativitas
conducti in which the voices move note on note. He pioneered
the styles of organum triplum and organum quadruplum
(three and four-part polyphony)[36][37] and his Viderunt
omnes and Sederunt principes,[l] Graduals for Christmas[m]
and the feast of St Stephen's Day (December 26)
respectively[39][40] are among only a few organa quadrupla
known, early polyphony having been restricted to two-part
compositions.[20][37] With the addition of further parts, the
compositions became known as motets, the most important
form of polyphony of the period. Pérotin's two Graduals for the
Christmas season represent the highest point of his style, with
a large scale tonal design in which the massive pedal points
sustain the swings between consecutive harmonies, and an
intricate interplay among the three upper voices.[41] Pérotin
also furthered the development of musical notation, moving it
further from improvisation.[31] Despite this, we know nothing
of how these works came about.[35]

In addition to his own compositions, as noted by Anonymous

IV, Pérotin set about revising the Magnus Liber Organi.[16]
Léonin's added duplum required skill, and had to be sung fast
with up to 40 notes to one of the underlying chant, as a result
Modern transcription of passage
of which the actual text progressed very slowly. Pérotin
showing use of fourths
shortened these passages, while adding further voice parts to (blue:unison, red:third,
enrich the harmony.[42] The degree to which he did this has black:fourth, magenta:fifth)
been debated due to the phrase abbreviavit eundem by Play
Anonymous IV. Usually translated as abbreviate, it has been
surmised that he shortened the Magnus liber by replacing
organum purum with discant clausulae or simply replacing existing clausulae with shorter
ones. Some 154 clausulae have been attributed to Pérotin but many other clausulae are
elaborate compositions that would actually expand the compositions in the Liber, and these
stylistically resemble his known works which are on a much grander scale than those of his
predecessor, and hence do not represent "abbreviation". An alternative rendering of abbreviavit
is to write down, suggesting that he actually prepared a new edition using his better developed
system of rhythmic notation, including mensural notation, as mentioned by Anonymous
IV.[1][43]

Two styles emerged from the organum duplum, the "florid" and "discant" (discantus). The
former was more typical of Léonin, the latter of Pérotin, though this indirect attribution has
been challenged.[44] Anonymous IV described Léonin as optimus organista (the best composer
of organa) but Pérotin, who revised the former's Magnus Liber Organi (Great Organum Book),
as optimus discantor referring to his discant composition.,[12] In the original discant organum
duplum, the second voice follows the cantus firmus, note on note but at an interval, usually a
fourth above. By contrast, in the florid organum, the upper or vox organalis voice wove shorter
notes around the longer notes of the lower tenor chant.[28][45]

Compositions
Anonymous IV mentions a number of compositions which
he attributes to Pérotin,[1] including the four-voice Viderunt
omnes and Sederunt principes, and the three-voice Alleluia
"Posui adiutorium" and Alleluia "Nativitas".[46] Johannes Square notes. Pérotin's Salvatoris
hodie
de Garlandia states that the Magnus Liber commences with
Perotin's four-part organa, and makes specific reference to
the notation in the three-part Alleluya, Posui adiutorium.[n][5] Other works are attributed to
him by later scholars, such as Heinrich Husmann, on stylistic grounds,[47] all in the organum
style, as well as the two-voice Dum sigillum summi Patris and the monophonic Beata
viscera[o][p] in the conductus style.[1] (The conductus sets a rhymed Latin poem called a
sequence to a repeated melody, much like a contemporary hymn.) By tradition, the four-part
pieces of the Notre Dame school have been attributed to Pérotin, leaving the two-part pieces to
Léonin.[18] The former include the three-part conductus Salvator hodie.[48][49] The latter is
placed in the Mass for the Circumcision in a 13th century French manuscript.[33][1] Of these, the
best known works are his Viderunt omnes and Sederunt principes.[31] These have been
described as representing the peak of musical development of the time.[11][41]

Most of Pérotin's works are in polyphonic form of discant, including the quadrupla and tripla.
Here the upper voices move in discant, as rhythmic counterpoint above the sustained tenor
notes. This is consistent with Anonymous IV's description of him as optimus discantor.
However, like Léonin, he is likely to have composed in every musical genre and style known to
Notre Dame polyphony.[17] Pérotin's dates of activity have been approximated from some late
12th century edicts (Statuta et donationes piae)[50] of the Bishop of Paris, Odo (Eudes de
Sully)[q] (1196–1208), in 1198 and 1199. Rebuked by Peter of Capua, the papal legate of the
time, the bishop sought to reform the rituals around the Christmas season, forbidding the
boistrous costumed performances that existed at the time, in particular, the Feast of Fools.[51]
His preference was for elaborate music in its stead,[38][52] calling for performance in organa
triplo vel quadruplo for the Responsory and Benedicamus and other settings.[r][31] The bishop's
edicts are quite specific, and suggest that Pérotin's organum quadruplum Viderunt omnes was
written for Christmas 1198, and his other organum quadruplum Sederunt Principes was
composed for Saint Stephen's Day 1199, for the dedication of a new wing of the Notre Dame
Cathedral.[s] If written after this, they could not have been written till late 1200 or 1201, since
for most of 1200 France lay under an interdict of Pope Innocent III which suppressed the
celebration of church services.[55] Hans Tischler dates the revision of the Magnus Liber to
around 1180/90.[16] Between the accounts of Anonymous IV, the episcopal edicts and the
arrangements in the Magnus liber, the key compositions appear to be corroborated and
assigned to this period.[38]

Pérotin composed music to at least five of the poems of the Chancellor of the cathedral, Philippe
le Chancelier (Philip the Chancellor).[56] Philip, also a canon there, held that title at the
cathedral from 1218 till his death in 1236,[57] suggesting a possible later date for Pérotin's
setting of the former's Beata viscera (ca. 1220), or at least a terminus ante quem.[1] Others
believe this poem was written much earlier, and hence place Pérotin's death as no later than
1205,[16] the bishop's edicts implying that Pérotin's work was well before this.[t][38] Philip
appears to have written a number of poems with the intention of them being set to music by
Pérotin,[u] and with him is given credit for the development of the motet.[58]

List of works
Anonymous IV identified seven works, that he presumably considered worthy of singling out,
and these represent the only direct attribution. Subsequent authors have attributed works on
stylistic and chronological grounds. These include Friedrich Ludwig (1910),[59] Heinrich
Husmann (1940),[47] Hans Tischler (1950)[16] and Ethel Thurston (1970).[49] Husmann added
an additional nine three-part organa, and five clausula to which Ludwig added numerous other
clausula.[1] Other authors have attributed all the three-part organa in the Magnus Liber to
Pérotin, which is unlikely. Nevertheless, two of the only three known four-part organa can be
attributed to him.[16]

Key: Anonymous IV (A), Johannes de Garlandia (G),

Tischler (Ti), Thurston (Th), Husmann (H).[60][41][1]
Numbers refer to folios in the F manuscript of the Magnus
liber.

Four-part organa

Viderunt omnes, continued with organal motet Homo

cum mandato[37] (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F1
Sederunt principes, with organal motet De Stephani
roseo[37] (A)(Ti)(Th)(H)
Sederunt principes, continued with organal motet Pérotin's monophonic Beata
Adesse festina[37] (A)(Th)(H) viscera[v]

Three-part organa

Alleluia nativitas[12] (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F31

Alleluia, Posui adiutorium (A)(G)(Ti)(H) F36
Alleluia, Dies sanctificatus (Ti)
Alleluia, Pascha nostrum (Ti)(H)
Alleluia, Dilexit Andream (H)
Stirps Yesse (Ti)
Virgo (Ti)(H)
 Sancte Germane(H)
Terribilis(H)
Exiit sermo (H)

Conductus

French conductus motet Se i'ai ame: Ex semine (Th)

3 part Conductus Salvatoris hodie (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F307
2 part Conductus Dum sigillum summi patris (A)(Ti)(Th)(H) F344
1 part Conductus Beata viscera Marie virginis[12] (A)(Ti)(Th)(H)
5 Benedicamus Domino (Ti) (3 (H))

3 part clausulas

In odorem (H)
Et illuminare (H)
Et gaudebit (H)
Et exaltavi (H)

2 part clausulas (numerous (H))

Doubtful

4 part Clausula Mors (H)[16]

Influence
Pérotin has been described as the first modern composer in the Western tradition, radically
transforming the work of his predecessors from a largely improvisatory technique to a distinct
musical architecture.[57] Pérotin's music has influenced modern minimalist composers such as
Steve Reich, particularly in Reich's work Proverb.[61][62]

List of selected recordings

for discography, see McComb (2019)

Chanticleer (1991). Psallite! A Renaissance Christmas (CD) (in Latin).

Perotin (1991). Benedicamus Domino (https://songmetro.com/track/1387330/Benedicam
us+Domino). Retrieved 16 January 2019. (audio and visual)
Gothic Revolution – Sacred Music (https://archive.today/20121224132029/http://www.the-si
xteen.org.uk/page/3153/COR16078+Sacred+Music/92)The Sixteen, Harry Christophers,
Simon Russell Beale CORO DVD
Messe de la Nativité de la Vierge. Ensemble Organum, Marcel Pérès. Harmonia Mundi
901538 (1995).
Perotin. The Hilliard Ensemble, CD ECM New Series, 837–751–2
Sacred Music From Notre-Dame Cathedral (https://web.archive.org/web/20130808051100/h
ttp://tonusperegrinus.1equalmusic.com/Details/593?Title=leonin---perotin--sacred-music-fro
m-notre-dame-cathedral), Tonus Peregrinus; Antony Pitts, CD NAXOS 8.557340 (2005)
 m-notre-dame-cathedral), Tonus Peregrinus; Antony Pitts, CD NAXOS 8.557340 (2005)

Notes
a. Pérotin's name is recorded in many variants, including Perrotinus, Perotinus Magnus,
Magister Perotinus, and Perotinus.[1]
b. Sed proprietas praedieta vix tenetur in aliquibus, quod patet in quadruplieibus magistri
Perrotini per totum in principio magni voluminis, quae quadrupla optima reperiuntur et
proportionata et in eolore eonservata, ut manifeste ibidem patet[2]
c. Johannes de Garland was long thought to be the author, but is more likely to have been the
editor of an existing manuscript
d. At one stage Anonymous IV was thought to be a pupil of Johannes de Garlandia, but this is
unlikely,[4] and the name is a misnomer, derived from the title of notes by Charles-Edmond-
Henri de Coussemaker, Anonymus IV. These were probably notes taken by the student in
lectures[7]
e. Robertus de Sabilone fl. 1250[11]
f. Et nota, quod magister Leoninus, secundum quod dicebatur, fuit optimus organista, qui fecit
magnum librumorgani de gradali et antifonario pro servitio divino multiplicando. Et fuit in usu
usque ad tempus Perotini Magni, qui abbreviavit eundem et fecit clausulas sive puncta
plurima meliora, quoniam optimus discantor erat, et melior quam Leoninus erat. Sed hoc
non [est] dicendum de subtilitate organi etc. Ipse vero magister Perotinus fecit quadrupla
optima sicut Viderunt, Sederunt cum habundantia colorum armonicae artis (...) similiter est
tripla plurima nobilissima sicut Alleluia Posui adiutorium Nativitas
g. For instance the elaborate reconstruction of his career by Craig Wright[14]
h. Folio 8 of illuminated ms. I-Fl MS Pluteus 29.1 (F), a major source for the Magnus liber
i. Three different versions of the Magnus liber exist, and also some additional fragments[30]
j. Viderunt omnes fines terrae All the ends of the earth have seen
k. One of the earliest, ca. 1227 being the Beauvais manuscript[33]
l. Sederunt principes et adversum me loquebantur Princes sat and plotted against me
m. At Notre Dame Viderunt was sung at the new feast of the Circumcision on January 1[38]
n. Alia regula de eodem. Sed non probatur per istam artem, sed bene probatur per exemplum,
quod invenitur in Alleluja Posui adjutorium, in triplo scilicet quatuor cum proprietate et
perfectione et tres et tres et tres cum proprietate etc., ut sumitur in hoc exemplo
o. O blessed womb
p. Asensio 1997 maintains that the Beata was attributed to Pérotin by Anonymous IV [18]
q. Odo de Soliaco Parisiensis Episcopus
r. Matutini ab episcopo, vel decano, vel capellano incipiantur ordine debito consummandi, hoc
adjecto quod tertium et sextum responsorium in organo (vel in triplo, vel in quadruplo)
cantabuntur Matins by the bishop or dean or chaplain shall be conducted in the proper order
so that the 3rd and 6th responsories be sung with organum (either in triple, or in quadruple
(for an English translation of the 11998 edict, see Wright (1989, 239))[53][54]
s. The bishop's letters attest to the development of organum duplum at Notre-Dame from the
1160s and its subsequent integration into all the great feasts of the liturgical calendar, not
only in the responsorial chants of the Mass proper but also the Benedicamus Domino of
vespers[52]
t. It cannot be ascertained with certainty that Pérotin's works were not written before the
episcopal edict[1]
u. set as clausulae[16]
 u. set as clausulae[16]
v. Beata from Wolfenbüttel 1099 (W2) MS.

References
1. Roesner 2001a.
2. Garlandia 1972, i:96.
3. Garlandia 1994.
4. Baltzer 2001.
5. Waite 1960.
6. Dittmer 1959, 21,36,40,66.
7. Taruskin 2006, 242.
8. Wright 1989, 288.
9. Anonymous IV 1967, i:46.
10. Dittmer 1959, 36.
11. Jenny 1942.
12. Vellard 1986.
13. Haines 2006.
14. Wright 1989, 294.
15. EWB 2004.
16. Tischler 1950.
17. Roesner 2018.
18. Asensio 1997.
19. Gastoué 1917.
20. Tischler 1963.
21. Sanders 1967.
22. Anderson 1972.
23. Pinegar 1995.
24. The illustration from Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle (
https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionnaire_raisonné_de_l’architecture_française_du_XIe_au_
XVIe_siècle/Chœur) is based on written descriptions from 1532 & 1612.
25. Cedarville 2018.
26. Bradley 2018, 1.
27. Sherr 2019.
28. Johnson 2012, 24.
29. Bradley 2018, 3.
30. Tischler 1984.
31. Wallace 1993.
32. Baltzer 1987.
33. GB-Lbl Egerton 2615 2019.
34. Fassler 1987.
35. Bradley 2018, 4.
36. EB 2016.
37. Perotin 1999.
38. Taruskin 2006, 243.
39. Latham 2011, Sederunt principes.
39. Latham 2011, Sederunt principes.
40. Latham 2011, Viderunt omnes.
41. Hiley 2011.
42. Wilson-Dickson 2003, 51.
43. Berger 1996.
44. Berger 2005, 40.
45. Planchart 2000, 30.
46. Anonymous IV 1967, 1:46, 82.
47. Husmann 1940.
48. Gattermayer 2006, 94.
49. Perotin 1970.
50. Migne 1855, 70–74.
51. Wright 1989, 239.
52. Gross 2011.
53. Migne 1855, 72.
54. Huglo 1982, 103.
55. Clarke 2007, 179.
56. Vauchez 2000, Pérotin.
57. Wright 1989, 289.
58. Wright 1989, 295.
59. Ludwig 1978.
60. Wright 1989, pp. 288–289.
61. Reich 2019.
62. Lewis 2018.

Bibliography
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Alwes, Chester L. (2015). A History of Western Choral Music (https://books.google.com/boo

ks?id=K4W-CQAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-045772-3.
Berger, Anna Maria Busse (2005). Medieval Music and the Art of Memory (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=ZbJXB4NvwXcC). University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-93064-
3.
Bradley, Catherine A. (2018). Polyphony in Medieval Paris: The Art of Composing with
Plainchant (https://books.google.com/books?id=H7ViDwAAQBAJ). Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-1-108-41858-4.
Clarke, Peter D. (2007). The Interdict in the Thirteenth Century: A Question of Collective
Guilt (https://books.google.com/books?id=SEEVDAAAQBAJ). OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-
920860-9.
Duffin, Ross W., ed. (2000). A Performer's Guide to Medieval Music (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=z9xDFnIMRssC). Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-21533-1.
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Music (https://books.google.com/books?id=THNqDwAAQBAJ). Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-1-108-57707-6.
Finscher, Ludwig; Mahling, Christoph-Hellmut, eds. (1967). Festschrift für Walter Wiora zum
30. Dezember 1966 (https://books.google.com/books?id=turZAAAAMAAJ). Kassel:
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 Bärenreiter.
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santo (https://books.google.com/books?id=qt1QtnSr2fcC) (in Italian). Milan: Editoriale Jaca
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(https://books.google.com/books?id=SbICcgAACAAJ) [The Beginnings Of Polyphony At
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Wegman (https://www.academia.edu/28750427/Huglo_Michel_The_Beginnings_of_Polypho
ny_at_Paris_1982_))
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Leipzig: G. Olms.
Johnson, Julian (2012). Classical Music: A Beginner's Guide (https://books.google.com/boo
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Kelly, Thomas Forrest, ed. (1992). Plainsong in the Age of Polyphony (https://books.google.
com/books?id=0zY9AAAAIAAJ). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-40160-9.
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(https://books.google.com/books?id=f09LAAAAYAAJ) (in German). Assen: Institute of
Mediaeval Music.
Marien, Evelyn; Heinen, Andreas, eds. (2002). Musikwissenschaft im Phonomarkt: Alte
Musik und CD-Produktion (https://books.google.com/books?id=WxwJAQAAMAAJ)
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Perotin (1970). Thurston, Ethel (ed.). The works of Perotin (https://books.google.com/books
?id=GRH8AAAAMAAJ). Edwin F. Kalmus.
Anderson, Gordon A. (April 1972). "The Works of Perotin by Ethel Thurston". Music &
Letters (Review). 53 (2): 224–230. JSTOR 733642 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/733642).
Perotin (1999). Viderunt omnes, Sederunt (Miniature Score) (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=O4Y6JEF2YzkC). Kalmus. ISBN 978-1-4574-6877-3.
Taruskin, Richard (2006). Music from the Earliest Notations to the Sixteenth Century: The
Oxford History of Western Music Vol. 1 (https://books.google.com/books?id=iCKDKHjHjww
C). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-979604-5.
Wilson-Dickson, Andrew (2003). The Story of Christian Music: From Gregorian Chant to
Black Gospel. An Authoritative Illustrated Guide to All the Major Traditions of Music for
Worship (https://books.google.com/books?id=qVKpwxIgCiYC). Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-
8006-3474-2.
Wright, Craig (1989). Music and Ceremony at Notre Dame of Paris, 500-1550 (https://books
.google.com/books?id=_Cc9AAAAIAAJ). CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-24492-3.

Historical sources

Anonymous IV (1967). Reckow, Fritz (ed.). Der Musiktraktat des Anonymus 4 (supplement
to the Archiv für Musikwissenschaft 4–5) 2 vols.: De mensuris et discantu (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=sK8JAQAAMAAJ) [The Musical Treatise of Anonymous IV: Supplements
 gle.com/books?id=sK8JAQAAMAAJ) [The Musical Treatise of Anonymous IV: Supplements
to the Archive of Musicology: Concerning measures and discants] (in German). Wiesbaden:
Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 1:22–89., see also
Coussemaker, Charles Edmond Henri De, ed. (2015) [1864–1876 Durand: Paris].
"Anonymous 4. De mensuris et discantu". Scriptorum de Musica Medii Aevi. Nova series
a Gerbertina altera 4 vols (https://books.google.com/books?id=ykB6jwEACAAJ).
BiblioBazaar. pp. 1:327–64. ISBN 978-1-346-24291-0., English translation available as,
Dittmer, Luther A. (1959). Anonymous IV concerning the measurement of polyphonic
song (https://books.google.com/books?id=0V0VAwAAQBAJ). New York: Institute of
Mediaeval Music. ISBN 978-5-88245-081-5. (full text available on (https://archive.org/det
ails/anonymousivconce00ditt)) Internet Archive
Garlandia, Johannes de (1994) [c. 1240]. Hayes, Stephen E.; et al. (eds.). De Mensurabili
Musica positio (http://www.chmtl.indiana.edu/tml/13th/GARDMMP_TEXT.html) (in Latin).
University of Indiana.
— (1972). Reimer, Erich (ed.). De mensurabili musica 2 vols (https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=gS0YAQAAIAAJ) (in Latin). Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. (attributed) (full text:
Volume 1 (http://www.examenapium.it/meri-old/Reimer1.pdf) Volume 2 (http://www.examena
pium.it/meri-old/Reimer2.pdf))
Migne, Jacques-Paul, ed. (1855). Patrologiae latina cursus completus ... series secunda (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=BZ9BAAAAcAAJ) (in Latin). Aqud Editorem.

Chapters

Hiley, David (2011). Pérotin [ Perotinus Magnus] (http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1

093/acref/9780199579037.001.0001/acref-9780199579037-e-5102)., in Latham (2011)
Morent, Stefan (2002). Der "wahre" Perotin? – Überlegungen zum Verhältnis zwischen
Musikwissenschaft und Aufführungspraxis [The "true" Perotin? - Reflections on the
Relationship between Musicology and Performance Practice]. pp. 69–79., in Marien &
Heinen (2002)
Planchart, Alejandro Enrique (2000). Organum. pp. 23–51., in Duffin (2000)
Roesner, Edward H (2018). Notre Dame. pp. 834–880.. in Everist & Kelly (2018)
Sanders, Ernest H. (1967). The Question of Perotin's Œuvre and Dates. pp. 241–249., in
Finscher & Mahling (1967)

Dictionaries and encyclopedias

"Perotin" (https://www.encyclopedia.com/literature-and-arts/performing-arts/music-history/pe
rotin). Encyclopedia of World Biography. Gale Group. 2004. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
Baltzer, Rebecca A. (2001). "Johannes de Garlandia [Johannes Gallicus ]". Oxford Music
Online: Grove Music Online. OUP. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.14358 (https://d
oi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.14358). (subscription access)
Encyclopaedia Britannica (2016). Pérotin (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Perotin).
Retrieved 15 January 2019.
Emmerson, Richard K., ed. (2013). Key Figures in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia (https
://books.google.com/books?id=BhyOAQAAQBAJ). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-77519-2.
Kennedy, Michael, ed. (2006). The Oxford Dictionary of Music (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=FcozAQAAIAAJ) (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-861459-3., later
edition available on line at Oxford Music (http://www.oxfordreference.com/abstract/10.1093/
acref/9780199578108.001.0001/acref-9780199578108-e-6974?rskey=YT6gpq&result=6921
) (subscription access)
Kibler, William W.; Zinn, Grover A., eds. (1995). Medieval France: An Encyclopedia (https://
books.google.com/books?id=MQoKeohhNkMC). Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-8240-
 books.google.com/books?id=MQoKeohhNkMC). Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-8240-
4444-2.
Pinegar, Sandra (1995). Pérotin. pp. 1356–1357., reprinted in Emmerson (2013, 513)
Roesner, Edward (2001a). "Perotinus [Perrotinus, Perotinus Magnus, Magister Perotinus,
Pérotin]". Grove Music Online. OUP. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40465 (https:/
/doi.org/10.1093%2Fgmo%2F9781561592630.article.40465). (subscription or UK public library
membership (https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/page/subscribe#public) required)
Bent, Ian (1980). Pérotin. pp. 14:540–43., in Sadie (1980)
Sadie, Stanley, ed. (1980). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians 20 vols (https
://books.google.com/books?id=51INAQAAIAAJ) (1st ed.). London: Macmillan Publishers.
ISBN 978-0-333-23111-1., see also The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians
Vauchez, André, ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages: 2 vols (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=ejQOAQAAMAAJ). Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Incorporated.
ISBN 9781579582821.

Articles

Asensio, Juan Carlos (February 1997). "Before Quasimodo: Very Early Polyphony". Early
Music (Review). 25 (1): 145–147. doi:10.1093/earlyj/xxv.1.145 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fe
arlyj%2Fxxv.1.145). JSTOR 3128176 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3128176).
Baltzer, Rebecca A. (July 1987). "Notre Dame Manuscripts and Their Owners: Lost and
Found". The Journal of Musicology. 5 (3): 380–399. doi:10.2307/763698 (https://doi.org/10.2
307%2F763698). JSTOR 63698 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/63698).
Berger, Anna Maria Busse (July 1996). "Mnemotechnics and Notre Dame Polyphony". The
Journal of Musicology. 14 (3): 263–298. doi:10.2307/764059 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F76
4059). JSTOR 764059 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/764059).
Fassler, Margot E. (April 1987). "The Role of the Parisian Sequence in the Evolution of
Notre-Dame Polyphony". Speculum. 62 (2): 345–374. doi:10.2307/2855230 (https://doi.org/
10.2307%2F2855230). JSTOR 2855230 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2855230).
S2CID 161832131 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161832131).
Gastoué, Amédée (April 1917). trans. H. Morette. "Three Centuries of French Mediæval
Music: New Conclusions and Some Notes" (https://zenodo.org/record/2266654). The
Musical Quarterly. 3 (2): 173–188. doi:10.1093/mq/iii.2.173 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmq
%2Fiii.2.173). JSTOR 738083 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/738083).
Haines, John (2006). "Anonymous IV as an Informant on the Craft of Music Writing". Journal
of Musicology. 23 (3): 375–425. doi:10.1525/jm.2006.23.3.375 (https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fj
m.2006.23.3.375). ISSN 0277-9269 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0277-9269).
JSTOR jm.2006.23.3.375 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/jm.2006.23.3.375).
Gross, Guillaume (2011). "L'organum aux xiie et xiiie siècles: le discours musical comme
stratégie de communication ou la légitimation implicite de l'autorité épiscopale" (https://www.
cairn-int.info/article-E_RHIS_113_0487--the-organum-in-the-twelfth-and.htm) [The Organum
in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries: Musical Discourse as Communication Strategy or
the Implicit Legitimating of Episcopal Authority]. Revue historique (in French). 659 (3): 487–
510. doi:10.3917/rhis.113.0487 (https://doi.org/10.3917%2Frhis.113.0487).
Jenny, Herbert J. (August 1942). "Perotin's "Viderunt omnes" ". Bulletin of the American
Musicological Society. 6 (6): 20–21. doi:10.2307/829204 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F82920
4). JSTOR 829204 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/829204).
Tischler, Hans (January 1950). "New Historical Aspects of the Parisian Organa". Speculum.
25 (1): 21–35. doi:10.2307/2850001 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2850001). JSTOR 2850001
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/2850001). S2CID 162168377 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/C
orpusID:162168377).
— (July 1963). "The Dates of Perotin". Journal of the American Musicological Society. 16
 — (July 1963). "The Dates of Perotin". Journal of the American Musicological Society. 16
(2): 240–241. doi:10.2307/829944 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F829944). JSTOR 29944 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/29944).
— (1984). "New data on the evolution of the Parisian organa". Journal of Musicological
Research. 5 (1–3): 85–91. doi:10.1080/01411898408574546 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01
411898408574546).
Waite, William G. (April 1960). "Johannes de Garlandia, Poet and Musician". Speculum. 35
(2): 179–195. doi:10.2307/2851338 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2851338). JSTOR 2851338
(https://www.jstor.org/stable/2851338). S2CID 162963036 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/C
orpusID:162963036).
Wallace, Robin (January 1993). "The role of style in the Notre‐Dame period: A preliminary
study". Journal of Musicological Research. 12 (4): 253–271.
doi:10.1080/01411899308574670 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01411899308574670).

Audiovisual

Vellard, Dominique (1986). Ecole de Notre-Dame de Paris 1163–1245: Monodies et

polyphones vocales (https://harmonicclassics.com/album/H_CD_8611/) (Liner notes) (CD).
Paris: Harmonic Classics. HCD8611. Retrieved 15 January 2019.

Websites

Latham, Alison (2011). The Oxford Companion to Music (https://books.google.com/books?id

=ghY5AwEACAAJ). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957903-7., (subscription
access) see also Oxford Companion to Music
Lewis, Andrew (21 February 2018). "Reich's Proverb In Dialogue with Medieval Masters" (ht
tps://www.bellavoce.org/learn/2018/2/21/reichs-proverb-in-dialogue-with-medieval-masters).
Bella Voce. School of Theatre & Music, University of Illinois, Chicago. Retrieved 9 February
2019.
McComb, Todd M. (2019). "Perotin (fl.c.1200) – A discography" (http://www.medieval.org/em
faq/composers/perotin.html). Medieval Music & Arts Foundation. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Reich, Steve (2019). "Steve Reich. Proverb (1995)" (http://www.boosey.com/pages/cr/catalo
gue/cat_detail?musicid=557). Composers. Boosey and Hawkes. Retrieved 20 January 2019.
Sherr, Richard. "Early Polyphony: Some Defintions" (https://sophia.smith.edu/~rsherr/earlyp
ol.htm). Department of Music, Smith College. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
"Magnus Liber Organi circa 1250"
(https://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/sing_polyphony/2/). Early Polyphony. Cedarville,
Ohio: Centennial Library, Cedarville University. 2018. Retrieved 29 January 2019. includes
access to complete text of Magnus Liber
"Medieval music and memory" (https://bibliolore.org/2016/07/21/medieval-music-and-memor
y/). (RILM) Répertoire International de Littérature Musicale: Bibliolore. RILM. City University
of New York. 21 July 2016. Retrieved 29 January 2019.
Garlandia, Johannes de. "De mensurabili musica" (https://www.examenapium.it/meri/gar
landia.html).
"GB-Lbl Egerton 2615: Motets, in an Office for the Feast of the Circumsion; Hymns, Miracle
play on the history of Daniel (ff. 95-108)" (https://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedmanuscrip
ts/record.asp?MSID=6666&CollID=28&NStart=2615). Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts
(in Latin and French). Beauvais Cathedral (British Library). Retrieved 4 March 2019. (2nd
quarter of the 13th century, probably between 1227 and 1234)

Further reading
Books

Alwes, Chester L. (2015). A History of Western Choral Music (https://books.google.com/boo

ks?id=K4W-CQAAQBAJ). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-045772-3.
Burrows, John (2012). The Complete Classical Music Guide (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=w5hGTCM8WE0C). DK Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4654-0134-2.
Flotzinger, Rudolf (2000). Perotinus Musicus: Wegbereiter abendländischen Komponierens
(https://books.google.com/books?id=z1sZAQAAIAAJ) (in German). Mainz: Schott.
ISBN 978-3-7957-0431-5.
— (2007). Von Léonin zu Pérotin: der musikalische Paradigmenwechel in Paris um 1210 (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=SoT9zWVFQfQC) (in German). Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-
03910-987-6.
Hayburn, Robert F. (1979). Papal legislation on sacred music, 95 A.D. to 1977 A.D. (https://
books.google.com/books?id=4e8XAQAAIAAJ) Collegeville: Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-
8146-1012-1.
John of Salisbury (1938) [1159]. Pike, Joseph B (ed.). Frivolities of courtiers and footprints
of philosophers: being a translation of the first, second, and third books and selections from
the seventh and eighth books of the Policraticus of John of Salisbury (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=E306AAAAMAAJ). Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press. (full text (
https://web.archive.org/web/20180516214317/https://www.fd.unl.pt/docentes_docs/ma/amh
_ma_446_salisbury%20policraticus%20.pdf) on Internet Archive)
Kirkman, Andrew (2010). The Cultural Life of the Early Polyphonic Mass: Medieval Context
to Modern Revival (https://books.google.com/books?id=skIG-CEe24cC). Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11412-7.
Riehn, Rainer; Metzger, Heinz-Klaus, eds. (January 2000). Musik-Konzepte 107: Perotinus
Magnus (https://books.google.com/books?id=7WkZAQAAIAAJ) (in German). Munich:
edition text + kritik. ISBN 3-88377-629-7. see also Musik-Konzepte
Roesner, Edward H., ed. (2009). Ars antiqua: Organum, Conductus, Motet (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=AzArDwAAQBAJ). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-57583-6.
Roesner, E. H. (2001b). "Who 'made' the Magnus liber?". Early Music History. 20: 227–266.
doi:10.1017/s0261127901001061 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0261127901001061).
JSTOR 853793 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/853793). S2CID 190695312 (https://api.semant
icscholar.org/CorpusID:190695312)., reprinted in Roesner (2009, pp. 155–194)

Articles

Gross, Guillaume (2001). "La repetitio dans les organa quadruples de Pérotin: Nature
rhétorique de l'organisation du discours musica". Musurgia. 8 (1): 7–29. JSTOR 40591215 (
https://www.jstor.org/stable/40591215).
Heerings, Arnoud (2005). "Perotinus" (https://openmusiclibrary.org/article/553090/).
Gregoriusblad: Tijdschrift Tot Bevordering van Liturgische Muziek. 129 (1): 53–57.
Tischler, Hans (Spring 1984a). "The Evolution of the "Magnus Liber Organi" ". The Musical
Quarterly. 70 (2): 163–174. JSTOR 742208 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/742208).

Audiovisual

Hillier, Paul (1989). "Perotin". program notes to The Hilliard Ensemble: Perotin. CD ECM
New Series 1385 (837-751-2). Munich: ECM Records.

Websites
 Daolmi, Davide. "Storia della musica medioevale e rinascimentale" (https://www.examenapi
um.it/meri). Temporum Stirpis Musica. Dipartimento di Beni culturali e ambientali, Università
degli Studi di Milano. Retrieved 18 February 2019.

External links
Pérotin

Free scores by Pérotin at the International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP)
Free scores by Pérotin in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)
List of compositions by Pérotin (https://www.diamm.ac.uk/people/77) at the Digital Image
Archive of Medieval Music

Magnus Liber Organi

Magnus Liber Organi: Scores at the International Music Score Library Project
Magnus Liber Organi (https://www.diamm.ac.uk/compositions/870) at the Digital Image
Archive of Medieval Music

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