1/4/2011

Induction Motor
Scalar Control

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Outline

Introduction

Speed Control of Induction Motors

Pole Changing

Variable-Voltage, Constant Frequency

Variable Frequency

Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control

Open-loop Implementation

Closed-loop Implementation

Constant Airgap Flux Control

References

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Introduction

Scalar Control - control of induction machine
based on steady-state model (per phase SS
equivalent circuit)
Is Lls Llr’ Ir ’
Rs

+ +
Lm Rr’/s
Vs E1
Im
– –

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Introduction
Te

Pull out
Torque Intersection point
(Tmax) Te (Te=TL) determines the
steady –state speed

TL
Trated

What if the load must

be operated here?
ωr
sm ωω ω
ω
rated rotor s
’
s rotor

1 0
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Speed Control of IM

Given a load T–ω characteristic, the steady-state speed can be
ω curve of the motor
changed by altering the T–ω

Te =
3Rr' Vs
2
2 Varying voltage
(amplitude)
s ω s  R' 
2

 Rs + r  + ( X ls + X lr ) 
2

 s  

ωs =
2 4
ω = πf 3 Varying line
frequency
P P

1 Pole Changing

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Scalar control of induction machine

Given a load T–ω characteristic, the steady-state

speed can be changed by altering the T–ω of the
motor:
Pole changing Variable voltage (amplitude),
Synchronous speed change variable frequency
with no. of poles Using power electronics
Discrete step change in speed converter
Operated at low slip frequency

Variable voltage (amplitude),

frequency fixed
E.g. using transformer or triac
Slip becomes high as voltage
reduced – low efficiency

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Speed Control of IM
Pole Changing

Machines must be specially manufactured (i.e. called pole changing
motors or multi-speed motors)

Need special arrangement of stator windings

Only used with squirrel-cage motors

Because number of poles induced in squirrel cage rotor will follow
number of stator poles

Two methods:

Multiple stator windings

stator has more than one set of 3-phase windings

only energize one set at a time

simple, expensive

Consequent poles

Discrete step change in speed

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Speed Control of IM
Pole Changing

Consequent poles

single winding divided into
few coil groups

No. of poles changed by
changing connections of coil
groups

Change in pole number by
factor of 2:1 only

A two-pole stator winding for pole changing.

Notice the very short pitch (60° to 90°) of
these windings.

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Speed Control of IM
Pole Changing

Consequent poles

Close up view of one phase of a
pole changing winding.

In Figure (a): the 2-pole
configuration, one coil is a north
pole and the other is a south
pole.

In Figure (b): when the
connection on one of the two
coils is reversed, they are both
north poles, and the magnetic
flux returns to the stator halfway
between the two coils. The
south poles are called
consequent poles. Hence the
winding is now 4-pole.

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Speed Control of IM
Variable-Voltage (amplitude),
Constant Frequency

Controlled using:

Transformer (rarely used)

Thyristor voltage controller

thyristors connected in anti-parallel
motor can be star or delta connected

voltage control by firing angle control
(gating signals are synchronized to
phase voltages and are spaced at 60°
intervals)

Only for operations in Quadrant 1 and
Quadrant 3 (requires reversal of phase
sequence)

also used for soft start of motors

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Speed Control of IM
Variable-Voltage (amplitude), Constant Frequency

From torque equation, Te ∝ Vs2

When Vs ↓, Te and speed reduces.

If terminal voltage is reduced to bVs,:

Te =
3Rr' (
bVs )2

sω s  Rr 
' 2


 sR +  + ( X + X )2

s 
ls lr
 

Note: b ≤ 1

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Speed Control of IM
Variable-Voltage
(amplitude),
Constant Frequency

Suitable for applications
where torque demand
reduces with speed
(eg: fan and pump drives
where TL ∝ ωm2)

Suitable for NEMA Class
D (high-slip, high Rr’)
type motors

High rotor copper
loss, low efficiency
motors
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Speed Control of IM
Variable Voltage (amplitude),
Constant Frequency

Disadvantages:

limited speed range ⇒ when
applied to Class B (low-slip) motors

Excessive stator currents at low
speeds ⇒ high copper losses

Distorted phase current in machine
and line (harmonics introduced by
thyristor switching)

Poor line power factor
(power factor proportional to firing
angle)

Hence, only used on low-power,
appliance-type motors where
efficiency is not important

e.g. small fan or pumps drives

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Speed Control of IM
Variable Frequency

Speed control above rated (base) speed

Requires the use of PWM inverters to control frequency of motor

Frequency increased (i.e. ωs increased)

Stator voltage held constant at rated value

Airgap flux and rotor current decreases

Developed torque
decreases
Te ∝ (1/ωs)

For control below
base speed –
use Constant
Volts/Hz method

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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control

Airgap flux in the motor is related to the induced stator
voltage E1 :
E1 Vs Assuming small voltage drop
φag = ≈ across Rs and Lls
f f

For below base speed operation:

Frequency reduced at rated Vs - airgap flux saturates
(f ↓ ,φag ↑ and enters saturation region oh B-H curve):
- excessive stator currents flow
- distortion of flux wave
- increase in core losses and stator copper loss

Hence, keep φag = rated flux

stator voltage Vs must be reduced proportional to reduction in f
(i.e. maintaining Vs / f ratio)

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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control

Max. torque remains almost
constant
2

For low speed operation: E1 Vs Vs
φag = ≠ Tmax ∝

can’t ignore voltage drop across f f ωs
Rs and Lls (i.e. E1 ≠ Vs)

poor torque capability
(i.e. torque decreased at low
speeds shown by dotted lines)

stator voltage must be boosted
– to compensate for voltage
drop at Rs and Lls and maintain
constant φag

For above base speed operation
(f > frated):

stator voltage maintained at
rated value

Same as Variable Frequency
control (refer to slide 13)
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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control

Vs
Vs vs. f relation in Constant Volts/Hz drives Boost - to
compensate for
Vrated voltage drop at Rs
and Lls

Linear offset curve –

Linear offset
• for high-starting
torque loads
• employed for most
applications

Non-linear offset
curve –
• for low-starting
Non-linear offset – varies with Is torque loads
Boost
f
frated
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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control

For operation at frequency K times rated frequency:

fs = Kfs,rated ⇒ ωs = Kωs,rated (1)
(Note: in (1) , speed is given as mechanical speed)

 KVs , rated , when f s < f s ,rated

Stator voltage: Vs =  (2)
 Vs , rated , when f s > f s , rated

Voltage-to-frequency ratio = d = constant:

Vs,rated
d= (3)
ω s,rated

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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control

For operation at frequency K times rated frequency:

Hence, the torque produced by the motor:
2
3R ' Vs
Te = r (4)
sω s  R' 
2

 Rs + r  + K 2 ( X ls + X lr ) 
2

 s  
where ωs and Vs are calculated from (1) and (2)
respectively.

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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control

For operation at frequency K times rated frequency:

The slip for maximum torque is:

Rr'
smax = ± (5)
Rs + K 2 ( X ls + X lr )
2 2

The maximum torque is then given by:

2
3 Vs
Tmax = (6)
2ω s  R ± R 2 + K 2 ( X + X )2 
 s s ls lr 
where ωs and Vs are calculated from (1) and (2)
respectively.
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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control

Constant
Torque Area Field Weakening Mode (f > frated)
Rated (Base) (below base speed)
frequency • Reduced flux (since Vs is constant)
• Torque reduces
⇒Constant Power Area
(above base speed)

Note:
Operation restricted
between synchronous
speed and Tmax for
motoring and braking
regions, i.e. in the
linear region of the
torque-speed curve.
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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control

Constant Torque Area

Constant Power Area

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Example

A 4-pole, 3 phase, 400 V, 50 Hz, 1470 rpm induction
motor has a rated torque of 30 Nm. The motor is used to
drive a linear load with characteristic given by TL = Kω,
such that the speed equals rated value at rated torque. If
a constant Volts/Hz control method is employed,
calculate:

The constant K in the TL -ω characteristic of the load.

Synchronous and motor speeds at 0.6 rated torque.

If a starting torque of 1.2 times rated torque is required, what
should be the voltage and frequency applied at start-up? State
any assumptions made for this calculation.

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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control –

Open-loop Implementation

PWM
Voltage-Source
Inverter
(VSI)

Note: ωe= ωs = synchronous speed

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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f)

Control – Open-loop Implementation

Most popular speed control method because it is easy to
implement

Used in low-performance applications

where precise speed control unnecessary

Speed command ωs* - primary control variable

Phase voltage command Vs* generated from V/f relation
(shown as the ‘G’ in slide 23)

Boost voltage Vo is added at low speeds

Constant voltage applied above base speed

Sinusoidal phase voltages (vabc*) is then generated from Vs* &
Θs* where Θs* is obtained from the integral of ωs*

vabc* employed in PWM inverter connected to motor
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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f)

Control – Open-loop Implementation

Problems in open-loop drive operation: P
ωr = (ωm )

Motor speed not controlled precisely 2
primary control variable is synchronous speed ωs P
= (ω s − ω sl )



actual motor speed ωr is less than ωs due to ωsl 2

ωsl depends on load connected to motor

ωsl cannot be maintained since ωr not measured

can lead to operation in unstable region of T-ω characteristic

stator currents can exceed rated value – endangering inverter-
converter combination

Problems (to an extent) can be overcome by:

Open-loop Constant Volts/Hz Drive with Slip Compensation

Closed-loop implementation - having outer speed loop with
slip regulation
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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control –

Open-loop Implementation
Open-loop Constant Volts/Hz Drive with Slip Compensation
- Slip speed is estimated and added to the reference speed ωr*

Vdc = Vd Idc

Slip
Compensator
ωsl
ωr*

Note: ωe= ωs = synchronous speed

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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f)

Control – Open-loop Implementation
Open-loop Constant Volts/Hz Drive with Slip Compensation

How is ωsl estimated in the
Slip Compensator?

Using T-ω curve, ωsl ∝ Te

ωsl can be estimated by
estimating torque where:
Pag Pin − PSCL − inverter losses
Te = = (7)
ωs ωs
Note: In the figure,
Pin = Vdc I dc (8) ωslip= ωsl = slip speed
ωsyn= ωs = synchronous speed
 T 
ωsl =  e ωsl , rated
 (9)
 Te,rated 
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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control –

Closed-loop Implementation
Open-loop system
(as in slide 23)

Slip Controller

Note: ωe= ωs = synchronous speed

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Constant Volts/Hz (V/f) Control –

Closed-loop Implementation

Reference motor speed ωr* is compared to the actual speed ωr
to obtain the speed loop error

Speed loop error generates slip command ωsl* from PI
controller and limiter

Limiter ensures that the ωsl* is kept within the allowable slip
speed of the motor (i.e. ωsl* ≤ slip speed for maximum torque)

ωsl* is then added to the actual motor speed ωr to generate
synchronous speed command ωs* (or frequency

ωs* generates voltage command Vs* from V/f relation

Boost voltage is added at low speeds

Constant voltage applied above base speed

Scheme can be considered open loop torque control (since
T ∝ s) within speed control loop
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Constant Airgap Flux Control

Constant V/f control employs the use of variable frequency
voltage source inverters (VSI)

Constant Airgap Flux control employs variable frequency
current source inverters or current-controller VSI

Provides better performance compared to Constant V/f control
with Slip Compensation

airgap flux is maintained at rated value through stator current
control

Speed response similar to equivalent separately-excited dc
motor drive but torque and flux channels still coupled

Fast torque response means:

High-performance drive obtained

Suitable for demanding applications

Able to replace separately-excited dc motor drives

Above only true is airgap flux remains constant at rated value
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Constant Airgap Flux Control

Constant airgap flux in the motor means:
E1 Assuming small voltage drop
φag = = Lm I m = constant across Rs and Lls
2πf

For φag to be kept constant at rated value, the magnetising current Im
must remain constant at rated value

Hence, in this control scheme stator current Is is controlled to
maintain Im at rated value Controlled to maintain Im at rated
Lls Is Llr’ Ir ’
Rs

+ +
Lm Rr’/s
Vs E1 ≈ Vs
maintain at rated Im
–
–
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Constant Airgap Flux Control

From torque equation (with φag kept constant at rated value),
since sωs = ωsl and ignoring Rs and Lls,
2 2
 PV Rr' PE
'
Rr
Te = 3  s ≅ 3  1
 2  sω s  R' 
2
 2 ω 
  sl  R '

2

 Rs + r  + ( X ls + X lr ) 
2
 r
ω s  + (ωs Llr )2 
 s    ω sl  

By rearranging the equation:
 Rr'   Rr' 
   
 ω sl  ω sl
2
P E  P 2 
Te ≅ 3  12 ⇒ Te ≅ 3 φag
 2  ω s  Rr'  2  R ' 
2 2
 
  + (Llr )   r  + (Llr )2 
2

 ω sl    ω sl  

Te ∝ ωsl ⇒ ωsl can be varied instantly ⇒ instantaneous (fast)

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Constant Airgap Flux Control

Constant airgap flux requires control of magnetising current Im which is
not accessible

From equivalent circuit' (on slide 31):
R jω slTr + 1
jω s L'lr + r Is = Im,
Im = s I  σr  (10)
R'
s jω sl  Tr + 1
jω s ( L'lr + Lm ) + r 1+ σ r 
s

From equation (10), a plot of Is against ωsl when Im is kept at rated value.

Drive is operated to maintain Is against ωsl relationship when frequency
is changed to control speed.

Hence, control is achieved by controlling stator current Is and stator
frequency:

Is controlled using current-controlled VSI

Control scheme sensitive to parameter variation (due to Tr and σr)
Lr L'lr
Note : Tr = , σ r = , ω selec = ω selec − ω r
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Constant Airgap Flux Control -

Implementation Current Controlled VSI

Voltage
3-phase Source
supply Rectifier
C Inverter IM
(VSI)

Current controller options:

• Hysteresis Controller Current
• PI controller + PWM controller

ωr* + ωslip |Is| i*a

PI
i*b
-
+
ωs i*c
ωr Equation (10)
+ (from slide 33)
ωr

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Current-Controlled VSI
Implementation

Hysteresis Controller
i*a +

Voltage
Source
i*b + Inverter
(VSI)

i*c +

Motor
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Current-Controlled VSI
Implementation

PI Controller + Sinusoidal PWM
i*a +
PI PWM
Voltage
Source
i*b + Inverter
PI PWM
(VSI)

i*c + PWM
PI

•Due to interactions between phases

(assuming balanced conditions)
→ actually only require 2 controllers Motor
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Current-Controlled VSI
Implementation

PI Controller + Sinusoidal PWM (2 phase)
i*a
id* PWM
PI
Voltage
i*b dq →abc Source
abc→dq iq* Inverter
PI (VSI)
i*c

iq

id abc→dq

Motor
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References

Krishnan, R., Electric Motor Drives: Modeling, Analysis and Control,
Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 2001.

Bose, B. K., Modern Power Electronics and AC drives, Prentice-Hall,
New Jersey, 2002.

Trzynadlowski, A. M., Control of Induction Motors, Academic Press,
San Diego, 2001.

Rashid, M.H, Power Electronics: Circuit, Devices and Applictions, 3rd
ed., Pearson, New-Jersey, 2004.

Nik Idris, N. R., Short Course Notes on Electrical Drives,
UNITEN/UTM, 2008.

Ahmad Azli, N., Short Course Notes on Electrical Drives,
UNITEN/UTM, 2008.

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