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Trends in Brain Drain, Gain and Circulation: Indian

Experience of Knowledge Workers

Article  in  Science Technology & Society · November 2015

DOI: 10.1177/0971721815597132

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 Trends in Brain Drain, Gain and Circulation:
Indian Experience of Knowledge Workers

JASPERTAP SINGH and V.V. KRISHNA

The concepts of brain drain, gain and circulation in the Indian context presents a fruitful sociological
and policy relevant experience to understand the phenomena as it unfolded over many decades.
As this essay demonstrates, 1960s to 1980s emerged as the phase of brain drain. The country
witnessed considerable economic growth and development of S&T infrastructure coupled with the
emergence of science community and intellectual climate in the 1990s. The development reversed the
process of brain drain. A historical perspective is adopted which presents ample data and empirical
evidence to map the evolution and operation of three phases. Towards mapping the last phase of
brain circulation, it is shown that the country embarked on the development of ICT software sector
and become globally relevant and competitive. In an unexpected way the growth and dynamics of
this high technology service oriented sector has unravelled the process of brain drain transforming
it into brain circulation.

Migration of scholars and scientists has existed since time immemorial. The
mobility of scholars and scientists is generally considered as essential condition
for innovation, scientific creation and proliferation of knowledge. The movement
of scholars and scientists is treated as the need of wisdom lovers in search for
knowledge and real arenas for science. Nalanda (India) an ancient centre of reli-
gious learning from 5 AD to 1197 AD attracted scholars from Korea, Indonesia,
Japan, Tibet, China, Persia and Turkey. The 20th century saw movement of
skilled workforce as altogether a new phenomenon following the rise of Nazism
and even more so immediately after the Second World War. It was character-
ised as movement of considerable number of intellectuals and scientists from
war ravaged Europe to North America and that to mainly in the United States.

Jaspertap Singh (corresponding author), Research Scholar, Centre for Studies in Science Policy,
School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Mehrauli Road, Near Munirka, New
Delhi 110067. E-mail: brar.jaspratap@gmail.com
V.V. Krishna, Professor in Science Policy, Centre for Studies in Science Policy, School of Social
Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Mehrauli Road, Near Munirka, New Delhi 110067.
E-mail: vkrishna16@hotmail.com

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SAGE Publications Los Angeles/London/New Delhi/Singapore/Washington DC
DOI: 10.1177/0971721815597132

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 Trends in Brain Drain, Gain and Circulation    301

The migration of Highly Qualified Professionals (HQP1) is a natural phenomenon

of this era. Brain drain is defined as:

International migration of highly qualified persons, e.g. surgeons, physicians,

scientists and engineers, from low income countries to more prosperous
economies, especially the USA. Differences in salaries and research facili-
ties, together with the over-supply of specialized graduates in less developed
countries, has brought about this increase in the human capital stock of
advanced countries. (Rutherford, 1992, p. 47)

The discussion over the migration of skilled workforce is stemming as far back
since 1960 and has undergone various phases in last five decades with important
implications for both, host as well as receiving countries. Scholarship on migra-
tion of skilled workforce deals with the phenomena mainly, as three different
but overlapping concepts, namely—‘Brain Drain’, ‘Brain Gain’ and most recently
‘Brain Circulation’ (Gaillard & Gaillard, 1998). Bushnell and Choy (2001) did try
to describe brain drain in terms of skills loss. They say that the word ‘Brain’ is
used to define any skill, competency or attribute that is considered as a potential
asset. The word ‘Drain’ is used to imply that the rate of exit which is at a greater
level than the normal rate. Taking example of India, various studies in 1970s and
1980s quantified brain drain showing alarming rates of loss in the form of migra-
tion of skilled workforce. Demand and supply mismatch of skilled workforce,
inadequate working conditions, economical issue, lack of retaining government
policy, inadequacy of research facilities, lack of research fund, lack of freedom,
low occupation income were quoted as main reasons behind brain drain from India.
In recent decades, scholarship on brain drain has adopted a new perspective and
did try to look into the other side of brain drain. Popularly termed as ‘Brain gain’
it is considered as the second generation effect of brain drain. The scenario started
changing by 1990s and there was remarkable increase in scholarship enumerat-
ing the positive side of brain drain in the form of brain gain. Scholarship treated
migrated skilled force as a remote asset and qualified it as brain bank abroad.
India witnessed two phases of brain gain, one in 1950s and 1960s and another
in and after 1990s. Various studies conducted by scholars in India in the field of
biotechnology, IT&ITES, medical sciences, drugs and pharmaceuticals, agricul-
ture also establish the fact that with globalisation of production and subsequent
liberalisation of the economy shows that the dominant trend was of brain gain in
India. Various other programmes such as ‘Know India Programme’, ‘Tracing the
root’ scheme, Establishment of Persons of Indian Origin/Non Resident Indians
(PIO/NRI) and the Ramanujam Fellowships instituted in late 1990s provided an
important channel to return migration.
With the turn of century and with the advent of network society catalysed by
information revolution,2 a new concept of ‘Brain circulation’ has come into sharp
focus. Brain circulation is defined as to and fro movement of skilled workforce. This
kind of mobility of skilled workforce between home country and receiving country

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 302    Jaspertap Singh and V.V. Krishna

stimulates creation, dissemination and adaptation of new knowledge (Gaillard &

Gaillard, 1998). The conceptual lineage of the brain circulation approach can be
traced to the Mertonian notion of scientific nomadism (Meyer et al., 2001). Scholars
believe that changing innovation and production system along with important
developments like globalisation, boundary less career options, ease of movement
regarding professional assignments across boundaries and dual citizenship have
made the circulation of professionals feasible. Scholarship on brain circulation along
with focusing on the movement of individuals also focuses on potential contribution
of the diaspora knowledge networks in development of their home countries thus
providing as systemic view to the support and generation of knowledge. Anna Lee
Saxenian in her book The New Argonauts3 draws attention to ‘brain circulation’, in
the Indian context. The book redefines core–periphery framework of globalisation
to elaborate the way in which technology entrepreneurs build regional advantage
in order to compete in the global markets. She observes, ‘the increasing mobi-
lity of highly skilled workers and the information, as well as the fragmentation
of production on information and communication technology sectors, have led to
unprecedented opportunities for formerly peripheral economies’ (Saxenian, 2006,
p. 4). Saxenian further tracked the journey of these high-tech immigrants who,
after successfully establishing their IT operations in California, have decided to
ply between the US and their countries of origin to manage their businesses in
disparate regions of the world to capitalise on the opportunities in both the US
and their motherland. The structure of this article is in a way historically designed
in terms of three main sections. In the first section, the main focus is laid on brain
drain covering the period 1960s to 1980s. The second section is concerned with the
second generation effect of brain gain in the period 1980s and 1990s. The concept
of brain circulation from the turn of the present century is explored in last section
with some empirical support.

Brain Drain: An Indian Experience

The brain drain paradigm is premised on human capital theory, which treats
skilled workforce as human capital and as a fixed asset that could be manipulated
due to economic and social conditions and is critical for the development of
native economy. The term ‘Brain Drain’ is used as a synonymous of the move-
ment of human capital, where the net flow of expertise is heavily in one direction
(Salt, 1997) thus in context human resource development in developing economies
the brain drain is treated as loss of human talent.
Data compiled by Department of Science and Technology (DST), India,
on the outturn of science and technology personnel (Table 1) could be used to
show the oversupply of scientific manpower. From Table 1, we can clearly infer
that there was substantial rise in the supply of S&T professionals in Indian market.
Taking the reference years as 1960 to 1980, in basic sciences total PhDs awarded
in 1960 were 361 and in 1980 figure rose to 2262. In engineering and techno-
logy, PhDs awarded in 1960 were 38 and in 1980 figure was 506. In agriculture

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 Trends in Brain Drain, Gain and Circulation    303

Table 1
Trends in Outturn of S&T Personnel in India (1950–1989)

Degree 1950 1956 1960 1966 1970 1975 1980 1985 1989
Sciences
BSc 9628 16139 22706 42463 83654 95395 99749 12006 134366
MSc 1425 3255 5382 10106 16742 17557 17638 19377 24591
PhD 79 210 361 776 1212 1484 2262 2838 3044
Engineering and Technology
BE/BTech/BSc 2198 4558 6031 14099 19204 15316 18364 22998 28927
Engg
ME or MTech 100 331 764 943 1733 2068 3155 3228 4560
PhD – 23 38 94 247 445 506 559 560
Agriculture
BSc 1000 886 1700 5259 5909 3966 6280 8257 8301
MSc 154 313 488 1191 1670 1511 2384 3119 2876
PhD 4 11 11 94 217 289 480 782 792
Medicine
MBBS 1557 2732 3387 6558 9562 10144 15090 16370 17968
MD/MS 88 171 397 1049 1266 2204 3485 5017 5945
Total 16150 28530 41265 82632 141406 150379 169393 202551 231930
Source: Statistical Tables, Research and Development Statistics, NSTMIS.

sciences PhDs awarded in 1960 were 11 and in 1980 figure were 480. In medicine
number of MD/MS in1960 were 397 and in 1980 figure was 3485.
Zaheer (1972) points out that absence of enlightened leadership which reco-
gnises the role of science and scientists, political instability, lack of indigenous
resources in men, material and advanced technical know-how and absence
of adequate aid and cooperation from advanced economies are the four major
reasons behind underdevelopment of science in developing countries. Salam (1966),
while talking about underdevelopment of science in developing countries, says
that no good libraries, no good criticism, new ideas reaching slowly to scientists
and no communication with groups abroad are the other reasons behind the
isolation of scientists and thus promoting brain drain. A study on brain drain by
Mahanti et al. (1995), based on 17 research groups in 12 scientific institutions,
drew attention to the sociological problems inherent in the formation of a scientific
community or specialist communities. A major finding of this study is:

…economic incentives is not the only motivation for researchers to leave

their home countries. Appropriate intellectual climate conducive for research,
wherein the presence of other researchers and groups in their specialization
who provide a meaningful context for the research attention is seen as the
most crucial feature for checking the process of brain drain. (Mahanti et al.,
1995, p. 109)

Taking the case of engineering, two studies in mid 1980s of IIT-Bombay and
IIT Madras would be pertinent to explore the extent of brain drain in 1970s.

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 304    Jaspertap Singh and V.V. Krishna

Table 2
Brain Drain of IIT Bombay Graduates; Percentage of Graduating Students

Degree Go Abroad Go Abroad and Return Brain Drain

BTech 37.51 6.71 30.8
MTech 16.65 3.25 13.4
PhD 14.23 4.43   9.8
Source: Sukhatme and Mahadevan (1987).

These studies reveal the fact that the IITs accounted for 40 per cent of all engineer-
ing graduates who migrated to the western world (mostly USA) from India. As
IITs are regarded as the best engineering institutions in India, the rate of migra-
tion shown in the studies clearly put forth the alarming rate of brain drain from
India. The 1986 Review Committee Report on IITs indicated that during 25 years
the institutions produced 27,000 graduate engineers. Two important studies by
Sukhatme and Mahadevan (1987) and Ananth et al. (1989) on IIT Bombay and
IIT Madras, respectively, presented the extent of brain drain in institutions of
higher learning. As Table 2 shows, the data on IIT Bombay for the mid-1980s
reveal that approximately 37 per cent of undergraduates and 31 per cent of post-
graduates went abroad after engineering studies and only a small percentage that
is, between 3 and 7 per cent returned to India.
Another micro level analysis done by Sukhatme and Mahadevan (1987) to
measure the extent of the brain drain is shown in Table 3. The brain drain should
not be measured only in terms of the total numbers, but it should also be in terms
of those with superior academic performances. It is felt that the percentage in this
group who stay abroad is very high. In order to study this hypothesis, Table 3 is
based only on the alumni who graduated in the upper quarter of their class. The
important result emerging from these tables is that 42.9 per cent of the alumni in
this group are now settled abroad. This is 12.1 per cent higher than the percentage
obtained for all alumni.

Table 3
Location of Graduates of IIT Bombay (1973–1977)—Year-wise Analysis
for Top Twenty-five Per Cent in Each Discipline

Address Percentage Percentage

Known Address of Alumni of Addresses
Year India Abroad Not Known Total India Abroad Known
1973   40   24 14   78 62.5 37.5 82.1
1974   23   25 19   67 47.9 52.1 71.6
1975   22   24 18   64 47.8 52.2 71.9
1976   22   16 16   54 57.1 42.9 70.3
1977   30   14 21   65 68.2 31.8 67.7
Total 137 103 88 328 57.1 42.9 73.2
Source: Sukhatme and Mahadevan (1987).

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 Trends in Brain Drain, Gain and Circulation    305

Of the many findings presented in the study done by Sukhatme and Mahadevan
(1987), two major findings behind large-scale migration are: First, substantial num-
ber of alumni out of those who did not go abroad were willing to go if financial
aid had been available. Second and perhaps the most important finding is that the
principal positive feature of a Western society which encourages Indians to settle
there is a ‘comfortable standard of living’. ‘A commitment to first rate science
and technology’ is perceived as the next most positive feature. This would appear
to be a vindication of the statement often made that ‘brains go where money is’.
These two positive features combined with the most dominating negative feature
of Indian society as perceived by the alumni, via, the all-pervading presence of
a suffocating, unresponsive bureaucracy, are the root causes of the heavy brain
drain of IIT graduates.
Krishna and Khadria (1997) says that

Study on IIT Madras done by Ananth et al. (1989) reveals alarming facts
(Table-4). Since its inception in 1959, the proportion of its graduates emigrat-
ing abroad is 26 per cent. The extent of migration steadily increased from
20 per cent during 1968–72 to 35 per cent during 1983–87. Speciality-wise,
migration varied from a minimum of 18.4 per cent in aerospace engineering to
a maximum of 44.6 per cent in chemical engineering.

Among the two batches of new technology related computer science graduates of
1986 and 1987, brain drain was as high as 58.5 per cent (see Table 4).
At the most general level brain drain is conditioned by political and economic
imbalances in the world system. From this perspective, it can be defined as one of
the form of core–periphery model in which the flow of HQP is unidirectional as in
moving from peripheral economies to central economics. On the basis of studies
aforementioned, the period of 1970s and 1980s is considered as era of brain drain
in India. In late 1980s, Government of India took serious note of loss of human
capital in the form of brain drain and started devising policies, methods, procedures
to curb the exodus and at the same time to reverse the trend of brain drain into brain

Table 4
Discipline-wise Migration from IIT Madras (1986–1987)

Discipline % Graduates % Abroad % Migration

Aerospace   7.2  5.1 18.4
Chemical 14.0 24.0 44.6
Civil 14.0 10.1 18.8
Comp. Science 0.8   1.8 58.5
Electrical 24.9 18.4 19.2
Mechanical 25.8 30.0 30.2
Metallurgy 11.4 10.6 24.2
Naval Architecture   2.7   0.0 00.0
Source: Ananth, Ganesh and Natrajan (1989).

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 306    Jaspertap Singh and V.V. Krishna

gain. Even though brain drain process continued there seems to be some evidence
to the development of what has come to be known as brain gain.

Brain Drain to Brain Gain

Brain gain4 is relatively a new terminology emerging out of reversal of brain

drain phenomena. The term brain gain appeared in late 1960s in Swedish and
American publications pointing that brain drain was beneficial to the developed
countries (Dedijer & Svennigson, 1967; Friborg et al., 1972). The focus shifted
and brain gain wasn’t much into discussion during 1970s and 1980s. It was only
towards the end of the 1980s and in early 1990s brain gain as a concept again
came into focus. In 1990s it was mainly discussed and interpreted in relation to
brain return to the home country. Hunger (2002) says that ‘The basic idea of the
brain gain hypothesis is that intellectual and technical elites from the third world
who immigrated to an industrialized country represent a potential resource for
the socioeconomic development of their home country.’ ‘Globalisation of human
capital’, on the other end of the discourse, would be a new description of the
concept of brain gain—a subset perhaps of ‘globalisation of human resources’ or
‘globalisation of labour’ (Khadria, 2002). Since 1990, there has been a remark-
able increase in scholarship focusing on the second generation effect of brain
drain. The debate at policy level as well as a boom in empirical work on migra-
tion and development enumerated the positive side of brain drain in the form of
brain gain. Accessing the diaspora option and realising Rajiv Gandhi’s5 concept
of ‘Brain Bank’, contacting native HQP abroad and their engagement in scientific,
technological and cultural programmes at home has made an increasing number
of developing countries consider their HQP living abroad as a potential asset for
national development.

Brain Gain in India up to 1990s

Policy initiatives relating to brain gain in India present us with two phases in
1940s and later after 1990. After independence in 1947, the government led by
Jawaharlal Nehru as prime minister initiated institutional measures to attract Indian
professionals living abroad to work in the newly created science institutions and
universities in the country. Early efforts on brain gain by Indian authorities include
the establishment of the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) system in the 1950s
which created space for hundreds of faculty members. Another initiative at the
policy level was of sending the faculty for training abroad in specialised areas of
research and teaching. Round Table Conference called by the prime minister in
1967 recommended to take every possible effort to evolve institutional mecha-
nisms to ensure the return of Indian scientists living abroad. Elite scientists such
as Homi Bhabha, S.S. Bhatnagar, M.N. Saha and D.S. Kothari made relentless
efforts to identify potential young Indian brains working abroad and persuade
them to return for assuming responsible positions in Indian laboratories. The Tata

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 Trends in Brain Drain, Gain and Circulation    307

Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) in Bombay which was founded and

initially headed by Bhabha was built in this way. During 1960s the agriculture
research system was overhauled by networking agriculture education with the
research institutions. Elite agriculture scientists such as B.P. Pal, M.S. Randhwa
and M.S. Swaminathan played transformative role by attracting various talents
in the process of implementing the scientific and technological processes under-
lying the Green Revolution in India. The Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research (CSIR) which instituted a National Register of Scientific and Technical
Personnel in the late 1940s and created a special ‘Indians Abroad Section’ of the
National Register in 1957. In an effort to create avenues for attracting Indian sci-
entists and technologists from abroad, the CSIR in 1958 launched a scheme called
‘Scientists’ Pool’. In early 1990s, some authors begin to analyse the circumstances
where the brain drain could possibly turn into brain gain.
As noted earlier, brain gain, after the phase of brain drain, re-surfaced after
economic liberalisation in 1991. As Table 5 shows, India’s GERD/GDP with minor
fluctuations increased every year from mid 1990s. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI),
setting up of R&D centres by multinational corporations and the growing impor-
tance of ICT software sector gave rise to a new industrial and economic climate from
mid 1990s. This is also the era when Indian GDP growth rates registered one of the
highest in the world after China. This enabled the country to invest more money
into S&T sector and develop research and innovation ecosystem. As the study by
Krishna (1996), titled ‘Brain Drain, Brain Gain and Scientific Communities: Indian
Experience in the Field of Biotechnology’, indicates efforts to establish biotechno-
logy in India in the late 1980s and subsequent proactive policies of Department
of Biotechnology in the 1990s led to further strengthening the innovation system

Table 5
National Expenditure on R&D in Relation to Gross Domestic Product

R&D Expenditure at GDP at Current R&D as Percentage

Year Current Prices (`  crores) Prices (`  crores) of GDP
1996–1996  7483.88 1083289 0.69
1996–1997   8913.61 1260710 0.71
1997–1998 10611.34 1401934 0.76
1998–1999 12473.17 1616082 0.77
1999–2000 14379.60 1786526 0.81
2000–2001 16198.80 1925017 0.84
2001–2002 17038.15 2097726 0.81
2002–2003 18088.16 2251415 0.80
2003–2004 20086.34 2538171 0.79
2004–2005 24117.24 2877706 0.84
2005–2006 28776.65 3275670 0.88
2006–2007 34238.39 3953276 0.87
2007–2008 39437.77 4582086 0.86
2008–2009 47353.38 5303567 0.89
2009–2010 53041.30 6091485 0.87
Source: Data compiled and collected by DST in Research and Development Statistics 2011–2012.

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 308    Jaspertap Singh and V.V. Krishna

Table 6
Expenditure on Research & Development by Major Scientific Agencies

Agency/Yr 1980–81 1990–91 1995–96 2000–01 2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2009–10
CSIR 69.00 249.19   411.70   864.12 1427.04 1457.46 1863.70 2355.20 2666.44
DRDO 79.70 681.00 1395.40 3359.32 5283.33 5362.82 6104.55 7699.07 8475.38
DAE 73.48 275.54   486.64 1005.52 1752.50 2060.09 2138.57 2982.50 3858.21
DBT –   41.37    73.83   120.58   325.85   432.32   491.59   635.23   727.38
DST 40.64 119.82   223.67   311.46 1237.05 1359.46 1676.01 1991.16 2222.90
ICAR 97.45 276.25   432.37 1161.74 1717.27 2014.16 1992.38 2583.80 2881.30
ICMR   9.00   44.54    50.60   149.12   331.00   394.00   266.65   564.18   583.50
Source: Data compiled and collected by DST in Research and Development Statistics 2011–2012.

of agriculture, health and pharma related biotechnology. The Survey of 13 research

groups in biotechnology established that institutionalisation and growth of specia-
list communities over a period of time, intellectual climate and viable number of
research groups, centres of higher learning with research infrastructure, professional
societies or informal networks of collegiate pattern, local and national journals
and above all sources of intellectual leadership give a direction and leadership in
the emergence of specialist groups. These intellectual leaders acted as ‘gate keepers’
to international connectivity and in many ways monitored and prevented outflow
of professionals in biological sciences.
Table 6 shows the growth of expenditure on R&D by major scientific agen-
cies in India from 1980 to 2010. All these science departments witnessed unpre-
cedented phenomenal growth in their budgets, some agencies witnessing up to
3000 per cent increase in three decades. Two decades after 1991 can be considered
as most fruitful period for Indian science and technology. Most importantly, the
salary levels of all the central government employees, including scientific and
technical professionals in more than dozen science agencies, witnessed more than
two-fold increase due to two central government pay revisions.

Initiatives to Promote Brain Gain

Gain in the form of technology transfer from scientists and technologists of Indian
origin was realised through the Transfer of Knowledge through Expatriate Nationals
(TOKTEN) programme in the 1990s. This programme enables non-resident Indian
(NRI) professionals to spend between four to eight weeks in Indian institutions.
This scheme is mediated through the Interface for NRI Scientists and Technologists
(INRIST) centre established under the CSIR in 1990 by the Indian government.
It basically works as an interface between the NRIs abroad and the receiving
organisations and industry in India that offer the visiting placements. Another
significant initiative was ‘Action India’ which was brain child of Sam Pitroda
and several other Chicago based Indians who were keen to pool their energies
with resident Indians to hasten the development of India. In Bangalore, there was
an initiative in the form of strong voluntary organisation of NRI professionals
called RNRIA (returned NRIs association) of India with motto of ‘Back to Serve’.

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 Trends in Brain Drain, Gain and Circulation    309

Though the initial membership in this organisation was dominated by doctors

but now it has mushroomed into multi-sectoral voluntary organisation with profes-
sionals form all technical fields (Krishna & Khadria, 1997).
The Department of Science and Technology (DST) instituted two major schemes
in the form of ‘Ramanujan Fellowships’ and ‘Innovation in Science Pursuit for
Inspired Research (INSPIRE)’ to attract researchers and scientists working abroad:

1. Ramanujan Fellowships aim to attract brilliant scientists and engineers

from all over the world to take up scientific research positions in India.
The Ramanujan Fellows can work in any of the scientific institutions and
universities in the country and they are eligible for receiving regular
research grants through the extramural funding schemes of various S&T
agencies of the Government of India. The duration of Ramanujan Fellowship
is five years.6
2. ‘Innovation in Science Pursuit for Inspired Research (INSPIRE)’ Faculty
Award under ‘Assured Opportunity for Research Careers (AORC)’ scheme
initiated during the year 2011–2012. This scheme provides opportunity to
the scientists within 32 years of age and who have completed their doctoral
research from any recognised university/academic institution in the world.
Each ‘INSPIRE Faculty Awardee’ receives a consolidated amount equivalent
to the scale of the Assistant Professor of an IIT as Fellowship amount with
`  7 lakh per year as Research Grant for 5 years. Since inception, 33 candidates
of Indian origin including NRIs having PhD degrees have been selected for
award so far. The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) took the initiative
in the form of following schemes to encourage researchers and scientists
working abroad to find work opportunities in India:
i Wellcome–DBT India Alliance: Biomedical Research Fellowship
Career Programme: DBT has entered into an alliance with Wellcome
Trust (WT) to launch a three-tier fellowship programme on biomedical
research at post-doctoral level. The programme has been established
since September 2009 and functions as the Wellcome Trust DBT India
Alliance. The Department of Biotechnology and the Wellcome Trust
each have committed 8 million pound sterling per year, for a period of
10 years. The fellowship funding programme is established to attract
a strong cohort of qualified scientists working abroad to seek career
opportunities in India. So far 64 fellowship awards have been granted
of which 30 have been from the best overseas laboratories and are now
located at various Indian institutes.
ii Ramalingaswamy Re-entry Fellowship: The scheme was initiated in 2006
by DBT for Indian scientists who are working in overseas institutions/
universities and would like to return to India to pursue their research
interests. The fellowship is given for a period of five years initially and
could also be considered for another term based on a fresh appraisal
depending upon the progress made.7 So far 147 scientists have been

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 310    Jaspertap Singh and V.V. Krishna

selected in the last five batches and 102 fellows from overseas labora-
tories have been relocated to various Indian host institutes.
iii Young Investigator Meet (YIM): It is an organised event to bring insti-
tutions and researchers/scientists on one platform. It is organised every
year in India and overseas to display various job opportunities available
in India. Till 2013, 45 YIM attendees have secured faculty positions at
various labs in India and 20 of these have been awarded different Indian
fellowships, that is, DBT-Wellcome Trust, Ramanujan Fellowship,
Ramalingaswami Re-entry Fellowships.

Various other programmes instituted in late 1990s and in the beginning of

twenty-first century also provided a channel to return migration. Facilitation
programme to increase interaction and showcase Indian progress through
programmes like ‘Know India Programme’ provided the required platform to
diaspora interaction. Establishment of PIO/NRI university on the recommenda-
tion of high level committee on the Indian Diaspora to facilitate the education
of children of people of Indian origin, scientific awards and encouragement by
private sector companies as Infosys foundation has started Infosys Science Prize
with cash prize of `  5 million, ‘Tracing the Root’ scheme launched by Ministry
of Overseas Indian Affairs in 2008 help people who migrated to Caribbean, pacific
and Indian ocean to trace their roots back in India.
Brain Gain in 1990s and Afterwards

One of the earliest studies (Krishna, 1996), referred earlier, is relevant here. Insti-
tutionalisation of biotechnology in India began with the setting up of Department
of Biotechnology in 1986. This led to rise in R&D expenditure and professionalisa-
tion in field of biotechnology. This research study revealed that out of 13 research
groups that more than 60 per cent of the leading scientists working in the areas
related to modern biology obtained doctoral and post-doctoral training in the West
or spent between 3 to 5 years abroad before taking up post-doc and higher posi-
tions in India. The most notable internationally recognised institutional groups
in universities/institutions and scientist-leaders who given initial leadership are
shown in the Table 7.
The return migration of leading scientists and initiation of new frontier areas,
such as DNA Finger Printing group at Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology,
appears to be closely associated with the institutional growth of the field of
biotechnology. Several scientists interviewed during the study revealed that
scientists found a reasonable professional context created in 1980s and 1990s.
The role of leadership led by P.M. Bhargava in attracting best talents in biology
from abroad, the emergence of intellectual climate and viable number of research
groups and research infrastructure facilitated reverse brain drain or brain gain.
Khadria’s (2002) study also reveals that there is a positive trend of return
migration among Indian IT professionals in the era beginning late 1990s. The
survey on IT professionals in the city of Bangalore and their role in making the

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 Trends in Brain Drain, Gain and Circulation    311

Table 7
Leading Biotechnology Research Groups in India 1990s

Research Institute/University Scientist-leader

 1 Indian Institute of Science
  2 Madurai Kamraj University
  3 Centre for Cellular and Molecular
Biology, CSIR
  4 National Institute of Immunology
 5 Indian Agriculture Research Institute
  6 Delhi University
 7 Banaras Hindu University
  8 Indian Institute of Chemical Biology
 9 Poona University
10 Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
11 Indian Veterinary Research Institute
12 National Chemical Laboratory, CSIR
Source: Krishna (1996).
P. Balram, Sasi Shekharan, T. Ramasarma
and G. Padmanabhan
K. Dharmalingam, G. Shanmugam and Muthukkaruppan
P.M. Bhargava, Laiji Singh, C.R. Dass, among others
G.P. Talwar and others
V.L. Chopra and R.S. Paroda
B.K. Bachawat and S.C. Maheshwari
D.P. Burma and Maharani Chakravorty
Jyotirmoy Das
V.V. Modi
Obaid Siddiqui
P.N. Bhatt
John Barnabas and V. Mascarnehas

city a corridor for international mobility of Indian professionals; and the second
survey of health professionals (doctors and nurses) in the city of New Delhi give
ample evidence to the process of brain gain.8 Out of 45 respondents, 85 per cent
indicated that the most important factor for going abroad was ‘to gain experience
that would later be highly valued in India’. Another important reason quoted by
respondents was that the developed countries have state-of-the-art technological
infrastructure, edge in technological advancement and are professionally more
accomplished. Over half of the respondents in the survey revealed that India was
emerging as a major IT power and hence there are better employment opportu-
nities. Rapid development of India’s Software Technology Parks in Bangalore,
Hyderabad, Delhi National Capital Region and the government infrastructure
created did motivate IT professionals to come back to India. A very positive out-
come pointing towards brain gain is the fact that none of the IT professionals in
Bangalore was keen to settle abroad. This development highlights a unique aspect
behind Bangalore becoming a ‘corridor’ for IT professionals that offered ample
challenging and rewarding opportunities for their career growth in India in general
and Bangalore in particular.
Elizabeth Chacko (2007) highlights that emergence of cities like Bangalore,
Hyderabad and the suburbs of Delhi and Mumbai have become magnets for a
stream of returning first-generation Indian immigrants from the United States.
All these cities offered opportunities in IT, biotechnology, research and business
sectors. Synchronised efforts led to returning of immigrants who were part of
the ‘knowledge diaspora’ thus embodying skills, connections and capital that
helped thrust the Indian IT industry into the forefront of global frontier. A study
by Nasscom-McKinsey Report (2005) indicated that 25,000 IT professionals
returned to India between 2000 and 2004 after working abroad. As this study
further revealed:

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 312    Jaspertap Singh and V.V. Krishna

Twelve of the 20 top IT software and service exporters from India in 2005–2006
had their headquarters in Bangalore, offering numerous job opportunities.
Some 95% of international companies in Software Technology Parks (STPs) in
Bangalore were run by Indians who had lived and worked abroad, mostly in the
United States. (Kapur, 2002)

Approximately a third of the employees working in R&D at General Electric’s

John F Welch Technology Center in Bangalore were returnees from the United
States. (Ryan, 2005)

Professionals who returned did cite a combination of pull and push factors and
personal and professional reasons that affected their decision to return to India.
Most of the professionals in this Nasscom-McKinsey study indicated several
positive developments in India such as exciting work, prospects for advance-
ment, a desire to return to their roots, hope for a lifestyle that allowed more time
with family and salaries that were commensurate with those in the United States
in terms of purchasing power. Emergence of technical and professional schools
and TNCs R&D centres in Bangalore and Hyderabad provided training to work
in the various R&D and innovation projects. In addition to the Indian Institute of
Science, the city of Bangalore has several India’s leading research institutes such
as the Defence Research and Development Organisation, ISRO Satellite Centre,
Centre for Artificial Intelligence & Robotics and the Raman Research Institute.
Bangalore has evolved as major hub for aerospace, biotechnology and ICT
sectors. Among Hyderabad’s premier institutes are the International Institute of
Information Technology, the Indian Institute of Chemical Technology and the
Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology. In 1999, the new Indian School of
Business (ISB), affiliated with the London School of Business, Wharton Business
School and the Kellogg School of Management was established in collaboration
with the AP government and a group of Fortune 500 entrepreneurs. All these
institutes provided source for the application of new skills and provided work
environment to professionals.
Another important study in 200–2008, sponsored by Department of Science
and Technology (DST), lends further support to the trends of brain gain in four
technological areas: information and communication technology, biotechnology,
drugs and pharmacy and agriculture. This DST study is based on the primary
data of 879 respondents who returned from 1990 to 2008. More than 63 per cent
of the respondents returned between 2005 and 2008. Nine per cent (80) of the
respondents in the study revealed that they have started novel projects in ICT,
biotechnology, pharma and agriculture. A total of 7.28 per cent (64) respond-
ents have developed new processes; and 3.86 per cent (34) respondents have
developed new products after their return. However, 57 per cent (503) and
22.52 per cent (198) of respondents indicated that they have contributed to
development of processes after return but have not specified or given any response
about other achievements. There is substantial evidence from various studies that

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 Trends in Brain Drain, Gain and Circulation    313

the problem of brain drain of 1970s and 1980s period turned into brain gain in the
beginning of twenty-first century.

Brain Circulation: Contemporary Experience

In the last decade, the phenomenon of brain circulation has come into sharp focus
in migration studies. Brain circulation, in our view, is associated with knowledge-
based society and catalysed by the ICT revolution in a large measure. Emerging
economies such as BRICS which have invested in developing science and techno-
logy capacities over the last couple of decades have benefitted through the process
of brain circulation in a number of ways. Gaillard and Gaillard (1997), Meyer
and Brown (1999), Teferra (2005) and Saxenian (2005, 2006) draw attention to
the role of diaspora and consider it as having huge potential in contributing to
development of their home countries. Newland (2009) says, ‘The term circular
migration first appeared in the late 1960s and 1970s, mainly in the anthropologi-
cal and demographic literature on urbanization, rural development and internal
migration in developing countries.’ Johnson and Regets9 (1998) drew attention
to the existing cycle of study abroad in the form of brain circulation. Anna Lee
Saxenian (2008) analyses the migration of knowledge workers and supports the
idea that international labour movement may help transfer technology across
borders in both directions: from native countries to host countries and vice versa.
In her work on ‘The New Argonauts’ she further maps the mobility of knowledge
workers in different locations of globe and sheds ample light on ‘brain circulation’.
Her book redefines the core–periphery framework of globalisation to elaborate
the way in which technology entrepreneurs built regional advantage in order to
compete in global markets. Saxenian noted that by the end of 1990s, Chinese
and Indian immigrants (with the former outnumbering the latter) accounted for
29 per cent of all IT start-up companies in Silicon Valley. Saxenian further tracked
the journey of these high-tech immigrants who, after successfully establishing
their IT operations in California, have decided to ply between the US and their
countries of origin to manage their businesses in disparate regions of the world to
capitalise on the opportunities in both the US and their motherland. Jons10 (2007)
in his work on spatial movement and knowledge production in Germany between
1981 and 2001 says, ‘At a time when the knowledge economy is growing in inter-
national importance, the global circulation of scientists and scholars appears
to be of crucial importance to the competitiveness of modern nation states and
individual academic institutions.’ Anjali Sahay (2009) argues that as innova-
tion and inventions have no national boundaries the flow of labour, skilled as
well as semi and unskilled is multidirectional thus putting forward the case of
brain circulation.
Despite, ‘Brain Circulation’ being a well-known concept, not many qualitative/
quantitative studies are available estimating the extent and the impact of brain
circulation in India. Anna Lee Saxenian has explored the extent of brain circu-
lation in India with reference to IT professionals. Saxenian’s chapter titled ‘IT

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 314    Jaspertap Singh and V.V. Krishna

Enclaves In India’ traces the history from 1980s and presents a case that how
policy level change in the era of Rajiv Gandhi lead to the development of IT in
India and ultimately making India as IT super power by late 1990s. The computer
policy of 1984 recognised software as an ‘industry’ thereby giving entitlement
to the industry for investment and incentives. The import tariffs on software and
PCs was reduced from 100 per cent to 60 per cent. In 1986 Computer Software,
Development and Training Policy liberalised access to technology by opening
this field to foreign investment and access to venture capital.11 In early 1990s
National Association of Software and Services Companies (NASSCOM) acknow-
ledged the role of state policies in promotion of computer industry. As this body
observed:

the software and services industry has received immense support from the
government both at the central and state level. This support, in the form of tax
incentives and other benefits has been instrumental in the growth of software
and services exports from India. (NASSCOM, 1999, p. 14.2, as cited in Sarma
& Krishna, 2010)

The study by Sarma and Krishna (2010) draws attention to the role played by a
range of public policies in 1980s and 1990s, which have given a big boost to the
software sector. These policies infused considerable dynamism, which in turn
attracted thousands of software professionals back into the country to establish
micro, small and medium enterprises to take advantage of liberal government
policies. It is worth highlighting some of these policies.

1. The Export–Import Policy of 1983, permitted duty-free imports of computers

with a cost, insurance and freight value of half a million rupees. The New
Computer Policy of 1984 advocated further simplifying procedures and
actively seeking to streamline and reduce intervention into the market. The
policy allowed participation of Indian manufacturers by opening manufacture
of microcomputers, allowed equity participation of foreign corporations up
to 40 per cent and removed all quantitative restrictions on production.
2. Another important initiative was the setting up of the software techno-
logy parks (STPs). The initiative was specifically taken by Department of
Electronics (DoE). The STPs provided a single window for clustering diverse
software players along with facilitating their growth, providing space and
cluster agglomeration efficiencies and reducing procedural inefficiencies.
Co-location of customs within the STP premises led to speedier disposal of
custom and tariff issues, a major factor of delay in other sectors. Other sup-
portive policies and concessions included approvals under ‘single-window
clearance’, 100 per cent foreign equity, tax holidays, duty-free imports
and permission for sub-contracting. 75 per cent of the software and related
services of US$ 100 billion around 2010 is accounted by STPs.

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 Trends in Brain Drain, Gain and Circulation    315

3. The STP norms and software related policies in 1995 gave these firms a
10-year tax holiday, which were kept extended and was valid till 2010.
Further thrust to computer industry is provided in terms of progressive
reduction in duties, where the state reached zero duty regimes in computer
products by 2003.
4. Intellectual Property rights protection and innovation capabilities were
augmented by a host of policy initiatives. To induce more investment for
R&D activities, a weighted deduction of 150 per cent was announced on the
sums paid to any university, college or an institution or a scientific research
association for the purposes of scientific, social or statistical research.

All these efforts started yielding results in the 1990s and particularly after 2000
as export oriented software firms grew at an average 20 to 25 per cent per year
for a decade. Twenty-first century marked a turning point for Indian IT sector as
US educated Indian Engineers began to return home and the ‘Brain Circulation’
between the United States and India accelerated. ‘By 2002, however, the com-
bination of recession in silicon valley and growing professional opportunities in
India triggered the first sustained interest in returning home on the part of US
educated Indians’ (Saxenian, 2006, p. 288). Saxenian further says that by 1999
there were 10 Indian firms including Wipro and Infosys who achieved CMM level
5 certification, compared to only 6 companies in the United States. By 2003, the
number companies having CMM level 5 certification raised to 60. These rating
allowed Indian companies to establish themselves as credible companies in IT
domain and thus saw continuous rise in software export to leading economies.
The Indian IT industry grew from $5 billion in 1997 accounting for 1.2 per cent of
India’s GDP to $ 100 billion and accounting for 6.5 per cent of GDP in 2010. The
growth of Indian IT/ITES sector in India in terms of value established India as major
IT power in the world. Establishment of over 471 R&D Centres of Transnational
Corporations (60 per cent in ICT sector) in major Indian cities like Bangalore,
Hyderabad and Delhi-NCR by 2011, induction of capital through ventures capitals
and cross-border collaboration between IT firms as service provider, facilitated the
return of Indian professionals back home. Cross-boundary collaboration between
various firms created channel of movement for professionals between head-
quarter and periphery offices thus bringing migrated brains back to India and turning
‘Brain Drain’ into ‘Brain Circulation’.
Another important source of brain circulation, particularly in ICT software sector,
has been the role of two major professional associations located in Silicon Valley,
USA and their collaborative and business links with software hubs such as Bangalore
through NASSCOM. This body which has over 1000 members of Indian software
firms has a fulltime lobbying firm based in Washington and played an important
role in the relaxation of H1 B work visas for Indian IT professionals. From the
1990s the body initiated a programme to curb piracy and protect the intellectual
property rights of professionals and institutions in this sector. In the last few years
since 2005 NASSCOM has been playing an important part in mobilising the ICT
efforts of several state governments and collaborated in launching ICT policies

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and e-governance programmes which created considerable demand for software

solutions for e-governance in dozen sectors of economy.
The Indian Diaspora, comprising ICT professionals in the Silicon Valley and
elsewhere is another factor in the dynamic evolution of the Indian software sector.
According to some estimates, about 25 per cent of the firms in Silicon Valley and
Route 128 in the US during the past five years have either been managed or owned
by professionals of Indian origin. Various studies (Saxenian, 2000, 2002) have
drawn attention to the socio-cultural nature of organisational and business links,
partnerships and joint ventures between firms in Indian ICT clusters, particularly
in Bangalore, Hyderabad and Delhi regions and the Silicon Valley. These links are
accelerating the growth of ICT software sector and at the same time transforming
it in several ways. The Indian community in fact institutionalised social networks
and its links with the Indian ICT clusters since the 1990s through formation of
two vibrant associations such as the Indus Entrepreneurs (TiE) and Silicon Valley
Indian Professional Association (SIPA) both head quartered in Silicon Valley,
California. One significant feature of the Diaspora connectivity was in catalysing
the process of venture capital policies and schemes. The booming software sector
in India and the ICT infrastructure that underpinned it has attracted hundreds of
professionals in recent years to establish new software firms in India. The trend in
software and biotechnology sectors has been characterised more recently as ‘brain
circulation’ or ‘brain gain’.

Brain Circulation in India: Case Study of Indian IT Professionals

Phases of migration and return migration of software professionals between

India, the USA and Europe progressed into the phenomena of circular mobi-
lity. Given the background of Anna Lee Saxenian insights on brain circulation in
India, Taiwan and China, an empirical study of 26 professionals was undertaken
in Delhi-National Capital Region (NCR).12 The questionnaire method was used
to interview 26 respondents.13 Some insights and findings from this study are
summarised as follows.

Age and Years Abroad

Majority of the professionals were in the age group of 30–35 years. It was evident
from this small sample and interviews that most of the professionals are young,
high on energy and qualify as professionals in circulation.14 Most of the respondents
said that short-term assignments are beneficial as it gives exposure in different
work environments. More mobility seems to be positively associated with learning
new technical knowledge and also creates avenues of knowledge sharing between
different groups.

Motivational Factors

When asked about the motivation behind moving abroad and coming back, some
interesting points emerged. As expected 14 out of 26 respondents said that it

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 Trends in Brain Drain, Gain and Circulation    317

was their individual decision to earn money and increase their professional inter-
national profile for going abroad to work. Some indicated that work environment
and experience in high end software analytics and applications in high technology
led them to move out. Most of these respondents were having international expe-
rience of more than 3 to 7 years and they are keener on short-term assignments
rather than long-term stay abroad. Some respondents indicated that there is a
chain reaction and strong influence from the seniors in their engineering colleges
who have moved out.
When asked about what motivated these professionals to come back to India,
several issues were pointed out. India established a strong software sector with
growing export markets the respondents felt that ample job opportunities are
created with somewhat comparable salary levels in Bangalore, Chennai and
Delhi NCR. This seems to have emerged as one of the main factors for the return
migration of software professionals. This claim is further substantiated by the fact
the almost all IT giants of the world have software development centres in India
(Chacko, 2007; Khadria, 2004). Professionals are no more allured by the better job
conditions abroad as there are world class facilities available in India. Thus twin
conditions of job opportunities and presence of world’s leading IT firms in India,
are acting as the motivation forces behind return migration. Some respondents
have indicated that having earned some money over long years of stay abroad,
family reasons have compelled them to return back into the country.

Benefits for Return

When asked about the gains from circular mobility, 18 out of 26 respondents
said the major gain is knowledge and technical skills they learnt by working in
different technical domains. Majority of the respondents agreed that due to circu-
lar mobility between different work environments, there was substantial gain in
individuals skill set and technical knowledge. They also agreed on the fact that
frequent movement between difeerent location leads to the sharing of knowldege
and easy solution to technical problems as group discussions pave way for combi-
nation of ideas and effective solution ot the problem thus substanting the concept
of ‘Brain Circulation’. Few of respondents interviewed have established business
operations in Silicon Valley and back in Delhi NCR and Bangalore. Most of
these professionals have resident permits in USA. When asked about the most
positive and negative feeling about working in India, almost all of them expressed
positive feelings. Close to family, relatives, friends, own country and independent
work environment plus in own culture are the major positive feelings expressed
by the respondents. Several respondents expressed satisfaction on the level of
infrastructure development in Noida and Gurgaon and an increasing number of
employment opportunities in IT sector.
On the negative side, almost all the respondents expressed concern in the form
of monetary benefits as compared to the benefits they get abroad. Second, prevalent
corruption and work culture seem to be the factors on the negative side for some
respondents.

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 318    Jaspertap Singh and V.V. Krishna

When asked about other benefits from their return migration, all of them have
reported that they made contribution in the form of initiating new business pro-
cess and analytics, introducing new technology, implemented quality assurance
mechanisms, improved business communication, creation of simulated develop-
ment environment and bringing new project or business. Most of the respondents
feel that with people going abroad and coming back loaded with new skill set and
technical knowledge increases technical competitiveness of native organisation thus
helping in initiating new ventures by an organisation. Almost all the respondents
are maintaining their contact abroad and strong informal networks seems to have
emerged which are reinforced by business and work related factors. 23 out of 26
respondents expressed their desire to move abroad again for project or assignment
but for short term or not more than one year. They said that if given an opportunity
to move abroad for long-term assignment they will take their family along.

Concluding Remarks

Our historical perspective shows that India witnessed the phase of brain drain
from 1960s to 1980s, brain gain during 1990s and since the last decade and a
half, 2000–2015, witnessing the phase of brain circulation. All these phases are
continuous and overlapping. What we have highlighted is the dominant phase in
a phase. Investments in the education system and science and technology system
as a whole resulted in the endowment of highly qualified human resources. As we
approached the1960s and 1970s, skilled workforce started leaving country due
to lack of opportunities. Studies by Sukhatme and Mahadevan (1987) on IIT
Bombay, Ananth et al. (1989) study on IIT madras and other studies provide empiri-
cal support to substantiate that period of 1960s to 1980s was era of brain drain.
India witnessed brain gain in two phases. The first phase came about immediately
after independence in the 1940s and 1950s. The scientific elite under the leadership
of Nehru made relentless efforts to bring back eminent Indian professionals from
abroad to lead the newly created or rejuvenated science institutions. The second
one came about after the liberal economic reforms in 1991. The dynamism of
Indian economy during 1990s after liberalisation era offered a range of opportu-
nities in high technology areas (ICT software, biotechnology, space research and
pharmaceuticals). This attracted some highly qualified professionals back into India
during 1990s and is still continuing.
In the Indian context, brain circulation is analysed at two levels. One at theoreti-
cal level in which available literature and studies are reviewed and another through
primary survey conducted as part of this study. Our exploration lends credence
to the view that the process of brain drain that has taken place during 1960s to
1980s begun to turn into the process of brain gain during 1990s. As the country
progressed into the new twenty-first century, evidence of brain circulation has
come into sharp focus. Anna Lee Saxenian (2006) has clearly shown the trend of
brain circulation in India, China and other East Asian countries. Further, her study
has shown that this process of brain circulation has become a powerful economic

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 Trends in Brain Drain, Gain and Circulation    319

force for development of formerly peripheral regions. Scholars like Sahay (2009),
Brad K. Blitz (2005) and Thanh Le (2008) maintain that innovation and inventions
have no national boundaries and argue that the transition to the knowledge-based
economy creates more integrated market for skills and especially for talents and
highly qualified workers. The small empirical survey conducted on 26 IT profes-
sionals reveals that young Indian professionals, high on skills and in demand,
are ready to move any time anywhere in the world but for short duration. They
would like to keep in touch with their relevant professional world and develop
links which would incentivise them and the country. India is currently spending
around 1 per cent of GDP in R&D and only 5 to 6 per cent of gross expenditure
of R&D goes to universities. The government has committed 2 per cent of GDP to
R&D but such public policies are yet to be implemented. Unless research intensity
in universities is not increased by two or three times and provide more incentives
to scientists and engineers, India might again confront the problem of professional
flight. Directly or indirectly these improvements in R&D spending and strengthening
of research and innovation ecosystem will go a long way to curb and arrest brain
drain and aid brain gain and circulation. This paper makes an attempt to show in
the Indian case that brain drain, brain gain and circulation concepts are overlapping
and continuous. This study opens up new vistas of research in emerging field of
brain circulation studies.

Notes

  1. Highly Qualified persons/professionals (HQP) are people specialised in specific stream of

knowledge, for example, surgeons, physicians, scientists and engineers.
  2. Network society is a form of society increasingly organising its relationships in media networks
gradually replacing or complementing the social networks of face-to-face communication.
Personal communication is replaced by digital technology. The social and media networks
are shaping the prime mode of organisation and most important structures of modern society
(Van Djik, 1991).
  3. Anna Lee Saxenian’s book The New Argonauts is a pioneering research into the dynamics of
competition in Silicon Valley. The theme of the book is that human capital circulates between the
countries of origin and adoptive country of these high technology immigrants, hence the concept
of ‘brain circulation’. This leads to a win–win situation for all as both the recipient and sending
countries concurrently benefit from the same human talent pool.
  4. ‘Brain Gain’ is a converse phenomenon of ‘Brain Drain’, which occurs when there is a large-scale
immigration of technically qualified persons.
  5. Rajiv Gandhi was India’s prime minister from 1984 to 1989.
  6. The value of the fellowship is `  75,000/- per month for five years. Each Fellow, in addition, receives
a Research Grant of 0.5 million rupees. Since inception, 184 Indian origin scientists working
abroad have been offered this fellowship.
  7. Under the scheme each awardee receives a fellowship amount of  `  75,000 per month
(consolidated), House Rent Allowance `  7,500 pm and research/contingency grant of half
million rupees per year. From 2012–2013 onwards the research/contingency grant has been
increased to 1 million rupees.
  8. The study took sample of 45 professionals consisting of 39 males and 6 females.
  9. The study discusses student flows into US higher education, the stay rates of foreign doctoral
recipients, and their short- and long-term employment in the US industry, universities and

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 320    Jaspertap Singh and V.V. Krishna

government. Data on mobility and stay rates of foreign-born S&Es working in the United States
support the notion of brain circulation for some countries (Taiwan and South Korea) and somewhat
more brain drain for other countries (China and India).
10. In this paper H. Jons explores that how transnational movements of academics shape the pro-
duction and dissemination of knowledge and thus the geographies of contemporary knowledge
economies. He did investigate the complex relationship between knowledge production and
spatial movement by examining three key aspects of academic mobility to Germany in the period
1981–2000: (a) global patterns of interaction, (b) motivations to work in Germany for a limited
period of time and (c) resulting publications and collaborations. The study is based on two sets of
statistical data and a postal survey involving about 1200 respondents from 90 countries
11. Policy on Training-1986, Department of Electronics, Government of India.
12. To make the survey possible, a two-step approach was adopted. In the first stage, by following
Snow-Ball sampling method, IT professionals were approached by e-mail and telephone
using personal and secondary contacts. In the second stage willing respondents were inter-
viewed personally and through telephone. The survey was undertaken during the month of
April 2013.
13. This survey should be treated as preliminary investigation to analyse the process of brain circu-
lation in India and further, evidence presented here could be used as precedent for future research
on brain circulation and its impact on India.
14. Educational qualification of respondents reveals that 16 out of 26 respondents are graduates in
engineering, 7 masters in computer application and only 3 have masters in technology.

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