GEC 4

Reviewer
History of Mathematics
Egypt; 3000B.C
• Positional number system, base 10
• Addition, multiplication, division. Fractions.
• Complicated formalism; limited algebra
• Only perfect squares (no irrational numbers).
• Area of circle; (8D/9) ² - ∏=3.1605. Volume of pyramid.

Babylon; 1700‐300B.C.
• Positional number system (base 60; sexagesimal)
• Addition, multiplication, division. Fractions
• Solved systems of equations with many unknowns
• No negative numbers. No geometry.
• Squares, cubes, square roots, cube roots
• Solve quadratic equations (but no quadratic formula)
• Uses: Building, planning, selling, astronomy (later)
Greece; 600B.C. – 600A.D. Papyrus created!
• Pythagoras; mathematics as abstract concepts, properties of numbers, irrationality of √2,
Pythagorean Theorem a²+b²=c², geometric areas
• Zeno paradoxes; infinite sum of numbers is finite!
• Constructions with ruler and compass; ‘Squaring the circle’, ‘Doubling the cube’, ‘Trisecting the
angle.
• Plato; plane and solid geometry
Greece; 600B.C. – 600A.D.
• Aristotle; mathematics and the physical world (astronomy, geography, mechanics),
mathematical formalism (definitions, axioms, proofs via construction).
• Euclid; Elements – 13 books. Geometry, algebra, theory of numbers (prime and composite
numbers, irrationals), method of exhaustion (calculus!), Euclid’s Algorithm for finding greatest
common divisor, proof that there are infinitely many prime numbers, Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic (all integers can be written as a product of prime numbers).
• Apollonius; conic sections
• Archimedes; surface area and volume, centre of gravity, hydrostatics
• Hipparchus and Ptolemy; Trigonometry (circle has 360°, sin, cos, tan; sin² + cos² =1), the
Almagest (astronomy; spherical trigonometry).
• Diophantus; introduction of symbolism in algebra, solves polynomial equations
Hindu-Arabian Period (200 B.C. to 1250 A.D. )
 • A numeration system using base 10, positional notation, the zero symbol and powerful
arithmetic techniques is developed by the Hindus, approx. 150 B.C. to 800 A.D.
• The Hindu numeration system is adopted by the Arabs and spread throughout their sphere of
influence (approx. 700 A.D. to 1250 A.D.).
• Arab scholars copied and studied Greek mathematical works, principally in Arab scholars copied
and studied Greek mathematical works, principally in Baghdad.
• Arab mathematicians find methods of solution for quadratic, cubic and higher degree
polynomial equations. The English word “algebra” is derived from the title of an Arabic book
describing these methods.
• Hindu trigonometry, especially sine tables, is improved and advanced by Arab mathematicians.
Period of Transmission (1000 AD –1500 AD)
• Greek mathematics texts are translated from Arabic into Latin; Greek ideas about logic,
geometrical reasoning, and a rational view of the world are re-discovered.
• Arab works on algebra and trigonometry are also translated into Latin and disseminated
throughout Europe.
• Hindu-Arabic numerals slowly spread over Europe
• Pen and paper arithmetic algorithms based on Hindu-Arabic numerals replace the use the
abacus.
Period of Transmission (1000 AD –1500 AD)
• Greek mathematics texts are translated from Arabic into Latin; Greek ideas about logic,
geometrical reasoning, and a rational view of the world are re-discovered.
• Arab works on algebra and trigonometry are also translated into Latin and disseminated
throughout Europe.
• Hindu-Arabic numerals slowly spread over Europe
• Pen and paper arithmetic algorithms based on Hindu-Arabic numerals replace the use the
abacus.
Modern Period (1800 A.D. –Present)
a. Non-Euclidean Geometry
 Gauss, Lobachevsky, Riemann and others develop alternatives to Euclidean geometry in
the 19th century.
 The new geometries inspire modern theories of higher dimensional spaces, gravitation,
space curvature and nuclear physics.
b. Set Theory
 Cantor studies infinite sets and defines transfinite numbers.
 Set theory used as a theoretical foundation for all of mathematics.
c. Statistics and Probability
 Theories of probability and statistics are developed to solve numerous practical
applications, such as weather prediction, polls, medical studies etc.; they are also used
as a basis for nuclear physics.
 d. Computers
 Development of electronic computer hardware and software solves many previously
unsolvable problems; opens new fields of mathematical research.
e. Mathematics as a World-Wide Language
 The Hindu-Arabic numeration system and a common set of mathematical symbols are
used and understood throughout the world.
 Mathematics expands into many branches and is created and shared world-wide at an
ever-expanding pace; it is now too large to be mastered by a single mathematician.
What role does mathematics play in our world
 Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in our world.
 Mathematics helps predict the behavior of nature and phenomena in our world.
 Mathematics helps control nature and occurrences in the world for our own end.
 Mathematics has numerous applications in the world making it indispensable.
PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN NATURE AND OUR WORLD
 Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world and can also be
seen in the universe.
 Nature patterns which are not just to be admired, they are vital clues to the rules that govern
natural processes.
 A pattern is a regularity in the world, in human-made design, or in abstract ideas. As such, the
elements of a pattern repeat in a predictable manner. A geometric pattern is a kind of pattern
formed of geometric shapes and typically repeated like a wallpaper design. Any of the senses
may directly observe patterns In Mathematics, a pattern is a repeated arrangement of numbers,
shapes, colours and so on. If the set of numbers are related to each other in a specific rule, then
the rule or manner is called a pattern. Sometimes, patterns are also known as a sequence.
Patterns are finite or infinite in numbers. Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found
in the natural world. These patterns recur in modelled mathematically. Natural patterns include
symmetries’, tress, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tessellations, cracks and stripes.
Types of Patterns:
 Symmetry
 Fractals
 Spirals
Symmetry
 A sense of beautiful proportion of balance or invariant object to any various transformations
(reflection, rotation, scaling).
Two types of Symmetry:
 Bilateral - The left and right sides of the organism can be divided into approximately mirror
image of each other along the midline.
  Radial - A symmetry around a fix point known as the center and it can be classified either cyclic
or dihedral.
Fractals
 A curve or geometric figure that repeats itself over and over again at different scales. A never
ending pattern found in nature.
Spirals
 A spiral is a curved pattern that focuses on a center point and a series of circular shapes that
revolve around it.

The Fibonacci Sequence

The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers where a number is the addition of

two numbers that precede it, starting with 0 and 1.

0 + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2 + 1 = 3 + 2 = 5 + 3 = 8 + 5 = 13 + 8 = 21 …

The Rule

The Fibonacci Sequence can be written as a “rule“.

First, the terms are numbered from 0 onwards like this:

Written as a rule, the equation is:

xn = x n−1 + x n−2

For instance: Let n=6;

 x n = x n−1 + x n−2

x 6 = x 6−1 + x 6−2

x6 = x5 + x4

x6 = 5 + 3

x6 = 8

The Fibonacci Spiral and the Golden Ratio

The Fibonacci sequence is often visualized in a graph such as the image below.
Each of the squares illustrates the area of the next number in the sequence. The
Fibonacci spiral is then drawn inside the squares by connecting the corners of the
boxes.

The squares fit together perfectly because the ratio between the numbers in the
Fibonacci sequence is very close to the golden ratio, which is approximately
1.618. The larger the numbers in the Fibonacci sequence, the closer the ratio is to
the golden ratio.

The spiral and resulting rectangle are also known as the Golden Spiral and the
Golden Rectangle.

The blue rectangle where

the Golden Spiral is
The blue line is the
enclosed in is the Golden
Fibonacci Spiral or the
Rectangle
Golden Spiral.
Using The Golden Ratio to Calculate Fibonacci Numbers

What’s even more interesting is that we can calculate any Fibonacci Number using

the Golden Ratio:

n n
φ − (1−φ )
x n=¿
√5

The answer comes out as an approximate of a whole number, exactly equal to the
addition of the previous two terms.

For instance, to find x 6 or the 6th term of the Fibonacci sequence, change n to 6 in
the equation.
n n
φ − (1−φ )
x n=¿
√5
φ6 −( 1−φ )6
x 6=¿
√5
6 6
1.618 −( 1−1.618 )
x 6=¿
√5
x 6=¿ 7.99899683674
x 6=¿ 8
The Application of the Fibonacci Sequence and the Golden Ratio
Architecture - Many works of art are claimed to have been designed using the
golden ratio. E.g.: The Parthenon, according to some studies, has many
proportions that approximate the golden ratio.

Cosmetic and corrective dentistry - Dentists use the golden ratio during
corrective surgeries to have a relative proportion between the teeth and to
assure its natural and pleasing appearance.
Logos and trademarks - For construction of any kind of design, one can use the
beauty of the golden ratio to make great composition decisions quickly and easily
that have an inherent visual harmony that cannot be produced with any other
ratio.

The Fibonacci Sequence and the Golden Ratio are also applied in:

- Reconstructive and corrective facial surgery

- Automotive Designs

- Photo editing and composition