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Fundamental concepts of Algebra
Chapter one
Mathematical logic
Introduction to logic
Logic is the analysis and assessment of arguments. In other word it is about
reasoning the arguments going from premises to a conclusion. The arguments are the
composed from different compound statement which is formulated using the word so-
called connective such as and, or, if…, then…., and if and only if, and a word not.
Further, the formulated composite sentence and statement are examined under the
various topics such as statement calculus such as truth table, validity, rule of inference,
and arithmetic formula and predicate calculus such as symbolizing everyday language,
formulation and consequence. Thus, we will try to clarify reasoning and separate good
from bad reasoning (which is called the validity of argument) with aid of logic. As a result,
logic is relevant game with funny symbols, but as a useful tool to clarify and evaluate our
reasoning.
Moreover, it is important because, reasoning is important. While you’ve been
reasoning about things all your life, this may be the first time that you try to understand
reasoning and become better at it. Reasoning and general analytical skills are important in
law, politics, journalism, education, medicine, business, science, mathematics, computer
science, and most other areas.
This chapter devoted with detail presentation, examples, activities and exercises.
Hence student can have better understanding logic (so they better support their
conclusions).
Finally, logic can be fun. Doing logic is like playing a game or doing puzzles; logic
will challenge your thinking processes in new ways. The rigor of logical systems will
likely fascinate you. Most people find logic enjoyable.
Objectives:
At the end of this chapter you will able to:
 understand the statement calculus,
 identify the importance of sentential connectives,
 apply rules of inferences,
 prove the validity of the arguments,
Haile G/her (M.Sc.) & Solomon Shiferaw (B.Sc.) 1 AKU

 understand the predicate calculus,
 Recognize how to symbolizing everyday language.
1.1 Review of propositional logic , connectives, compound proposition, equivalent

proposition, tautology and contradictions, predicate logic, open proposition and
qualified proposition
Definition 1.1.1. A propositional logic (statement) is a declarative sentence which is either
true or false but not both.
As stated in this definition the fundamental property of any propositional logic is that it is
either true or false (and it cannot be both true and false).we say that a propositional logic
has truth value T if it is true and truth value F if it is false. The sentences we come across
in our everyday language are not always declarative sentences. There are also sentences
such as questions, commands, suggestions, proposals or exclamations. However,
mathematics deals only with declarative sentences.
Example .consider the following sentences:
a) 2 is a prime number. c) Wonderful!
b) What is your name? d) A triangle has four sides.
It is clear that a and d are propositional logic with truth value T and F respectively. On the
other hand, the remaining sentences are not propositional logic because they cannot
classify as being either true or false.
Definition 1.1.2 An Open-proposition is a sentence which contains one or more variables
or pronouns and which becomes a statement when each of its variables or
pronouns is replaced by a specific value or an individual.
Example Consider the following sentences:
a) X is a multiple of 10. C) He is a student.
b) 2x+1=10. d) 2x+1>3
Each of these sentences is an Open-proposition. They are, as they stand now, neither
true nor false. Their truth value depends on the values or individuals which are used to
replace the variables or the pronouns.

Activities
1. Which of the following sentences are propositional logic?
a. Aksum is in Israel.
b. All triangles are isosceles.
c. Oil is solid.
d. 10 is a natural number.
2. Indicate which of the following sentences are Open-proposition.
a. x is a factor of 12. C. 9-(-6) =67
b. x+4=4
Sentential connective
In mathematical course and elsewhere so many compound statements are formed by word
not or by the words and, or, if . . . then (or implies), and if and only if. These five words or
combinations of words are called sentential connectives. Our first concern here is the
analysis of the structure of a composite sentence (that is, a declarative sentence in which
one or more connectives appear) in terms of its constituent prime sentences (that is,
sentences which either contain no connectives or, by choice, are regarded as "indivisible"
or premises). We shall look first at the propositional logic (and open propositions) and
connectives individually.
Definition 1.2.3 A sentence which is modified by the word "not" is called the negation of
the original sentence.
Example i) The negation of “2 is a prime,” is “2 is not a prime”.
ii) The negation of “2 is a prime and 6 is a composite number,” is, “It is not
the case that 2 is a prime and 6 is a composite number”.
Note. Later we use the phrase "It is not the case that" instead of simply the word "not."
Definition 1.1.4. The word "and" is used to join two sentences to form a composite
sentence which is called the conjunction of the two sentences.
Example The conjunction of the sentences, “sun is shining” and “It is cold outside,” is
"The sun is shining, and it is cold outside".
Note. Same time we use a word "but," instead of word “and” which is synonyms.
Definition 1.1.5 A sentence formed by connecting two sentences with the word "or" is
called the disjunction of the two sentences.

Note: The use of ꞌꞌorꞌꞌ in propositional logic is rather different from its normal use in the
English language. Here we use it in the inclusive sense.
Definition1.1.6. The composite sentence have the form "If . . . , then . . ." from two
sentence is called a conditional sentence.
Note. - The sentence immediately following "If" is the antecedent, and
- The sentence immediately following "then" is the consequent.
- “If P, then Q” (where P and Q are statements) have the same meanings with:
𝑃 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑄,
𝑃 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑄,
𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄,
𝑄, 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑃,
𝑄 𝑖𝑓 𝑃,
𝑄 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑃.
Example "If 2 > 3, then 3 > 4" is a conditional sentence with "2 > 3" as antecedent and "3
> 4" as consequent.
Definition 1.1.7 The composite statement joined by the words "if and only if" is called bi-
conditional sentence.
Note: The statement has the form “if and only if Q” (where P and Q are statements) has
the same meaning with:
if P, then Q, and if Q, then P;
Q is a necessary and sufficient condition for P.
Note
To construct the composite sentence we shall use connectives word. Each of the
connectives is denoted by symbols:
 for not,
⋀ for and,
⋁ for or,
→ for if . . . , then . . . ,
↔ for "𝒊𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒇. "

Thus, if P and Q are sentences, then
 𝑃, 𝑃⋀𝑄, 𝑃⋁𝑄, 𝑃 → 𝑄, 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 are, respectively, the negation of P,
the conjunction , disjunction of P and Q, and so on.
Example
The sentence
2 is a prime, and 6 is a composite number.
Symbolized by: 𝑃⋀ 𝐶, where P is "2 is a prime" and C is "6 is a composite number."
The sentence
If either labor or management is stubborn, then the strike will be settled iff the government
obtains an injunction, but troops are not sent into the mills is a conditional.
The antecedent is the disjunction of L ("Labor is stubborn") and M ("Management is
stubborn"). The consequent is a bi-conditional whose left-hand member is S ("The strike
will be settled") and whose right-hand member is the conjunction of G ("The government
obtains an injunction") and the negation of R ("Troops are sent into the mills"). So the
original sentence may be symbolized by
(𝐿 ⋁ 𝑀) → (𝑆 ↔ (𝐺 ⋀ (  𝑅))).
Note The strength of connectives when they appear together is as follow:
↔ is the strongest followed by →.
⋁ and ⋀ are assigned to have the same strength.
 is the weakest of all in strength.
For instance:
𝑃⋀𝑄 → 𝑅 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 (𝑃⋀𝑄) → 𝑅.
𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 → 𝑅 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑃 ↔ (𝑄 → 𝑅).
 𝑃⋀ 𝑄 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 (  𝑃) ⋀𝑄 .
Activities
1. Translate the following composite sentences into symbolic notation, using letters to stand
for the prime components (which here we understand to mean sentences which contain no
connectives).
a. Either it is raining or someone left the shower on.
b. If it is foggy tonight, then either Biruk must stay home or he must take a taxi.
c. Biruk will sit, and lie or Solomon will wait.

d. Biruk will sit and wait or Solomon will wait.
2. Let C be "Today is clear," R be "It is raining today," S be "It is snowing today," and Y be
"Yesterday was cloudy." Translate into acceptable English the following.
a. 𝐶 →  (𝑅⋀𝑆). (d) (𝑌 → 𝑅) ⋁ 𝐶.
b. 𝑌 ↔ 𝐶. (e) 𝐶 ↔ (𝑅 ⋀  𝑆) ⋁ 𝑌.
c. 𝑌 ⋀ (𝐶 ⋁ 𝑅). (f) (𝐶 ↔ 𝑅) ⋀ (  𝑆 ⋁ 𝑌).
Truth Tables
Given the values of the prime sentences the truth value of a composite sentence can be
determined using truth table and considering the rule of the truth value of the five
sentences connectives.
Let P and Q be two prime sentences,then,
 𝑃 ≡ 𝑇 only if P≡F
𝑃 ⋀ 𝑞 ≡ 𝑇 only if p≡T≡q
𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞 ≡F only if p≡F≡q
𝑝 → 𝑞 ≡ 𝐹 only if P≡T and q≡F
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 ≡ 𝑇 Only if p and q takes the same truth value.
Thus,  𝑃, 𝑃⋀𝑄, 𝑃⋁𝑄, 𝑃 → 𝑄, 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 can be defined using table as follows:
Hence one can adapt to these definition.

Note
Now if P and Q are statements, then so are each of  𝑃, 𝑃⋀𝑄 , 𝑃 ⋁ 𝑄, 𝑃 →
𝑄, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 .
The composite sentence whose prime components are statements is itself a statement.
Examples
Determine the truth value for a given composite statement
P ⋁ Q → (R ↔ S ) where the truth value of P Q R and S are T F F and T
, , , , , ,
respectively.
Solution: The antecedent part P ⋁ Q has truth value T and the consequent part R ↔ S
has truth value T. Thus in conditional statement if both antecedent and consequent have the
truth value true (T), the conditional statement has truth value T. In other way the truth
value of composite statement studied by putting successive step’s on successive lines:
If (⌐p⋁𝑟)⋁ (⌐r→ q) has a truth value F, then what is the truth value of
[r ⋁(⌐p⋁q)] ↔[(⌐q→ (r⋀⌐p)].
Solution: (⌐p⋁𝑟) ⋁ (⌐r→ q) ≡ F only if (⌐p⋁𝑟) ≡F≡ (⌐ r→ q).
(⌐p⋁𝑟) ≡F only if ⌐p≡F≡r and (⌐ r→ q) ≡ F only if ⌐ r≡T and q ≡F
⌐p≡F only if p≡T, r≡F and ⌐r≡T only if r≡F, q≡F.
∴ [r ⋁(⌐p⋁q)] ↔[(⌐q→ (r⋀⌐p)]
[F⋁(F⋁F)] ↔[(T→ (F⋀F)]
[F ⋁ F] ↔[T→F]
F↔F
T
Verify the truth value of composite statement
(P ⋁ C ) ⋀( C →  I)

Solution: As the value of P, C, and I change from T to F or vice versa, the composite
statement has value T or value F. This is examined using truth table for each possible
assignment (23) of truth value to P, C, & I.
The lines 2,3,4,and 6 are show that the composite statements has truth value true and
line1,5,7,and 8 are show that the composite statement has truth value false.
Example: construct the truth table for the compound (𝑝⋀  𝑞)→(𝑞 ⋁𝑝).As before,we write
in the first two columns the four possible pairs of truth values for the statements p and q.
P q  𝑞 𝑝⋀  𝑞 𝑞 ⋁𝑝 (𝑝⋀  𝑞)→(𝑞 ⋁𝑝)
T T F T T T
T F T T T T
F T F F T T
F F T F F T
Observe that the last column in above table has only T’s.In other words,the given
statement (𝑝⋀  𝑞)→(𝑞 ⋁𝑝) is true in every case.When this occurs,the statement is called
a tautology. A tautology is a compound (composite) statement which is true for all possible
truth values of its components. On the other hand, a compound statement that is false for
all possible truth values of its components is called a contradiction. For example
(p→ 𝑞) ⋀(𝑞 → 𝑟)] ⋀  (𝑝 → 𝑟) is contradiction.
Activities
1. Suppose that the statements P, Q, R, and S are assigned the truth values T, F, F, and T,
respectively. Find the truth value of each of the following statements.
(a). (𝑃⋁𝑄)⋁𝑅. (c) 𝑃⋁𝑅 ↔ 𝑅⋀  𝑆.
(b). 𝑃⋁(𝑄⋁𝑅). (d) 𝑆 ↔ 𝑃 → (  𝑃⋁𝑆).

2. Construct the truth table for each of the following statements.
(a) 𝑃 →  (𝑄⋀𝑅). (b) 𝑃⋀𝑄 → (𝑄⋀  𝑄 → 𝑅⋀𝑄).
3. (a) Suppose the value of 𝑃 → 𝑄, is T; what can be said about the value of  𝑃⋀𝑄 ↔
𝑃⋁𝑄
(b). Suppose the value of P↔Q is T; what can be said about the values of
𝑃 ↔  𝑄 and  𝑃 ↔ 𝑄?
(c) Suppose the value of 𝑃 ↔ 𝑄 𝑖𝑠 𝐹 ; what can be said about the values of
𝑃 ↔  𝑄 𝑎𝑛𝑑  𝑃 ↔ 𝑄?
Predicate logic
logical predicates
A logical predicate is a property that can be attributed to individuals. For instance of
ꞌꞌblackꞌꞌ can be attributed to individuals like human beings,cars,tables,etc.Another predicate
that can be attributed to numbers is ꞌꞌgreater than 7ꞌꞌ.in ordinary language, given a predicate
there is more or less a determined class of individuals to which it applies. For instance, let
us consider the following thee propositions which use the predicate ꞌꞌgreater than 7ꞌꞌ.
1. 10 is ꞌꞌgreater than 7ꞌꞌ. (True)
2. 3 is ꞌꞌgreater than 7ꞌꞌ. (False)
3. Africa is ꞌꞌgreater than 7ꞌꞌ. (False)
More Examples
1. England is ꞌꞌa town in Angolaꞌꞌ.
2. 2 is ꞌꞌa square root of 4ꞌꞌ.
3. Addis Ababa is ꞌꞌa whole numberꞌꞌ.
Open propositions
Definition 1.1.8 An open proposition is a sentence which contains one or more variables
and which becomes a proposition when each of its variables is replaced
by a particular individual.
Remark: if in an open proposition, the collection of objects from which we choose
replacements for the variables is specified, then this collection of objects is called the
universal set and is dented by ꞌꞌ⋃ꞌꞌ.
Example

Here are some open propositions:
x is a town in Angola
y is greater than 7.
x is a whole number.
x-y is divisible by 6.
Our next problem is to devise is to devise a shorthand notation or symbols by which we
designate open propositions. Let us consider the open proposition:
ꞌꞌ x is a square root of 4ꞌꞌ
Suppose we denote the predicate of beingꞌꞌa square root of 4ꞌꞌ by P. then the above open
proposition is simply written P(x) and is read:
x has the property P.
Similarly, the open proposition ꞌꞌy is a whole numberꞌꞌ can be written as Q(y), where Q is
the predicate of being ꞌꞌa whole numberꞌꞌ.
Compound open propositions
Formation of compound open proposition is the same as formation of compound
proposition. We just use the connectives.
If for instance we have open propositions P(x) and Q(x), we can form compound open
propositions:
P(x) ⋀Q(x) - logical conjunction.
P(x) ⋁Q(x) - logical disjunction.
P(x) →Q(x) - logical conditional(implication).
P(x) ↔Q(x) - logical Bi-conditional.
 𝑃(𝑥) - logical negation.
If we want to construct more complicated ones, we have to simply follow the same method
as we used in the case of the propositions.
Example
If r: 6 is divisible by 3.
P(x): x is an integer greater than 0
Q(y): y is a prime number
Then: r⋀𝑃(𝑥): 6 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 0.
P(x) ⋁Q(x): x is an integer greater than 0 or y is a prime number

Q(x) →P(x): if y is a prime number, then x is an integer greater than 0
Changing an open proposition into a proposition.
Substitution or Replacement
Consider the open proposition:
R(x): x was a wife of Emperor Minilik.
Now if we replace x by Etege Tayitu we obtain:
R(Josephine):Etege Tayitu was a wife of Emperor Minilik.
In general, if we have an open proposition P(x),the proposition we get when we replace x
by the name of an individual A is denoted by P(A).
Example
1. R(x): x is greater than 4.
R(7):7 is greater than 4.
2. Q(x): x is the capital city of Israel.
Q(Rome): Rome is the capital city of Israel.
3. Let P(x,y):x is greater than y.
P(1,2):1 is greater than 2.
Activities
1. Let P(x): x is an integer greater than 7.
Q(x): x is a natural number.
Determine which of the following are True and which are False:
a) P3  Q 1 c) P(9)  Q2
b) P8  Q 1 d ) P6  Q7  P0
2. Let P(x): x is an integer.
Q(x): x is a rational number.
R(x): x is an irrational number.
S(x): x is a real number.
Express each of the following in symbolic form.
a. if x is an irrational number, then x is a real number.
b. if x is a real number, then either x is an irrational number or x is a rational number.
c. x is an integer or x is a rational number.

1.2. Argument and Validity of statements

In this section the analysis of logical relations among sentences which depend only
on their composition from constituent sentences using sentential connectives shall be
discussed. The setting includes the presence of an initial set the "prime sentences" and the
following two assumptions.
Each prime sentence is a statement, which its truth value is known.
Each sentence composed from prime sentences using sentential connectives and its truth
value determine from truth value of prime sentence.
Suppose there is given a nonempty set of distinct sentences and that we extend this
set by adjoining precisely all of those sentences which can be formed by using, repeatedly
and in all possible ways, the various sentential connectives.
Note. Then the extended set has the following property.
If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are members, then so are each of  𝐴, 𝐴 ⋁ 𝐵, 𝐴 ⋀ 𝐵, 𝐴 → 𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝐴 ↔ 𝐵.
The members of the extended class are called formulas.
The members of the initial set are the prime formulas, and the others are composite
formulas.
The prime formulas which appear in a composite formula are said to be contained in that
formula are called its prime components.
The truth value of a composite formula is defined inductively in accordance with the
following table
Examples
If the prime components in a formula 𝐴 are 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 then the definition of the truth
value of 𝐴 in terms of truth values of 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 can be exhibited in a truth table, as
described earlier. There are 2n rows in such a table, each row exhibiting one possible
assignment of T's and F's to 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 .

Let 𝐴 be a formula having 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 as its prime components. Then 𝐴 provides a rule
for associating with any ordered n-tuple of 𝑇′𝑠 and 𝐹′𝑠 , whose 𝑖 𝑡ℎ coordinate is the
assignment to 𝑃𝑖 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛, one of 𝑇 and 𝐹. If we set 𝑉 = {𝑇, 𝐹}, then we can
rephrase our observation: 𝐴 defines a function on 𝑉 𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑉. A function on 𝑉 𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑉 is
truth function (of 𝑛 arguments). Truth functions will be denoted by 𝑓 (𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 ),
g(𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 ), and so on.
The f(𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑖−1, g(𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , … , 𝑞𝑚 ), 𝑃𝑖+1 , … , 𝑃𝑛 ) is composite function obtained
by composition from the truth function 𝒇 of 𝒏 arguments and 𝒈 of 𝒎 arguments. It
obtained by substitution of 𝒈 for the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ variable in𝒇.
Note The combinations of truth functions are again truth functions.
𝑛
There are 22 different truth functions of 𝒏 arguments.
For example, for n=2 arguments we have sixteen truth function using the four connectives.
Remark: - The out-fix notation ⋀(𝑝, 𝑞) is the other form notation of (𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞).
The statement calculus is concerned with the truth values of composite formulas
in terms of truth-value assignments to the prime components and the interrelations of the
truth values of composite formulas having some prime components in common.
Definition 1.2.1 A formula whose value is T, for all possible assignments of truth values
to its prime components called valid and denoted by ⊨ 𝐴 for
"𝑨 𝒊𝒔 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅" ;otherwise it is invalid.
Note: The most mechanical method of proving the validity of a given formula is a truth
table and If a formula 𝐴 is not valid its truth value is determined by using truth table.
- Let 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 be prime components in 𝐴. 𝐴 is said to be tautology iff for each of the 2n
assignments of T's and F's to 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 is T.
Example 𝑝 → 𝑝 and 𝑃 ⋀(𝑝 → 𝑄) → 𝑄 are tautologies, whereas 𝑃 → (𝑄 → 𝑅) is not.
These conclusions are based on an examination of Tables I, II, and III, below.

The computation and examination of its truth table is may be tedious. So, to overcome this,
we develop the rule to verify Tautology.
Theorem 1.2.1 (Substitution rule) Let B be a formula and let B* be the formula resulting
from B by the substitution of a formula A for all occurrences of a prime
component P contained in B. if ⊨B, then ⊨B*.
Proof: For an assignment of values to the prime components of 𝑩 ∗ there results a value
𝒗(𝑨) of 𝑨 and a value 𝒗(𝑩 ∗) of 𝑩 ∗. Now 𝒗(𝑩 ∗) = 𝒗(𝑩) the value of 𝑩 for a particular
assignment of values to its prime components, including the assignment of 𝒗(𝑨) to P. If B
is valid, then 𝒗(𝑩) and hence 𝒗(𝑩 ∗) is always T. That is, if 𝑩 is valid, then so is 𝑩 ∗ ∎
Examples
From below Table IV it follows that ⊨ 𝑃⋁𝑄 ⟷ 𝑄𝑉𝑃. Hence, by Theorem 1.1 ⊨(R→S)
⋁Q ⟷Q⋁(R→S). We can verify a result by Table V.

Since the value of P is F, we assigned a value of R → 𝑆 , F. Hence R is T and S is F, and
also assigned T for Q. The rest of the computation is third line of Table IV from underlined
value of IV.
Suppose the question arises as to whether the formula
(𝑅 ⋁ 𝑆) ⋀ ((𝑅 ⋁𝑆) → (𝑃 ⋀ 𝑄)) → (𝑃 ⋀ 𝑄) is a tautology.
By Theorem1.2.1. The formula has same form as the tautology 𝑃 ⋀ (𝑃 → 𝑄) →Q (Table
II), in the sense that it results from 𝑃 ⋀ (𝑃 → 𝑄) → 𝑄 upon the substitution of R ⋁ S for 𝑃
and𝑃 ⋀ 𝑄 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑄.
Definition 1.2.2. Two formulas A and B are said to be equivalent written as
𝐴 𝑒𝑞 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 ≡ 𝐵 ,iff they have the same truth value for each union of
the sets of prime components in A and B.
Example
Show that (𝑃 → 𝑄) 𝒆𝒒  𝑃 ⋁ 𝑄 and 𝑃 𝒆𝒒 𝑃 ⋀ (𝑄⋁  𝑄).
Solution: To verify the equivalence of we use the truth table.
As we see from the table (𝑃 → 𝑄) 𝒆𝒒  𝑃 ⋁ 𝑄 and 𝑃 𝒆𝒒 𝑃 ⋀ (𝑄⋁  𝑄).

Remark: If CA is a formula containing a specific occurrence of the formula 𝐴 and CA is the
result on replacing this occurrence of 𝐴 by a formula 𝐵, then if 𝐵 𝑒𝑞 𝐴, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐶𝐵 𝑒𝑞 𝐶𝐴 .
Theorem 1.2 ⊨ 𝐴 ⟷ 𝐵 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝐴 𝑒𝑞 𝐵.
Proof: (→) Suppose ⊨ 𝐴 ⟷ 𝐵
𝐴 ⟷ 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦(A and B have same truth values)
∴ 𝐴 𝑒𝑞 𝐵.
(←) suppose A eq B
A and B have the same truth values
𝐴 ⟷ 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑦
∴⊨ 𝐴 ⟷ 𝐵∎

Corollary 1.2.3 Let CA be a formula containing a specified occurrence of the formula A
and CB be the result of replacing this occurrence of A by a formula
B.then,
a) If ⊨A ⟷ B, then ⊨ 𝐶𝐴 ⟷ 𝐶𝐵 .
b) 𝐼𝑓 ⊨ 𝐶𝐴 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ⊨ 𝐶𝐵 .
This proof is left as an exercise.
Theorem 1.2.4. 𝐼𝑓 ⊨ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⊨ 𝐴 → 𝐵, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ⊨ 𝐵.
Proof: Let 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 be the totality of prime components appearing in A and B. For a
given assignment of truth values to these, the first part of the computation of the value of
A→ B consists of computing the values of A and B, after which the computation is
completed by applying the table for the conditional. The assumptions ⊨A and ⊨A→B
imply that both the value obtained for A and that for 𝐴 → 𝐵 are T. According to the table
for 𝐴 → 𝐵, this implies that B must also have the value T. Since this is the case for all
assignments of values to 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 , B is valid∎
Theorem 1.2.5 𝐼𝑓 ⊨ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⊨ 𝐴 ⟷ 𝐵, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ⊨ 𝐵.
This proof is left as an exercise.
Theorem 1.2.5
Tautological Conditionals
⊨ 𝐴 ⋀ (𝐴 → 𝐵) → 𝐵. 8. ⊨ (𝐴 ⋀ 𝐵 → 𝐶) → (𝐴 → (𝐵 → 𝐶)).
⊨  𝐵 ⋀(𝐴 → B) →  𝐴. 9. ⊨ (𝐴 → (𝐵 → 𝐶)) → (𝐴 ⋀ 𝐵 → 𝐶)
⊨  𝐴 ⋀ (𝐴⋁ 𝐵) → 𝐵. 10. ⊨ (𝐴 → 𝐵 ⋀  𝐵) →  𝐴.
⊨ 𝐴 → (𝐵 → A ⋀ 𝐵). 11. ⊨ (𝐴 → 𝐵) → (𝐴 ⋁ 𝐶 → 𝐵 ⋁ 𝐶).
⊨ 𝐴 ⋀ 𝐵 → 𝐴. 12. ⊨ (𝐴 → 𝐵) → (𝐴 ⋀ 𝐶 → 𝐵 ⋀ 𝐶).
⊨ 𝐴 → 𝐴 ⋁ 𝐵. 13 . ⊨ (𝐴 → 𝐵) → ((𝐵 → 𝐶) → (𝐴 → 𝐶)).
⊨ (𝐴 → 𝐵) ⋀ (𝐵 → 𝐶) → (𝐴 → 𝐶). 14. ⊨ (𝐴 ⟷ 𝐵) ⋀ (𝐵 ⟷ 𝐶) → (𝐴 ⟷ 𝐶).
Tautological biconditionals
⊨  A ⟷A 15′ . ⊨ A ⟷ A.
⊨ (A ⟷ B) ⟷ (B ⟷ A).
⊨ (A → B) ⋀ (C → B) ⟷ (A ⋁ C → B).
⊨ (A → B) ⋀ (A → C) ⟷ (A → B ⋀ C).

⊨ (A → B) ⟷ (  B →  A).
⊨ A⋁B ⟷ B⋁A. 20'. ⊨ A ⋀ B ⟷ B ⋀ A.
⊨ (A ⋁ B) ⋁C ⟷ A⋁(B⋁C). 21'. ⊨ (A ⋀ B) ⋀ C ⟷ A ⋀ (B ⋀ C).
⊨ A⋁(B ⋀ C) ⟷ (A ⋁ B) ⋀ (A⋁C). 22'. ⊨ A ⋀(B⋁C) ⟷ (A ⋀ B)⋁ (A ⋀ C).
⊨ A ⋁A ⟷ A. 23'. ⊨ A ⋀ A ⟷ A.
⊨  (A ⋁ B) ⟷  A ⋀  B. 24'. ⊨  (A ⋀ B) ⟷  A ⋁  B.
Tautologies for Elimination of Connectives
⊨ 𝐴→𝐵⟷  𝐴⋁𝐵.
⊨ 𝐴 →𝐵⟷  (A ⋀  B).
⊨ 𝐴⋁𝐵 ⟷  𝐴 → 𝐵
⊨ 𝐴⋁𝐵 ⟷  (  𝐴 ⋀  𝐵).
⊨ 𝐴 ⋀ 𝐵 ⟷  (𝐴 →  𝐵).
⊨ (𝐴 ⟷ 𝐵) ⟷ (𝐴 → 𝐵) ⋀ (𝐵 → 𝐴).
Note
The denial, Ad , of a formula A is the formula resulting from A by replacing each
occurrence of ⋀ by ⋁ and vice versa and replacing each occurrence of 𝑃𝑖 , by an occurrence
of  𝑃𝑖 and vice versa.
Example The denial of 𝑃 ⋁ 𝑄 is  𝑃 ⋀  𝑄 and the denial of (  𝑃 ⋀ 𝑄) is 𝑃 ⋁  𝑄.
Theorem 1.2.6. Let A be a formula composed from prime components using only ,
⋀ ,⋁, and let 𝐴𝑑 be the denial of A. Then ⊨ 𝐴 ⟷ 𝐴𝑑 .
Proof: By induction on the number of symbols appearing in a formula.
Examples
Let A=((P⋀  𝑄) ⋁ 𝑅) ⋁ (𝑃 ⋀ (  𝑄⋁𝑅)) then find the denial of A?
 𝐴=  ((𝐏⋀  𝑄) ⋁ 𝑅) ⋁ (𝑃 ⋀ (  𝑄⋁𝑅))
=  ((𝐏⋀  𝑄) ⋁ 𝑅)⋀  (𝑃 ⋀ (  𝑄⋁𝑅))
=(  ( 𝐏⋀  𝑄)⋀  𝑅)⋀(  𝐏⋁  (  𝑄⋁𝑅))
=((  𝐏⋁   𝑄)⋀  𝑅)⋀(  𝐏⋁(   𝑄⋀  𝑅))
=((  𝐏⋁ 𝑄)⋀  𝑅)⋀(  𝐏⋁(𝑄⋀  𝑅))
Since 𝐴𝑑 ≡  𝐴,then 𝐴𝑑 = ((  𝐏⋁ 𝑄)⋀  𝑅)⋀(  𝐏⋁(𝑄⋀  𝑅))

Activities
1. Write each of the following formulas as a truth function in outfix notation.
For example  𝑃 → (𝑄 ⋁(𝑅 ⋀ 𝑆)) becomes → (  𝑃, ⋁ (𝑄, ⋀ (𝑅, 𝑆))
(a) 𝑃 ⋀ 𝑄 (e) 𝑃 → (𝑄 → 𝑅) ⟷ 𝑄 → (𝑃 → 𝑅).
(b)  𝑃 → 𝑄. (f) 𝑃 ⋁𝑅 → (𝐵 ⋀ (𝑆 ⋁  𝑃)).
(c) 𝑃 ⋁ (𝑄 ⋁𝑅). (g) (𝑃 → 𝑄) → (𝑆 ⋀  𝑃 → 𝑄).
(d) 𝑃 ⋀(𝑄 → 𝑅).
Consequence and Rules of Inference
Logic is function provide principles of reasoning, that is, a theory of inference.
Further, chain of reasoning is a finite sequence of statements which are support the last
statement in the sequence (the conclusion) may be inferred from certain initial statements
(the premises). In everyday circumstances the premises of an inference are judged to be
true (on the basis of experience, experiment, or belief). Acceptance of the premises of an
inference as true and of the principles employed in a chain of reasoning from such
premises as correct commits one to regard the conclusion at hand as true. In a
mathematical theory the situation is different. There, one is concerned only with the
conclusions (the so-called "theorems" of the theory) which can be inferred from an
assigned initial set of statements (the so-called "axioms" of the theory) according to rules
which are specified by some system of logic.
Definition(consequences)1.2.7:The statement B is the consequence of statement A1, A2,
…, Am symbolized by A1, A2, …, Am ⊨ B, iff for every truth-value assignment
for each of the prime formulas P1, P2,… , Pn occurring in one or more of A1, A2,
… , Am and B, the formula B receives the value T whenever every A receives
the value T.
Note: if A1, A2, …, Am ⊨ B, then we say the argument is valid, otherwise invalid.
Example
From an inspection of Table VIII below we obtain the following three illustrations of our
definition:
𝑃, 𝑅, 𝑄 ⋀𝑃 → 𝑅 ⊨  𝑄. (line 3)
𝑃, 𝑃 → 𝑅, 𝑅 ⊨ 𝑃⋁𝑄 → 𝑅. (lines 1 and 3)
𝑄⋀𝑃 →  𝑅,  𝑄, 𝑃→ 𝑅 ⊨  (𝑃 ⋀ 𝑄). (lines 3, 7, 8)

Table VIII
Activities
1. Verify using truth table that the following are valid or not.
a) 𝑃 → 𝑄,  (𝑄 ⋁𝑅) ⊨ 𝑄
b)  𝑃⋁𝑄, 𝑅 ⟶  𝑄 ⊨ 𝑃 →  𝑅.
2. Show that 𝑃,  𝑃  𝑄 ⊨ 𝑄 is valid.
Theorem 1.2.8
𝐴 ⊨ 𝐵 𝑖𝑓𝑓 ⊨ 𝐴 → 𝐵.
𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , … , 𝐴𝑚 ⊨ 𝐵 iff 𝐴1 ⋀𝐴2 ⋀ … ⋀ 𝐴𝑚 ⊨ 𝐵 or, if ⊨ 𝐴1 ⋀𝐴2 ⋀ … ⋀ 𝐴𝑚 → 𝐵 (m> 2).
Proof: (⟹) For (I), let 𝐴 ⊨ 𝐵. By the table for →, 𝐴 → 𝐵 receives the value F if A
receives the value T, and, simultaneously, B receives the value F. From the hypothesis, this
combination of values does not occur. Hence 𝐴 → 𝐵 always receives the value T, that is,
⊨ 𝐴 → 𝐵.
( ⟸ ) Let ⊨ 𝐴 → 𝐵, and consider an assignment of values to the prime
components such that A receives the value T. Since 𝐴 → 𝐵 receives the value T, it follows
from the table for→ that 𝐵 takes the value T, whence, 𝐴 ⊨ 𝐵
The first assertion in (II) follows from the table for A, and the second follows from the first
by an application of (I).
Corollary 1.2.9 A1,A2,… ,Am-1,Am ⊨ B iff A1,A2,… ,Am-1 ⊨ Am→ B.
More generally, A1,A2,… ,Am-1,Am ⊨ B iff ⊨ A1 →(A2→ (…(Am→B)…)).

Proof: For m = 1, the first assertion is (I) of the theorem. So, assume that A1,… , Am-1, Am
⊨B for m > 1.Then ⊨ (A1 ⋀ A2 ⋀ … ⋀ Am-1 ⋀𝐴𝑚 →B), according to the theorem. From
tautology 8 of Theorem 1.4 and Theorem 1.3, we deduce that ⊨(A1 ⋀ A2 ⋀ … ⋀ Am-1) →
(𝐴𝑚 →B). According to (I) of the theorem, it follows that A1 ⋀ A2 ⋀… ⋀ Am-1 ⊨ 𝐴𝑚 →B
and hence, by (II), that A1,A2,… ,Am-1 ⊨ 𝐴𝑚 →B. The converse is established by reversing
the foregoing steps
Finally, the second assertion follows by repeated application of the first.
Thus, the problem of what statements are consequences of others (by the statement
calculus) is reduced to the problem of what statements are valid (which accounts for the
importance of tautologies). Indeed, we can substantiate a working form as a sequence of
formulas (the last formula being the desired consequence of the premises) such that the
presence of each is justified by a rule, called a rule of inference (for the statement calculus.
The basis of the rules of inference which we shall introduce is the following theorem.
Theorem 1.2.10
A1,…, Am-1, Am ⊨Ai for i= 1, 2, … ,m.
If A1,… , Am ⊨Bj for j = 1, 2,… ,p, and if B1,B2,…,Bp ⊨C, then A1,… ,Am ⊨C.
Proof: Part (I) is an immediate consequence of the definition of " A1,… , Am-1, Am ⊨B."
For (II) we construct a truth table from the list 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , … , 𝑃𝑛 . of all prime components
appearing in at least one of the A's, the B's, and C. Consider any row in which A1, A2, … ,
Am each receive the value T. Then, by the hypotheses, each B has the value T, and hence
C has the value T. That is, for each assignment of values to the P's such that every A takes
the value T, formula receives the value T. This is the desired conclusion∎
With this result, a demonstration that a formula B (the conclusion) is a consequence
of formulas A1,… , Am-1, Am (the premises) may be presented in the form of a string (that
is, a finite sequence) of formulas, the last of which is B and such that the presence of each
formula E is justified by an application of one of the following rules.
Rule p: The formula E is a premise.
Rule t: There are formulas A, … , D preceding 𝐸 in the string such that
⊨ 𝐴 ⋀ … . , ⋀ 𝐷 ⟶ 𝐸.
Note If ⊨ D, then for any formula A we have ⊨ 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐷. Thus, D may be included in a
derivation by an application of rule I where in we take any premise as the "A."

Examples
We demonstrate that
𝐴⋁𝐵, 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐶, 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐷 ⊨ 𝐶 ⋁𝐷.
Solution: An explanation of the numerals on the left is given below.
{1} (1) 𝐴⟶𝐶 Rule p
{1} (2) 𝐴⋁ 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶⋁ 𝐵 Rule t; ⊨(1) ⟶ (2) by tautology 11
{3} (3) 𝐵 ⟶𝐷 Rule p
{3} (4) 𝐶⋁𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶⋁𝐷 Rule t; ⊨(3) ⟶ (4) by tautology 11
{1, 3} (5) 𝐴⋁𝐵 ⟶𝐶⋁𝐷 Rule t; ⊨(2) ⋀(4) ⟶ (5) by tautology 7.
{6} (6) 𝐴⋁ 𝐵 Rule p
{1, 3, 6} (7) 𝐶 ⋁𝐷 Rule t; ⊨(6) ⋀ (5) ⟶ (7) by tautology 1.
The numbers in parentheses adjacent to each formula serve to designate that
formula as well as the line of the derivation in which it appears.
Note: The set of numbers in braces for each line corresponds to the premises on which the
formula in that line depends. Thus, the formula in line 5 is a consequence of the premise in
line 1 and the premise in line 3, and the formula in line 7 is a consequence of the premises
in lines 1, 3, and 6--that is, of all the premises.
We now rewrite the above derivation, incorporating some practical
abbreviations. In this form the reader is called on to supply the tautologies employed.
{1} (1) 𝐴 ⟶𝐶 p
{1} (2) 𝐴⋁ 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶 ⋁𝐵 1t
{3} (3) 𝐵 ⟶𝐷 p
{3} (4) 𝐶 ⋁ 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶⋁ 𝐷 3t
{1, 3} (5) 𝐴 ⋁ 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶⋁ 𝐷 2, 4 t
{6} (6) 𝐴⋁ 𝐵 p
{1, 3, 6} (7) 𝐶⋁ 𝐷 5,6t
As a more elaborate illustration we prove that
𝑊 ⋁ 𝑃 ⟶ 𝐼, 𝐼 ⟶ 𝐶⋁ 𝑆, 𝑆 ⟶ 𝑈, 𝐶 ⋀𝑈 ⊨ 𝑊
by the following string of thirteen formulas.
{1} (1)  𝐶⋀  𝑈 p
{1} (2)  𝑈 1t

{3} (3) 𝑆⟶𝑈 p
{1,3} (4) 𝑆 2,3t
{1} (5) 𝐶 1t
{1, 3} (6) 𝐶 ⋀𝑆 4, 5 t
{1,3} (7)  (𝐶⋁ 𝑆) 6t
{8} (8) 𝑊⋁𝑃 ⟶𝐼 p
{9} (9) 𝐼 ⟶ 𝐶 ⋁𝑆 p
{8,9} (10) 𝑊 ⋁ 𝑃 ⟶ 𝐶 ⋁𝑆 8,9t
{1,3,8,9} (11)  (𝑊 ⋁ 𝑃) 7,10t
{1,3,8,9} (12)  𝑊⋀  𝑃 11t
{1,3,8,9} (13)  𝑊 12t
Note: The preceding takes the place of a truth table having 26 = 64 lines for the purpose of
verifying that
⊨ (𝑊 ⋁ 𝑃 ⟶ 𝐼) ⋀ (𝐼 ⟶ 𝐶 ⋁𝑆) ⋀ (𝑆 ⟶ 𝑈) ⋀ (  𝐶 ⋀  𝑈) ⟶  𝑊.
Remark: Most of the theorems have the form of conditional. That is, A1, A2,…,An ⊨
𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶, where the 𝐴′𝑠 are the axioms and 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶 is the consequence asserted.
Note: To prove such a theorem it is standard practice to adopt 𝐵 as a further assumption
and then infer that 𝐶 is a consequence. Thus, it is implied that
A1, A2,… , An ⊨ B⟶C, iff , A1, A2,… , An , B ⊨ C. (by Corollary1.2 )
This is as the third rule of inference, the rule of conditional proof for the statement
calculus.
Rule cp: The formula 𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶 is justified in a derivation having A1, A2,… , An as premises
if it has been established that 𝐶 is a consequence of A1, A2,… , An, and B.
Example Verify using the third rule 𝐴 ⟶ (𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶), 𝐷 ⋁𝐴, 𝐵 ⊨ 𝐷 ⟶ 𝐶.
{1} (1) 𝐴 ⟶ (𝐵 ⟶ 𝐶) p
{2} (2) 𝐷 ⋁ 𝐴 p
{3} (3) 𝐵 P
{4} (4) 𝐷 p (introducing "D" as an
additional premise)
{2, 4} (5) 𝐴 2,4t

{1,2,4} (6) 𝐵 ⟶𝐶 1, 5 t
{1, 2, 3, 4} (7) 𝐶 3, 6 t
{1, 2, 3} (8) 𝐷 ⟶ 𝐶 4, 7 cp
Activities
1. Using only rules p and t verify  𝐴𝑉 𝐵, 𝐶 ⟶ 𝐵 ⊨ 𝐴⟶  𝐶.
Quantified proposition
The theory of inference supplied by the statement calculus is quite inadequate for
mathematics and, indeed, for everyday arguments. For example, from the premises
Every rational number is a real number,
5 is a rational number,
Certainly, 5 is a real number
is justified as a conclusion. Yet the validity of this argument cannot be established within
the context of the statement calculus. The reason is that the statement calculus is limited to
the structure of sentences in terms of component sentences, and the above inference
requires an analysis of sentence structure with the addition of three additional logical
notions, called terms, predicates, and quantifiers, it has been found that much of everyday
and mathematical language can be symbolized in such a way as to make possible an
analysis of an argument.
Note: In mathematics the letters such "𝑥" 𝑎𝑛𝑑 "𝑦" are reserve for names of individual
objects. For example, in order to determine those real numbers such that the square of the
number minus the number is equal to twelve, one will form the equation x2 - x = 12,
thereby regarding "x" as a placeholder for the name of any such (initially unknown)
number.
Examples
The sentence
Every rational number is a real number may be translated as
For every x, if x is a rational number, then x is a real number.
In ordinary grammar, "is a real number" is the predicate of (a). In the translation (b) the
added predicate "x is a rational number" replaces the common noun "rational number."
Using "ℚ(𝑥)" 𝑓𝑜𝑟 "𝑥 is a rational number" and "ℝ(𝑥)" 𝑓𝑜𝑟 "𝑥 is a real number," we may
symbolize (b) as

(i) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑥, ℚ(𝑥) → ℝ(𝑥).
Further, the statement "5 is a rational number" may be symbolized by
(ii) ℚ (5).
In terms of symbolism available at the moment, (i) and (ii) are the translations of the
premises of the argument appearing at the beginning of this section.
The sentence, Some real numbers are rational
We translate as: For some x, x is a real number and x is a rational number.
Using the predicates introduced above, this may be symbolizing
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝒙, ℝ(𝑥)⋀ℚ(𝑥).
The sentence
(iii) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑥, ℝ(𝑥) → ℚ(𝑥)
should have the same meaning as:
(iv) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑥,  ℝ(𝑥)⋁ ℚ(𝑥),
Since we have simply replaced "ℝ(𝑥) → ℚ(𝑥)" by its equivalent "  ℝ(𝑥) ⋁ ℚ(𝑥)".
Now (iv) may be translated into words as:
There is something which is either not a real number or is a rational number.
Consider the statement: if S(x) is "x is a sophomore," this predicate yields the
statement "John is a sophomore." A statement may also be obtained from S(x) by prefixing
it with the phrase "for every x":
(v) 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑥, 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒.
No doubt, one would choose to rephrase this as:
(vi) 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒.
Definition 1.2.11 The phrase "for every x" is called a universal quantifier and denoted by
(∀𝒙) 𝑜𝑟 (𝒙).
Note: The phrase "for every x," "for all x," and "for each x" have same meaning.
Using this symbol we may symbolize (v) or (vi) as (∀𝒙)𝑆(𝑥).
Definition1.2.12: The phrase "there exists an x" is called an existential quantifier and
denoted by (∃𝑥).
Note. The phrase "there exists an 𝑥," "for some x," and "for at least one x" have the same
meaning.
Thus, "(∃𝑥)𝑆(𝑥)" is the symbolic form of "There are sophomores."

Examples
Using the universal quantifier, symbolize the statement
"Every rational number is a real number".
Let ℚ(𝑥), 𝑥 is rational number. Since ℚ ⊆ ℝwe can symbolize as
a) (∀𝒙) ( ℚ(𝑥) → ℝ(𝑥)).
Similarly, the sentence "Some real numbers are rational" may be translated as
b) (∃𝑥)(ℝ(𝑥) ⋀ ℚ(𝑥)).
The meaning of this sentence is simply that ℝ⋂ ℚ is nonempty.
Note: The statement of the form "Every so and so is a such and such" can be symbolized
as in (a), that the statement "Some so and so is a such and such" can be symbolized by
(∃𝑥)(ℝ(𝑥) → ℚ(𝑥)).
This has the same meaning as (∃𝑥)(  ℝ(𝑥) ⋁ ℚ(𝑥)).
If 𝐴(𝑥) is a formula in 𝑥, consider the following four statements.
(𝑥)𝐴(𝑥). (c) (𝑥)(  𝐴(𝑥)).
(∃𝑥)𝐴(𝑥). (d) (∃𝑥)(  𝐴(𝑥)).
We might translate these into words as follows.
Everything has property A.
Something has property A.
Nothing has property A.
Something does not have property A.
Note: (d) is the denial of (a), and (c) is the denial of (b).
The denial of "(∃𝑥)𝐴(𝑥)" is ‘‘  (∀𝑥)(  𝐴(𝑥))”.
We have four basic types of statements involving quantifiers in logic.
For instance,
All rational are real. (𝑥)(ℚ(𝑥) → ℝ(𝑥)).
No rational are real. (𝑥)(ℚ(𝑥) →  ℝ(𝑥)).
Some rational are real. (∃𝑥)(ℚ(𝑥) ⋀ ℝ(𝑥)).
Some rational are not real. (∃𝑥)(ℚ(𝑥) ⋀  ℝ(𝑥)).
Note. If the symbols for negation and a quantifier modify a formula, the order in which
they appear is relevant.

(a) For example, the translation of
 (𝑥)(𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑙) is "Not everyone is mortal" or "Someone is
immortal,"
(b) The translation of
(𝑥)(  (𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑙)) is "Everyone is immortal."
(c ) The translation of the statement
(𝑥) (∃𝑦) (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 = 𝑦 2 − 𝑥) 𝑖𝑠
"For every (real number) x there is a (real number) y such that 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 = 𝑦 2 − 𝑥." This
is a true statement. However, that
(∃𝑦) (𝑥) (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 = 𝑦 2 − 𝑥),
obtained by interchanging the quantifiers, is a different. Indeed, a false- statement.
Activities
1. Let 𝑃(𝑥) be "x is a prime," 𝐸(𝑥) be "x is even," 𝑂(𝑥) be "x is odd," and 𝐷(𝑥, 𝑦) be "x
divides y." Translate each of the following into English.
(a) 𝑃(7). (c) (𝑥)(  𝐸𝑥 →  𝐷2𝑥).
(b) 𝐸(2) ⋀ 𝑃(2). (d) (𝑥) (𝐷2𝑥 → 𝐸𝑥).
2. Translate the following statements using quantifier.
All judges are lawyers. (𝐽𝑥, 𝐿𝑥)
Some lawyers are shysters. (Sx)
No judge is a shyster
1.3. Mathematical Proofs
Axiomatic Theories
A theory consists of two sets of statements. The first set determines the subject matter of
theory. The second set is a subset of the first and is called the set of acceptable statements.
In the experimental sciences, “acceptable” means “true” in the sense of being in
accordance with reality, and the final appeal is to observation and experiment. Thus in the
theory of nuclear physics, the acceptable statements are the true statements about atomic
nuclei. In some theories, acceptability has little relation to truth in this sense. For example,
in the theory of chess, “A bishop moves diagonally” is an acceptable statement because the
rule book says it is.

A theory of any branch of mathematics is an axiomatic theory. In axiomatic theory, the
acceptable statements are called theorems (or provable statements), and are defined to be
the statements deducible by logic alone from certain initially specified acceptable
statements called axioms. Euclidean geometry is an example of an axiomatic theory
familiar to every high school graduate.
In axiomatic theory, the question “Is this statement true?” is not relevant. The Proper
question is, “Does this statement follow from the axioms by logic alone?”
Formal proof
In axiomatic theory, a formal proof is a finite sequences 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 … , 𝑆𝑛 of statements such
that each 𝑆𝑖 (1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛) is either an axiom or is inferred from one or more previous 𝑆𝑗 by a
rule of inference. The statements 𝑆1 , 𝑆2 … , 𝑆𝑛 are called the steps of the proof.
A theorem is a statement that is the last step of some proof. To prove a theorem means to
produce a proof whose last step is the theorem.
Every axiom is a theorem, because the finite sequence consisting of a single step-the axiom
itself- is a proof of the axiom.
In practice formal proofs are seldom given. Because a formal proof includes every step, the
formal proofs of simple theorems are often very long. The proofs in the mathematical
literature are usually informal (or semi-formal). Informal proofs are outlines, giving only
the mathematical high lights and suppressing the logical details. Of course, an informal
proof can in principle be changed on a formal proof if challenged.
Proof by contradiction
Often we are unable to give a formal proof of a theorem. When this happens, we frequently
turn to a method of proof called proof by contradiction. This method relies on the fact that
if (⌝𝑝) is true. Hence to prove that p is true. We attempt to show that (⌝𝑝) is false. The
best way to accomplish this is to show that (⌝𝑝) is not consistent with the axioms and
proven theorems.
Proof Existence
For theorems of the form (∃𝑥)𝑝(𝑥), we can frequently give a proof by exhibiting an
example. For instance, consider the following theorem:

Theorem
Every equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0, where 𝑎 ≠ 0, has solution in the system of real
numbers.
−𝑏
The proof of this theorem amounts to checking that 𝑥 = has the required property.
𝑎
Disproof by contradiction
If we have tried unsuccessfully to prove a conjectured theorem, we may well spend some
time trying to disprove it. One of the usual methods of disproof is to assume that the
theorem is true and then to derive consequences from this. If we succeed in arriving at a
consequence which contradicts a known true theorem, we have shown that the conjectured
theorem is false. This process is similar to the method of proof by contradiction.
Disproof by Counter-example
When we are considering a conjecture of the form (∀𝑥)𝑃(𝑥), we may also consider its
negation (∃𝑥)(⌝𝑝(𝑥)). It may be possible to find a specific individual ‘A’ so that ⌝𝑃(𝐴)
is true. If so we have shown that the negation of our conjecture is true and hence that the
conjecture is false.

Review exercises
1. Translate the following composite sentences into symbolic notation, using letters to stand
for the prime components (which here we understand to mean sentences which contain no
connectives).
I will go either by bus or by taxi.
Neither the North nor the South won the Civil War.
If I am either tired or hungry, then I cannot study.
2. Suppose that the statements P, Q, R, and S are assigned the truth values T, F, F, and T,
respectively. Find the truth value of each of the following state
(a) 𝑅 → (𝑠⋀𝑃) (c) 𝑄⋀  𝑆 → (𝑃 ↔ 𝑆).
(b) 𝑃 → (𝑅 → 𝑆). (d) 𝑅⋀𝑆 → (𝑃 →  𝑄⋁𝑆)
3. Construct the truth table for each of the following statements.
(a) 𝑃 → (𝑃 → 𝑅). (c) (P → Q) ↔  P⋁Q.

(b) 𝑃⋁𝑄 ↔ 𝑄⋁𝑃. (d) (P → Q⋀R) ⋁ (  P⋀Q).
4. Translate the following statements using quantifier.
a) Not all lawyers are judges.𝐿𝑥, 𝐽𝑥
b) Some lawyers who are politicians are Congressmen. (𝑃𝑥, 𝐶𝑥)
c) No woman is both a politician and a housewife. (𝐻𝑥)
d) There are some women lawyers who are housewives.
e) Using the letters indicated for predicates, translate the following.
f) For each real number x there is a larger real number y. (Rx)
g) There exist real numbers x, y, and z such that the sum of x and y is greater than the
product of x and z.

Summary
Logic is the analysis and assessment of arguments to clarifies reasoning and separate
good from bad reasoning (which is called the validity of argument).
Statement calculus and predicate calculus are one of the important concepts to analysis and
judge the validity of arguments logically.
Logic is applicable to areas such as: law, politics, journalism, education, medicine,
business, science, mathematics, computer science, and others.
The connective such as and, or, if…, then…., and if and only if, and a word not are used to
formulate composite sentence from prime components.
A formula A (composed statement) whose value is T, for all possible truth values of its
prime components is called valid and denoted by ⊨A.
If a formula A is not valid its truth value is determined by using truth table.
A formula A equivalent to formula B iff they have the same truth value and denoted by
𝑨 𝑒𝑞 𝑩.
An argument (or formula) A is said to be valid by the rule of inference iff each of the
premise of the argument are truth value are T.
Suppose B is the consequence (conclusion) of the premises A’s, to verify this we have two
rules, those are:
A formulas such that either each E is a premise (rule 𝒑) and Preceding formulas in the
sequence such that if C is their conjunction, then ⊨C ⟶ E (rule t ).
In everyday language we use the quantifier such as: Universal quantifier such as “for every
x," "for all x," and "for each x”, and Existential quantifier such as "there exists an x," "for
some x," and "for at least one x".
The formula B is a consequence of formulas A1, A2,… , An (in the predicate calculus),
symbolized by A1, A2,…, An ⊨B, iff for each domain D and for each assignment to the A's
in D the formula B receives the value T whenever each A receives the value T.

Reference
 Ademe Mekonen(2007),Logic and Set theory, Department of Mathematics, AAU.
 Anteneh and Geremew(2012), Logic and Set theory, Department of computational
sciences, AKU.
 Harry J. Gensler, (2010),Introduction to Logic, 2nd Ed., published by Routledge 270
Madison Ave, New York, NY10016
 M.L.Bettinger(1982), Logic, Proof, and Set, Edison-Wesley.
 Michael Potter(2004), Set Theory and its Philosophy, Oxford University, Published in the
United States by Oxford University Press Inc. , NewYork.
 Peter T. Johnstone(1987),Notes on logic and set theory, Cambridge University Press.
 Robert R.Stoll(1963), Set Theory and Logic, Cleveland State University, Dover
Publications, Inc. NewYork.
 Seymour Lipschutz(1965),schaum’s outline of theory and problems of general
topology,Temple University,published in the New York by Mcgraw-Hill Book Company.
 Willardvan Orman Quine(1969), Set theory and its logic, 2nd Ed. , Harvard University,
Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England.

Chapter two
Set Theory
Introduction to cantor’s concept of a set
Georg Cantor’s (1845–1918) was the German Mathematician who studied the theory
of sets as a mathematical discipline. Cantor’s investigation of questions applicable to
trigonometric series and series of real numbers led him to recognize the need for a means
of comparing the magnitude of infinite sets of numbers.
Thus, cantor’s, define a set 𝑆 as any collection of defined, distinguishable object of
our intuition or of our intellect to be conceived as a whole. The object are called the
elements or members of S. Distinguishable indicate any pair of objects qualified to appear
as element of a particular set , one must be able to determine whether they are different or
the same. Definite meaning that if given a set and an object is, or is not, a member of the
set. The implication is that a set is completely determined by its members.
Moreover, in this chapter the concept of intuitive set theory, axiomatic set theory
(Inclusion), the primitive notion and axioms (operations for Sets) ,algebra of set , relation
,function , Classification of sets and cardinal numbers were discussed with brief definition
and examples
Objectives:
At the end this chapter you will be able to :
 recognize the intuitive set theory,
 understand the axiomatic approach of set theory,
 know the primitive notion and axioms,
 understand the algebra of set,
 understand the relation,
 recognize the ordered pair,
 develop function,
 determine equivalence relation,
 understand the order relation,
 Apply counting principles in classification of sets,
 Understand the notion of cardinal of a set.

2.1. Review of sets and set operations, ordered pairs, relations and
functions
Definition 2.1.1: A Set is a collection or group of objects or elements or members(cantor
1895).
Note:
One can determine whether or not that object is a member of that set .The resulting
sentence is capable of being classified as true or false.
The membership is a relation between objects and sets and denoted by ∈ and we write
𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 if the object 𝑥 is a member of set A.
If 𝑥 is not a member of set A we shall write 𝑥 ∉A.
Further, if 𝑥1, 𝑥2 …𝑥𝑛 ∈A we will abbreviate as 𝑥𝑖 ∈ 𝐴 for i=1,2,… , n.
Equal Sets
Definition 2.1.2: When two sets A and B consist of the same elements, they are called
equal and we shall write A=B.To indicate that A and B are not equal, we
shall write A≠B.
Basic properties of set: 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠
𝐴 = 𝐵 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝐵 = 𝐴,
𝐴 = 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 𝐶 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝐴 = 𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶.
Examples
When A ={Ashenafi,Biruk,Solano} and B={Solano, Biruk, Ashenafi},then A=B. Note that
a variation in the order in which the elements of a set are tabulated is immaterial.
When A={1,4,5} and B={1,1,4,5,4},then A=B since each element of A is in B and each
element B is in A. Note that a set is not changed by repeating one or more of its elements.
When A={1,2} and B={1,2,3,4},then A≠B since 3 and 4 are elements of B but not A.
{{1, 3}, {2, 4}, {5,6}}; is a set with three members, namely,{1, 3}, {2, 4}, and {5, 6}.
The sets {{1, 2}, {2, 3}} and {1, 2, 3} are unequal, since the former has {1, 2}𝑎𝑛𝑑 {2, 3} as
members, and the latter has 1, 2, and 3 as members.
Activities
1. Explain why 2 ∈ {1, 2, 3}.
Is{1, 2} ∈ {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 3}, 1, 2}? Justify your answer.

Axiomatic set theory; Inclusion
Definition 2.1.3: Let 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 be are sets, then 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, iff
each member of 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐵.
Note:
In other word,𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 . Further, we agree that 𝐵 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒖𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝐴 , denoted by
𝐵 ⊇ 𝐴, is synonymous with 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐵.
Thus, 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊇ 𝐴 each means that, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵.
The negation of 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 is written 𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵 states that there is an 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵.
Example: Consider the set A={1,3,5,7,...} B={5,10,15,20,...}
C={x: x is prime, x>2} = {3,5,7,9,…}
Then 𝐶 ⊆ 𝐴 Since every prime number greater than 2 is odd. On the other hand, 𝐵 ⊈ 𝐴
since 10 ∈ 𝐵 𝑏𝑢𝑡 10 ∉ 𝐴.
Example: We will let N denote the set of natural numbers, Z denote the set of integer
numbers, Q denote the of rational numbers, R denote the of real numbers. Accordingly,
𝑁 ⊆𝑍 ⊆𝑄 ⊆𝑅
Observe that 𝑁 ⊆ 𝑍 does not exclude the possibility that N=Z.
Note that: Two sets A and B are equal iff 𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 ⊆ 𝑨.
Definition 2.1.4: The set 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵, symbolized by 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 iff 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵
but 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵.
For example, The set of natural number N is properly included in the set ℤ of integers and
denoted by N ⊂ ℤ , and the set ℚ of rational numbers properly includes ℤ and
denoted ℚ ⊂ ℤ.
Some basic properties of the inclusion:
𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴;
𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐶;
𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝐴 = 𝐵.
Definition 2.1.5: The empty or the null set ∅ is the set having no elements.
Property: The empty set ∅ is a subset of every set.
Proof: Let 𝐴 be a set, and ∅ be empty set.
Since ∅ has no members, the condition is automatically fulfilled.

An alternative proof indirect one, assume that it is false that ∅ ⊆ 𝐴. This case only if there
exists some member of ∅ which is not a member of A. But this is impossible, since ∅ has
no members. Hence, ∅ ⊆ 𝐴 is not false; that is, ∅ ⊆ 𝐴 ∎
Note: Each set 𝐴 ≠ ∅ has at least two distinct subsets, 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∅.
Moreover, each member of 𝐴 determines a subset of A; if 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 {𝑎} ⊆ 𝐴.
Example: Let A={ x: x2 =4, x is odd}.Then A is empty,i.e. A=∅.
Definition 2.1.6: The set of all subsets of a set 𝐴 is the power set of 𝐴, denoted by ℘(𝐴).
written as,
℘(𝐴) = {𝐵│𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴}.
Example If 𝐴 = {1, 2, 3}, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ℘(𝐴) = {𝐴, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, ∅ }.
Note: 𝐼𝑓 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐵 ∈ ℘(𝐴) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 {𝑎} ⊆ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 {𝑎} ∈ ℘(𝐴).
Remark: If 𝐴 is finite set, then ℘(𝐴) ℎ𝑎𝑠 2𝑛 members if 𝐴 has 𝒏 members.
Proof: Consider the subset B of A = { a1, a2,….an} it sequence of n 0's and l's where the
first entry is 1 if a1 ∈B and 0 if a1 ∉ B and where the second entry is 1 if a2 ∈ B and 0 if a2
∉ B, and so on. Clearly, the subsets of A an be paired with the set of all such sequences of
0's and l's; For example, if n = 4, then {a1, a3} determines, and is determined by, the
sequence 1010. Since the total number of such sequences is equal to 2.2…. .2 = 2 n, the
number of elements of ℘(A) is equal to 2n ∎
Activities
1. Which of the following arc true for all sets𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶?
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 ∉ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ∉ 𝐶, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛𝐴 ∉ 𝐶.
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ≠ 𝐶, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 ≠ 𝐶.
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊈ 𝐶, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 ∉ 𝐶.
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐶 ⊈ 𝐴.
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ∈ 𝐶, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 ∉ 𝐶.
2. List the members of ℘(𝐴) 𝑖𝑓 𝐴 = {{1, 2}, {3}, 1}.
The primitive notion and axioms; Operations for Sets
We generate new sets from existing sets by defining two methods for composing pairs of
sets. These so-called operations for sets, similar to operations of addition and
multiplication for integers.

Definition 2.1.7: The union (sum, join) of two sets 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵 and read
either A union B 𝑜𝑟 A cup B, is the set of all elements which are members of either
𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐵,written 𝑎𝑠, 𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵 = {𝑥| 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.
Note. - The word "𝑜𝑟" is intended as operation of summing two sets and denoted by ⋃.
Thus, by definition, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑥 is a member of at least one of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵.
For example, let A={1,2,3} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ={1,3,4) ;then AUB={1,2,3,4}.
Definition 2.1.8: The 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡, 𝑚𝑒𝑒𝑡) of two sets 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵, denoted
by 𝐴⋂𝐵 and read either as the intersection of A and B or A cap B is all elements which
belong to both A and B ,written as 𝐴  𝐵 = {𝑥| 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}
Note.
By definition, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴  𝐵 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵.
For example,
(i) Let A= {1,2,3} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = {1,3,4}; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴  𝐵 = {1,3}.
(ii) The intersection of real number and natural number are natural numbers. Since both
have common elements.
Remark: If A and B are sets then, ∅ ⊆ 𝐴⋂𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐴⋃𝐵.
Definition: Two sets A and B will be called disjoint or non-intersecting if they have no
element in common, that is, if 𝐴⋂𝐵 = ∅ .
Example: Let A= {1,2,3} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = {4,5,6}; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴  𝐵 = ∅
Definition2.1.9: A collection of sets is said to be a disjoint collection iff every distinct pair
of member sets is disjoint.
EXAMPLE: Let A= {{1, 2}, {3, 4}, {10, 11}} is a disjoint collection. However
B= {{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}} is not a disjoint collection because {1, 2}⋂{2, 3}≠ ∅
Definition 2.1.10: The absolute complement or, simply, complement of a set A, denoted by
𝐴̅ ,is the set of elements which do not belong to A, written as 𝐴̅ = {𝑥│𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}.
In other words, 𝐴̅ is the difference of the universal set U and A.
For example, Let A={ 1,3,6,7,8}, B={4,6} and U={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} then 𝐴̅ is{2,4,5}

Definition 2.1.11: The relative complement of 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝐵 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 to a set A or, simply
the difference of A and B, denoted by A−B, is the set of elements which belong to A but
which do not belong to B. In other words,
A−B= x x  A, x  B
Observe that A−B and B are disjoint, i.e. (A−B)  B=∅

Note. 𝑈 − 𝐴 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑈│𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}, is the set of those members of 𝑈 which are not members
of 𝐴.
For example, Let A={ 1,{3},{6,7},8} and U={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} then 𝑈 − 𝐴 is {2,3,4,6,7}
Definition2.1.12: The symmetric difference of sets A and B, symbolized by A + B (some
books use a symbol 𝐴∆B), is defined as: 𝐴 + 𝐵 = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ⋃(𝐵 − 𝐴).
Some properties of symmetric difference: Let 𝐴, 𝐵, and 𝐶 be set.
Commutative , that is, 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴,
Associative, that is, (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶).
𝐴 + 𝐴 = ∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 + ∅ = 𝐴. Proofs of these statements are left as exercises.
Definition 2.1.13: If all sets under consideration in a certain discussion are subsets of set
U, then U is called the universal set (for that discussion).
For examples, i) In elementary number theory the universal set is ℤ, and
In plane analytic geometry the universal set is the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers.
Note. A graphic device known as a Venn diagram is used for assisting one's thinking on
complex relations which may exist among subsets of a universal set U.
To illustrate this, If the subsets 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑜𝑓 U are represented by circles, then
𝐴⋂𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴⋃𝐵 are represented by shaded regions, as in Figure 2 and Figure 3,
A B A B
A
𝐴′ 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝐴⋂𝐵 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝐴⋃𝐵 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3
Disjoint sets are represented by non-overlapping regions, and inclusion is depicted by
displaying one region lying entirely within another.

Examples
Suppose A and B are given sets such that 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐵 − 𝐴 = ∅. Can the relation of
𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 be expressed more simply? Since A - B = ∅. means 𝐴 ⋂ 𝐵̅ = ∅ the regions
representing 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵̅ do not overlap (Fig.4). Clearly, 𝐵̿ = 𝐵 , so we conclude (Fig.5)
that 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵. Conversely, if 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵, it is clear that 𝐴 − 𝐵 = ∅. We conclude that A-
B = ∅ iff A⊆ B. Interchanging A and B gives 𝐵 − 𝐴 = 0 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴. Thus the given
relations hold between 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟, 𝐴 = 𝐵.
𝐵̅
A BA L
FG
Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6
Let as investigate the question of whether it is possible to find three subsets
𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝑜𝑓 𝑈 such that 𝐶 ≠ ∅, 𝐴⋂𝐵 ≠ ∅ , 𝐴⋂𝐶 = ∅, (𝐴⋂𝐵) − 𝐶 = ∅.
The second condition implies that A and B intersect and, therefore, neither is empty. From
Example the fourth condition amounts to 𝐴⋂𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶, from which it follows that the first
is superfluous. The associated Venn diagram indicates that 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 intersect; that is, the
validity of the second and fourth conditions contradicts the third. Hence, there do not exist
sets satisfying all the conditions simultaneously.
Given that F, G, and L are subsets of U such that
𝐹 ⊆ 𝐺, 𝐺⋂𝐿 ⊆ 𝐹, 𝐿⋂𝐹 = ∅.
Is it possible to simplify this set of conditions? The Venn diagram (Figure 6) represents
only the first and third conditions. The second condition forces L and G to be disjoint, that
is, 𝐺⋂𝐿 = ∅ . On the other hand, if F ⊆ G and 𝐺⋂𝐿 = ∅, then all given conditions hold.
Thus 𝐹 ⊆ 𝐺 and , 𝐺⋂𝐿 = ∅ constitute a simplification of the given conditions.
Activities
(Note: Venn diagrams are not to be used in Exercises 1-5)
1. Prove that for all sets 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵, ∅ 𝐴⋂𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵.
2. Let I be the universal set, and let
A = {𝑥 ∈ ℤ│ for some positive integer y, x = 2y},
B = { 𝑥 ∈ ℤ│ for some positive integer y, x = 2y – 1},
C = { 𝑥 ∈ ℤ│ x < 10}.

Describe 𝐴̅, ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 , 𝐶̅ , 𝐴 − 𝐶̅ , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 − (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵), either in word or by a defining property.
3. Consider the following subsets of ℤ, the set of positive integers:
A = {x∈ℤ+ │ for some integer y, x = 2y},
B = { x∈ℤ+ │ for some integer y, x = 2y + 1},
C = {x∈ℤ+ │for some integer y, x = 3y}.
Describe 𝐴⋂𝐶, 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 − 𝐶.
4. Verify that 𝐴 ⋂ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ⋂𝐵) ∪ ( 𝐴⋂ 𝐶).
5. If A is any set, what are each of the following sets? 𝐴⋂∅, 𝐴 ∪ ∅, 𝐴 − ∅, 𝐴 − 𝐴, ∅ − 𝐴.
Determine ∅ ⋂ {∅}, {∅} ⋂ {∅}, {∅, {∅}} − ∅, {∅, {∅, }} – {∅}, {∅, {∅}} – {{∅}}.
The Algebra of Sets
The problems examined above are somewhat more complex. Thus, we need more
systematic procedures for carrying out calculations with sets related by subset, union,
intersection, and complementation which is called "the algebra of sets" and denoted by ⊆,
⋃, ⋂, and ̅ respectively. The situation for algebra of set is analogue to algebra of the real
numbers, which is concerned with properties of +, ∙, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ≤ and their interrelations.
Our first result lists basic properties of union and intersection. For the sake of
uniformity, all of these have been formulated for subsets of a universal set U. However, for
some of the properties this is a purely artificial restriction, as an examination of the proofs
will show.
Theorem 2.1.13 For any subsets 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑈 the following equations are identities.
Here 𝐴̅ is an abbreviation for U − A.
LAWS OF THE ALGEBRA OF SETS
Idempotent Laws
1a. A  A=A 1b. A  A=A
Associative Laws
2a. (A  B)  C=A  (B  C) 2b. (A  B)  C=A  (B  C)
Commutative Laws
3a. A  B=B  A 3b.A  B=B  A
Distributive Laws
4a. A  (B  C)=(A  B)  (A  C) 4b.A  (B  C)=(A  B)  (A 
C)

Identity Laws
5a. A  ∅ = 𝐴 5b. A  ∅=∅
6a. A  𝑈 = 𝑈 6b. A  𝑈=A
Complement Laws
7a. A  𝐴̅ = 𝑈 7b. A  𝐴̅=∅
8a. 𝐴̿=A ̅=U
̅ = ∅,∅
8b. 𝑈
De Morgan’s laws
̅̅̅̅̅̅=𝐴̅⋂𝐵̅
9a. 𝐴⋃𝐵 ̅̅̅̅̅̅ = 𝐴̅𝑈𝐵̅
9b. 𝐴⋂𝐵
Absorption laws
10a. A   A  B   A 10b. A   A  B   A
Proof (4a)
(⟹)WTS: 𝐴⋃(𝐵⋂𝐶) ⊆ (𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵) ⋂ (𝐴 ⋃𝐶).
Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⋃(𝐵⋂ 𝐶).then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵⋂ 𝐶.If 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴⋃𝐵
and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⋃ 𝐶, and hence 𝑥 is a member of their intersection. If 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵⋂ 𝐶 ., then 𝑥 ∈
𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶.Hence 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⋃ 𝐶, so 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵) ⋂ (𝐴 ⋃𝐶).
(⇐) WTS: (𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵) ⋂ (𝐴 ⋃ 𝐶) ⊆ 𝐴 ⋃ (𝐵⋂ 𝐶). Let 𝑥 ∈ (𝐴⋃𝐵) ⋂ (𝐴⋃𝐶).
Then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴⋃𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴⋃𝐶.Hence 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶.These imply that
𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⋃ (𝐵 ⋂ 𝐶). Hence, the result∎
Theorem 2.1.14 The following statements about sets A and B are equivalent to one
another.
A⊆ B.
A⋂B =A.
A⋃B =B.
Proof: (I) ⟹ (II). Assume that A⊆ B. Since, for all A and B, A⋂B ⊆ A, it is sufficient to
prove that A⊆A⋂B. But if x ∈ A, then x ∈B and, hence, x ∈A⋂B. Hence A ⊆ A⋂B.
(II) ⟹ (III). Assume A ⋂B = A.
Then A⋃B=(A⋂B) ⋃B= (A⋃B) ⋂ (B⋃B)
= (A⋃B)⋂B=B.
(III) ⟹ (I). Assume that A ⋃ B = B. Then this and the identity A⊆A⋃B imply A⊆B ∎
Examples

With the aid of the identities the complex expressions involving sets can be simplified as in
elementary algebra. For instance,
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴⋂𝐵̅ ⋃ B=(𝐴̅ ⋃ B ) ⋃ B= (𝐴̅ ⋃ B) ⋃𝐵=𝐴̅⋃(B⋃𝐵)= 𝐴̅⋃B
(A⋂ B⋂C) ⋃ (𝐴̅⋂B⋂C) ⋃ 𝐵̅ ⋃ C = [(A ⋃ 𝐴̅) ⋂(B⋂C)] ⋃ ( 𝐵̅ ⋃ C )

̅̅̅̅̅̅
= [U⋂(B⋂C)] ⋃ 𝐵⋂𝐶
= (B⋂C) ⋃ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐵⋂𝐶
= U.
Activities
1. Show that each of the following equations is an identity.
a) (A⋂B⋂X) ⋃ (A⋂B⋂C⋂X⋂Y) ⋃ (A⋂X⋂𝐴̅)=A⋂B⋂X.
b) (A ⋂B⋂C) ⋃ (𝐴̅⋂B⋂C)⋃𝐵̅ ⋃𝐶̅ = U.
c) (A⋂B⋂C⋂ 𝑋̅) ⋃ (𝐴̅⋂C) ⋃ (𝐵̅ ⋂C) ⋃ (C⋂X)=C.
2. Show that for arbitrary sets A, B, C, D, and X,
a) ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
[(𝐴 ⋂ 𝑋) ⋃ (𝐵⋂𝑋̅)] = (𝐴̅ ⋂ 𝑋) ⋃ (𝐵̅ ⋂𝑋̅).
b) [(A⋂X) ⋃ (B⋂𝑋̅)] ⋃ [(C⋂ X) ⋃ (D⋂𝑋̅)]=[(A⋃C) ⋂X] ⋃ [(B⋃D) ⋂X].
2.2. Ordered Pairs and equivalence relation
Definition2.2.1: An ordered pair is an entity consisting of two objects in a specified order
denote by (𝑥, 𝑦) where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are any objects.
Note. We call 𝑥 the first coordinate and 𝑦 the second coordinate of the ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦).
The ordered triple of 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧, symbolized by (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), is defined to be the ordered pair
((𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑧).
In general, ordered 𝒏 − 𝒕𝒖𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔 of 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 , symbolized by (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ), to be the
ordered pair ((𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛−1 ), 𝑥𝑛 ).
Note. If (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑢, 𝑣) are two ordered pairs, then (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑢, 𝑣) iff 𝑥 = 𝑢 and
𝑦 = 𝑣.
Relation
Definition 2.2.2: A set of ordered pair is called a relation (binary relation) and denoted
by ℛ and write (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℛ and 𝑥ℛ𝑦 interchangeably. The inverse of R, denoted by R-1, is
the relation from Y to X defined by

R-1=  y, x : x, y  R
Definition 2.2.3: A relation R from X to Y is a subset of 𝑋 × 𝑌.

The domain of a relation ℛ from X to Y is the set of first coordinates of the pairs in R,
denoted by 𝐷ℛ , 𝑖. 𝑒.,
Domain of R ={𝑥| x, y ∈ ℛ }
and its range is the set of second coordinates, denoted by 𝑅ℛ ,i.e.,
Range of R ={𝑦| x, y ∈ ℛ }
Example: consider the relation

R=  1,2 , 1,3 , 2,3 
in X={1,2,3}. Then the domain of R={1,2},the range of R={2,3},and

R-1=  2,1 , 3,1 , 3,2 
observe that R and R-1 are identical,respectively,to the relations < and > in X, i.e.,
x, y ∈ ℛ iff x<y and x, y ∈ R-1 iff x>y
Note.
If ℛ is a relation, then 𝑥 is ℛ -related to y iff 𝑥 ℛ𝑦.
In general, a binary relation is an n-ary relation as a set of ordered n-tuples. The case
𝑛 = 2 we shall say "binary relation." Similarly, in place of 3-ary relation we shall say
ternary relation.
Examples
{(2, 4), (7, 3), (3, 3), (2, 1)} is a set of ordered pairs which is binary relation.
If 𝝁 symbolizes the relation of motherhood, then (selam, Henok) ∈µ means that selam is
the mother of Henok.
Human parenthood is an example of a ternary relation. If it is symbolized by 𝜌, then
(Elizabeth, Thomas, Solomon) ∈ 𝜌 indicates that Elizabeth and Thomas are the parents of
Solomon. Addition in ℤ is another ternary relation; writing "5 = 2 + 3" may be asserting
that (2, 3, 5) ∈ +.
Cartesian products

Definition 2.2.4: let X and Y be two sets. The Cartesian product of X and Y, written
𝑋 × 𝑌,consists of all pairs x, y where 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌,i.e.,
𝑋 × 𝑌 = { x, y │𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌}
Example: let X ={1,2,3} and Y ={a,b}.Then

X×Y=  1, a , 1, b , 2, a , 2, b , 3, a , 3, b 
Note. If a relation is relation in ℝ, that is, ℝ × ℝ, then the set of points corresponding to
the members of a relation is called the graph of the relation. For instance,
y y
y
x
x
x
{(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ × ℝ| 𝑦 = 𝑥} , {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ × ℝ| 𝑦 ≥ 𝑥} , {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ × ℝ│0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2

⋀ 0≤𝑦 ≤1}
Fig. 7 Fig. 8 Fig. 9
Activities
1. Show that if (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤), then 𝑥 = 𝑢, 𝑦 = 𝑣, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 𝑤.
2. Write the members of (1, 2) × (2, 3, 4). What are the domain and range of this relation?
What is its graph?
Function
We have seen the definition of the graph (a relation) is a set of ordered pairs. Thus,
a function is a relation such that no two distinct members have the same first coordinate.
Definition 2.2.5: A Function f is a rule that assigns to each element in a set X one and only
one element in a set Y.if f assigns the value y to the element x in X, we write
y =f(x)
and call y the image of x under f.The set X is the domain of f,and the set of all images f(x)
is the range of f.

Definition2.2.6 : A relation 𝑓 said to be a function iff 𝑦 = 𝑧, ∀(𝑥, 𝑦), (𝑥, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑓.

Example
{(1, 2), (2, 2), (Roosevelt, Churchill)} is a function with D(f)= {1, 2, Roosevelt} and R(f)=
{2, Churchill}.
The relation {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2)} is not a function, since the distinct members {1, 2} and
{1, 3} have the same first coordinate.
Let X ={1,2,3} and Y={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}.the rule f(x)=x2+1 defines a function f:X
 Y whose domain D(f)=X,R(f)={2,5,10}.the image of 1 is 2,the image of 2 is 5 and the
image of 3 is 10.Note that,R(f) is a proper subset of Y.
The relation {(𝑥 2 , 𝑥)│𝑥 ∈ ℝ} is not a function, because both (1, 1) and (1, -1) are
members.
Definition 2.2.7: Two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔 are equal iff they have the same members.
Remark:
𝑓 = 𝑔 iff 𝐷𝑓 = 𝐷𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) for each 𝑥 in the common domain 𝐷.
Injective,surjection and bijective functions
Definition 2.2.8: A function f: X  Y is said to be injective or one-to-one if distinct
elements of X have distinct images under f ,i.e. x1  x2 implies f(x1) 
f(x2).A function f: X  Y is said to be surjective or onto if Y is the range
of f,i.e.to every y in Y there exists an x in X such that y=f(x),i.e.=f(x).A
bijective function is often referred to as a one to one correspondence if it
is both one-to-one and onto function.
Example: let X={1,2,3},Y={1,2,3,4,5},and f(x)=x+2.Then f:X  Y is injective, since
f(1)=3  4=f(2)  f(3)=5.But f is not surjective since R(f)={3,4,5}is a proper subset of
Y,i.e. the elements 1and 2 of Y have no pre -images in X.
Example: let X={1,2,3},Y={1,2} and f(x)=x2+1.then f:X  Y is surjective,since
R(f)={1,2}=Y,but f is not injective, since -1  1 but f(-1)=2=f(1)
Example: let X={1,2,3},Y={3,5,7} and f(x)=2x+1.then f:X  Y is bijective,since R(f)=Y
and f(1)  f(2)  f(3).
Equivalence and ordering relations
Equivalence Relations

Definition 2.2.9: A relation ℛ in a set 𝑋 is said to be equivalence relations if
f it is:
(i) Reflexive: 𝑥ℛ𝑥 for each 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑋,
(ii) Symmetric: 𝑥ℛ𝑦 implies 𝑦ℛ𝑥 for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑋, and
(iii) Transitive: 𝑥ℛ𝑦 and 𝑦ℛ𝑧 imply 𝑥ℛ𝑧, for all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑋.
Example: Let X={1,2,3},the following Relations are defines on a set X.
ℛ1 ={(1,1),(2,1),(2,2),(1,2),(3,3)}
ℛ2 ={(1,2),(3,1),(2,1),(3,3)}
Solution: ℛ1 is reflexive. Since (1,1),(2,2),(3,3) ∈ ℛ1 ,is also symmetric and transitive.
Since for all x, y ∈ 𝑋, there exists (y, x) ∈ ℛ1 and for all (x,y) ∈ ℛ1 and (y,z) ∈ ℛ1 then
(x,z) ∈ ℛ1 .( ℛ1 𝑖𝑠 equivalence relations but not ℛ2 )
Example: let ℛ = {(x,y) ∈ 𝑹2 : 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦} defined on ℛ is reflexive and transitive but not
symmetric. Since (x,x) ∈ ℛ for each x in R, ℛ is reflexive. If x ℛ𝑦 and y ℛ𝑧 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑, then
x≤ 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ≤ 𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑥 ≤ 𝑧 which implies x ℛz holds. Hence ℛ is transitive.
But we note that if x≤ 𝑦,then it is not true that y≤ 𝑥.This means x ℛ𝑦 does not imply
y ℛx.Thus ℛ is not symmetric.
Note:
If a relation ℛ 𝑖𝑛 𝑋 is an equivalence relation in 𝑋, then 𝐷ℛ = 𝑋.
Example
Each of the following relations is an equivalence relation on the accompanying set.
The relation of having the same number of members in a collection of finite sets.
Equality in a collection of sets.
Activities
1. Give an example of these relations.
a) A relation which is reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
b) A relation which is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
c) A relation which is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive in some set.
2. Let ℛ={(x,y) ∈ 𝑍, 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 5 }
a) Is ℛ an equivalence relation
2.3 Classification of sets

Equivalent sets

Definition 2.3.1: A set X is equivalent to a set Y, denoted X~Y, if there exists a one-to-
one correspondence f: X  Y .
Example: let N=the set of natural numbers.
E=the set of even natural numbers,
Define f: N  E by f(n)=2n:
f is a one-to-one correspondence.
Hence, N~E
Example: let A= {1, 2, 3, 4,…}
1 1 1
B= {1, , , , …},
2 3 4
1
Define f: A  B by f(x)= ,x∈A
x
Hence, A~B
Example: let Z=The of all integers
 2n if n  0

Define f: Z  N by f(n)= 1 if n  0
 1  2n if n  0

Hence, Z~N
Countability
Finite and Infinite sets
Definition 2.3.2: A set is finite iff it is empty or equivalent to {1,2,…,n} for some
n∈N;otherwise it is said to be infinite(not finite). Clearly two finite sets are equivalent iff
they contain the same number of elements.
Roughly, finite set is one whose elements are exhausted if counted successively but of
an infinite set the elements cannot be exhausted by counting.For example, the set
{1,2,3,4,5} is finite and the set R and C are both infinite.
Remark: No set is both finite and infinite.
Countable and uncountable sets
Definition 2.3.3: A set is said to be countable

-if it is finite
-if it is countably infinite (denumerable)
i.e. the set S said to be countable if S~N (if there exists a mapping f: N~S such that f is
both one-to-one and onto).
A set S is called uncountable if it is not countable (non-denumerable)
If a set S is countable, we can write down in succession the elements of S corresponding to
the natural numbers s1,s2,s3,…such an arrangement is called an enumeration of S.
1 2 3 4
Example: let A= { , , , ,... }
3 4 5 6
Show that A is countable
x
Define f: N  A by f(x)=
x2
Let a, b ∈ A
If f(a)=f(b)
a b

a2 b2
a=b
-f is one-to-one
y  A,  x  N such that
x 2y
y x
x2 1 y
- f is also onto function.
-f is 1-1 correspondence
Therefore A is countable (A  N )
Theorem 2.3.4: i) every subset of a countable set is finite or countable, i.e.denumerable.
ii) if a set is equivalent to a countable set, then it is countable.
iii) The union of a finite set and a countable set is countable.
iv) The union of countably many countable sets is countable.
v) The Cartesian product of two countable sets is countable.
Proof : ( left as exercises)
Theorem 2.3.5: prove the following
The set Z is countable.

The set Q is countable
Proof i) Define f: Z  N as
 2n if n  0

f(n)= 1 if n  0
 1  2n if n  0

f is a one-to-one correspondence(bijective) and Z is countable.
1 2 3 4 5
ii) Let Q1={ , , , , ,... }
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 3 4 5
Q2 = { , , , , ,... }
3 3 3 3 3
1 2 3 4 5
Q3 = { , , , , ,... }
4 4 4 4 4
1 2 3 4 5
Qn={ , , , , ,... }
n 1 n  2 n  3 n  4 n  5
Observe that Q=  Qi each Qi is countable.
Activities
1. prove the following
The set (0, 1) is uncountable.
The set R is uncountable.
iii. The set I is uncountable.
iv. The set Q+ and Q- is countable.
2.4 Cardinal numbers

Definition 2.4.1: If A is equivalent to B, i.e.A~B, then we say A and B have the same
cardinal number or cardinality. We write card(A) or n(A) for “the cardinal number(or
cardinality) of A”. So
card(A)=card(B) iff A ~ B
On the other hand, if A⊂B then we say that A has cardinality less than B or B has
cardinality greater than A. That is,
card(A)<card(B) iff A⊂B
So card(A)≤card(B) iff A⊆B.

Example1:Let A={1,2,3,4,5},B={a,e,i,o,u} have the same cardinality.
Example2: Let A={a,b},B={a,b,c} has different cardinality.
card(A)=2,card(B)=3 and card(℘(A))=22=4.
Definition 2.4.2: If 𝐴 is empty set, then 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑(𝐴) = 0.
Useful Fact: card(A)=n implies card(℘(A))= 22.

Note that: The power set ℘(A) of any set A has cardinality greater than A.
Theorem2.4.3(Schroeder-Bernstein):
If card ( A)  card ( B) and card ( B)  card ( A), then card ( A)  card ( B).
The cardinal number of each of the sets
∅,{∅},{∅, {∅}},{∅, {∅},{∅,{∅}}},…
is denoted by 0,1,2,3,…,respectively, and is called a finite cardinal. The cardinal numbers
of N and [0,1] or R are denoted by
card(ℕ) = ℵ0 (aleph null)
Card(𝑅) = ℵ (aleph)
Accordigly, we may write 0<1<2<3<…<ℵ0 <ℵ
Basic cardinal arithmetic
Definition 2.4.4: If 𝛼 = 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑(𝐴) and 𝛽 = 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑(𝐵), we let
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝛼 + 𝛽 , provided that 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅.
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑(𝐴 × 𝐵) = 𝛼𝛽
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑑(𝐴𝐵 ) = 𝛼 𝛽
Cardinal arithmetic
Proposition 2.4.5. Suppose that 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are cardinals.
𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝑐.
𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎.
𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎.
𝑎 ≥ 𝑏 ⇔ (∃𝑑)(𝑎 = 𝑏 + 𝑑).
If 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐, then 𝑎 + 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎 + 𝑐.
(𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑐).

𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎.
𝑎0 = 0𝑎 , 𝑎1 = 𝑎 , 𝑎2 = 𝑎 + 𝑎.
𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐.
𝑏 ≤ 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ≤ 𝑎𝑐.
(𝑎𝑏 )𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏𝑐 .
(𝑎𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 .
𝑎𝑏+𝑐 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑐 .
𝑎0 = 1, 𝑎1 = 𝑎, 𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑎.
If 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑐 ≤ 𝑑, then 𝑎𝑐 ≤ 𝑏 𝑑 .
Proof . The proofs are all straightforward. ∎

Review exercises
1. Try to develop a set which is a member of itself.
2. Give an example of sets 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐴 ∈ 𝐵, 𝐵 ∈ 𝐶, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 ∉ 𝐶.
3. Prove each of the following for sets A, B, and C.
a. 𝐼𝑓 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐶.
b. 𝐼𝑓 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐶, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐶.
c. 𝐼𝑓 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐶, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐶.
d. 𝐼𝑓 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 ⊂ 𝐶, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐶.
4. Prove that for all sets A, B, and C, (𝐴⋂𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴⋂(𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝐶 ⊆ 𝐴.
5. Prove that for all sets A, B, and C, (𝐴 − 𝐵) − 𝐶 = (𝐴 − 𝐶) − (𝐵 − 𝐶).
6. Show that for every set 𝐴, 𝐴 + 𝐴 = ∅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 + ∅ = 𝐴.
7. With the aid of a Venn diagram investigate the validity of each of the following
inferences:
a. If A, B, and C are subsets of U such that A ⋂B ⊆ 𝐶̅ and A ∪ C ⊆ B, then A⋂C= ∅.
b. If A, B, and C are subsets of U such that A ⊆ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 and B ⊆ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ∪ 𝐶 , then B = ∅.
8. Prove that if A, B, and C are sets such that 𝐴 ≠ ∅ , 𝐵 ≠ ∅, and
(𝐴 × 𝐵) ⋃(𝐵 × 𝐴) = 𝐶 × 𝐶,then 𝐴 = 𝐵 = 𝐶.
9. Show that 𝐴 is finite iff there exists a function 𝑓 on 𝐴 such that the only 𝑓 –closed
subsets of 𝐴 are Ø and 𝐴 itself.
10. Show that if 𝐴 is finite then ℘(𝐴) is finite.
11. Find the cardinalities of the following sets:
a. The set of subsets of ℕ with more than one element.
b. The set of infinite subsets of ℕ.

Summary
A Set is a collection or group of objects or elements or members(cantor 1895).
If the object 𝑥 is a member of set A it is denoted by 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and if not it is write by 𝑥 ∉A.
Let 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 be are sets, then 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 , denoted by𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 , iff each member of
𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐵and also denoted by 𝐵 ⊇ 𝐴,which is B includes A.
The set A is properly subset of B, symbolized by 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 iff 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 but 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵.
The empty or the null set ∅ is the set having no elements.
The empty set ∅ is a subset of every set and also the set 𝐴 ≠ ∅ has at least two distinct
subsets, 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∅.
The set ℘(A) = {B│B ⊆ A} is called power set of set A and has 2𝑛 members if 𝐴 has
𝒏 members.
𝐴 ⋃ 𝐵 = {𝑥| 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵} is the union of set A and B.
𝐴  𝐵 = {𝑥| 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵} is the intersection of set A and B.
Two sets A and B will be called disjoint or non-intersecting if they have no element in
common, that is, if 𝐴⋂𝐵 = ∅ .
The symmetric difference of sets A and B, symbolized by A + B (some books use a
symbol 𝐴∆B), is defined as: 𝐴 + 𝐵 = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ⋃(𝐵 − 𝐴).
A relation is used in connection with pairs of objects considered in a definite order.
An object joined together with defined order is called ordered pair.
Cartesian product is a set of all pairs (𝑥, 𝑦), such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌 and denoted
by 𝑋 × 𝑌. Written as 𝑋 × 𝑌 = {(𝑥, 𝑦)│𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝑌}.
Functions are relations between the elements of two sets.
A function f: X  Y is said to be injective or one-to-one if distinct elements of X have
distinct images under f ,i.e. x1  x2 implies f(x1)  f(x2).
A function f: X  Y is said to be surjective or onto if Y is the range of f,i.e.to every y in
Y there exists an x in X such that y=f(x),i.e.=f(x).
A bijective function is often referred to as a one to one correspondence if it is both one-to-
one and onto function.

A relation ℛ in a set 𝑋 is said to be equivalence relations iff ℛ is Reflexive , Symmetric
and Transitive.
A set X is equivalent to a set Y, denoted X~Y, if there exists a one-to-one correspondence
f: X  Y .
A set is finite iff it is empty or equivalent to {1,2,…,n} for some n∈N;otherwise it is said to
be infinite(not finite).
If A is equivalent to B, i.e.A~B, then we say A and B have the same cardinal number or
cardinality. We write card(A) or n(A) for “the cardinal number(or cardinality) of A”. So
card(A)=card(B) iff A ~ B
A set is said to be countable
-if it is finite
-if it is countably infinite (denumerable)
i.e. the set S said to be countable if S~N
Every subset of N is countable.
Every infinite set contains a denumerable subset.

Reference
 Ademe Mekonen(2007),Logic and Set theory, Department of Mathematics, AAU.
 Anteneh and Geremew(2012), Logic and Set theory, Department of computational
sciences, AKU.
 Harry J. Gensler, (2010),Introduction to Logic, 2nd Ed., published by Routledge 270
Madison Ave, New York, NY10016
 M.L.Bettinger(1982), Logic, Proof, and Set, Edison-Wesley.
 Michael Potter(2004), Set Theory and its Philosophy, Oxford University, Published in the
United States by Oxford University Press Inc. , NewYork.
 Peter T. Johnstone(1987),Notes on logic and set theory, Cambridge University Press.
 Robert R.Stoll(1963), Set Theory and Logic, Cleveland State University, Dover
Publications, Inc. NewYork.
 Seymour Lipschutz(1965),schaum’s outline of theory and problems of general
topology,Temple University,published in the New York by Mcgraw-Hill Book
Company.

Chapter 3
Groups
Introduction
In this chapter, we shall consider in some detail the algebraic structure which will be of
primary concern to us throughout, namely the notion of a group. Actually the reader has
come in contact, during his or her mathematical career, with specific examples of groups as
will be seen by the examples we shall give. All these examples have features in common
which are desirable to axiomatize. When we prove results for the general structure, they
apply automatically to all the specific examples.
Objectives:
 Define binary operation on a non empty set.
 Define algebraic structures.
 Identify associative and commutative algebraic structures.
 Define homomorphism, isomorphism, monomorphism and epimorphism between
algebraic structures.
 Give definition of group and give examples of groups.
 Find an identity element of a group.
 Find the inverse of each element of a group.
 Identify commutative and non commutative groups.
 Define a permutation group.
 Define a subgroup of a group.
 Show that a non empty subset of a group can be a subgroup of a group.
 Define cyclic groups and find subsets generated by an element of the group.
 Define normal subgroup and quotient subgroup.
 State and prove Lagrange’s theorem.

Can you define binary operations, Algebraic structures, groups and their
properties?
3.1. Binary operations, algebraic structures

Definition 3.1.1.
Let S be a non –empty set. A binary operation on S is a function from 𝑆 × 𝑆 into 𝑆, i.e if
𝑓 is a function from 𝑆 × 𝑆 in to 𝑆, then 𝑓 is called a binary operations on 𝑺.
Remark: 1) If ∆∶ 𝑆 × 𝑆 → 𝑆 is a binary operation on 𝑆 the value ∆(𝑥. 𝑦) 𝑜𝑓 ∆ for an
ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑆 × 𝑆 is usually denoted by 𝑥∆𝑦.
2) Given a set, defining a binary operation ∆ 𝑜𝑛 𝑆 , one must be sure of the
following two important points.
a) ∆ assigns exactly one element to each ordered pair of element of S, (well defined)
b) The element assigned to each ordered pair of element of 𝑆 is again in 𝑆 . (closed)
Examples:
1. Consider ℤ = the set of integers
a) Then “+” is a binary operation on ℤ because the sum of two integers is an integer
i.e 𝑥 + 𝑦 ∈ ℤ for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ
b) “+” maps an element (𝑥, 𝑦) of ℤ × ℤ in to a single element of ℤ.
c) Similarly “–“and “.” are binary operations on ℤ.
d) But since ℤ is not closed under division, division is not a binary operation on ℤ.
2. Let 𝑆 = {−1,0,1}
Here addition is not a binary operation on, since 1 + 1 = 2 ∉ 𝑆
But it is easy to see that multiplication is a binary operation on 𝑆.
3. Let 𝑆 = {−1,1}
−1 ⨁ −1 = 1 −1 ⨁ 1 = 1 −1 ⨁ 1 = −1 1⨁1 = 1
Here ⨁ is not a binary operation on 𝑆 because ⨁ is not a function as the image of
(−1,1) 𝑖𝑠 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 1.
Definition 3.1.2
A non –empty set with one or more binary operations is called an algebraic structure.
Remark: An algebraic structure with one binary operation is usually denoted by an ordered
pair (𝑆,△) where 𝑆 is a non- empty set and △ is a binary operation on 𝑆.

An algebraic structure with two binary operations is denoted as an ordered triad (𝑆,△, ∇).
Examples:
(ℕ, +) , where ℕ is the set of natural numbers and ” +” is ordinary addition of numbers,
is an algebraic structures.
(ℝ, +, . ) , where ℝ is the set of real numbers and “+” and “.” are ordinary addition and
multiplication is an algebraic structure.
Definition 3.1.3
Let (𝑆, ∆) b an algebraic structure. Then the binary operation ∆ is said to be
Commutative if 𝑎∆𝑏 = 𝑏∆𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆
Associative if (𝑎∆𝑏)∆𝑐 = 𝑎∆(𝑏∆𝑐) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆
Examples:
(ℤ, +), (ℝ, +), are commutative and associative algebraic structures.
(ℝ − {0},÷) is neither commutative nor associative , because 2 ÷ 3 ≠ 3 ÷ 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 ÷
(3 ÷ 5) ≠ (2 ÷ 3) ÷ 5
Let ℤ =be the set of integers
∆= a binary operation on ℤ defined by 𝑥∆𝑦 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥{𝑥, 𝑦}. Then
∆ is commutative
Since 𝑥∆𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥{𝑥, 𝑦} = 𝑚𝑎𝑥{𝑥, 𝑦} = 𝑦∆𝑥
∆ is associative
Since (𝑥∆𝑦)∆𝑧 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥{𝑥∆𝑦, 𝑧} = 𝑚𝑎𝑥{𝑚𝑎𝑥{𝑥, 𝑦}, 𝑧}
= 𝑚𝑎𝑥{𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧} and
𝑥∆(𝑦∆𝑧) = 𝑚𝑎𝑥{𝑥, 𝑦∆𝑧} = 𝑚𝑎𝑥{𝑥, 𝑚𝑎𝑥{𝑦, 𝑧}}
= 𝑚𝑎𝑥{𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧}
We define a binary operation on ℚ as follows
𝑥𝑦
For 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℚ 𝑥⨁𝑦 = , then show that (ℚ,⊕) is commutative and associative
3
algebraic structures.
Solution: Let 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℚ Then,
𝑥𝑦 𝑦𝑥
𝑥⨁𝑦 = = = 𝑦⨁𝑥 ( since multiplication of real numbers is commutative)
3 3
𝑦𝑥
𝑥⨁(𝑦⨁𝑧) = 𝑥⨁ ( 3 ) ( 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⨁ )

𝑦𝑥
( )
3
=𝑥 (𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⨁)
3
𝑥𝑦
(( )𝑧)
3
= (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.
3
= (𝑥⨁𝑦)⨁𝑧 ( 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⨁.

Hence , (ℚ, ⨁) is an associative algebraic structure.
Definition 3.1.4
Let (𝑆, ∆, ∇) be an algebraic structure. Then we say
∆ is left-distributive over ∇ if 𝑎∆(𝑏∇𝑐) = (𝑎∆𝑏)∇(𝑎∆𝑐) ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆
∆ is right –distributive over ∆ if (𝑎∇𝑏)∆𝑐 = (𝑎∆𝑐)∇(𝑏∆𝑐) ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑆
∆ is distributive over ∇ is both right and left distributive over ∇
Examples
Consider (ℕ, + , ∙) . 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 , ∙ is both left and right distributive over +.
Let 𝑆 be any non-empty set. Consider (𝑝(𝑆),∪,∩) . Then, ∪ is both left and right
distributive over ∩ and ∩ is both left and right distributive over ∪.
Activity
1. Show that multiplication is a binary operation on S= {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} where 𝑖 = √−1
2. State which of the following are binary operations.
a. On ℤ defined 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏
𝑎
b. On ℚ 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏
c. On ℝ defined 𝑎∗𝑏 =𝑏
d. On ℝ defined 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = ±𝑎𝑏
e. On ℕ 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏
3. If a set A has n members, then what is the number of binary operations on A?
4. Determine whether the following are algebraic structures and decide which of them
commutative and / or associative algebraic structures.
a. (ℝ, ∆) where 𝑥∆𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3𝑦
b. (ℝ, ∆) where 𝑥∆𝑦 = min{3, 𝑦}
𝑥𝑦
c. (ℝ, ∆) where 𝑥∆𝑦 =
√5
d. (ℝ, ∆) where 𝑥∆𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑦

e. (ℝ, ∆) where 𝑥∆𝑦 = 2𝑥+𝑦

𝑥𝑦
f. (ℚ, ∆) where 𝑥∆𝑦 =
3
5. Let ℤ be the set of integers. Prove or disprove that the usual multiplication is left-
distributive over each of the following.
a. Subtraction
b. 𝑎∆𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 1 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ
3.2 Identity element and inverses
Definition 3.2.1
Let (𝑆, ∆) be an algebraic structure. An element 𝑒 ∈ 𝑆 is said to be
a left identity element for ∆ if and only if
𝑒∆𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆
a right identity if and only if
𝑥∆𝑒 = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆
an identity if and only if
𝑥∆𝑒 = 𝑒∆𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝑠
Here, e is an identity for ∆ if and only if e is a right and a left identity for ∆.
Examples:
(ℤ, +) is an algebraic structure with an identity 𝑒 = 0 because for all x in ℤ.
𝑤𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑥 + 0 = 0 + 𝑥 = 𝑥
The algebraic structure (ℝ ,∙) ( where ∙ is multiplication of real numbers) has an identity
𝑒 = 1 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 ℝ , 𝑥 ∙ 1 = 1 ∙ 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑥𝑦
Let 𝑆 = ℚ − {0} , 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 ∆ by 𝑥∆𝑦 = , ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆 .
5
Find an identity element (is it exists)

Solution:
For all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 , we have,
5. 𝑥
5∆𝑥 = = 𝑥 = 𝑥∆5
5
Hence 5 is an identity for ∆ in S.
Remark:
All algebraic structures mayn’t contain an identity element.
Example:
(ℕ, +) is an algebraic structure but has no identity element.

Consider the binary operations ∆ defined on 𝑆 = {1,2} by the following table.
∆ 1 2
1 1 2
2 1 1
Then it is easy to show that there is no identity element for ∆ in 𝑆.
Theorem 3.2.2 (uniqueness of an identity)
There exists at most one identity element for a binary operation ∆ on 𝑆.
Proof: we proof by contradiction.
Suppose 𝑒 and 𝑒 ′ are identity elements for ∆ 𝑖𝑛 𝑆 ,
𝑒∆𝑒 ′ = 𝑒 ′ , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡.
Also 𝑒∆𝑒 ′ = 𝑒 , since 𝑒 ′ is an identity element.
Therefore 𝑒 ′ = 𝑒 ,i.e we proved that there is at most one identity element.
Definition 3.2.3
Let (𝑆, ∆) be an algebraic structure 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 is invertible ( has an inverse) if
The identity element for ∆ exists ; and
∃𝑦 ∈ 𝑆 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥∆𝑦 = 𝑒 = 𝑦∆𝑥.
𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ∆.
Examples:
Consider the algebraic structure (ℝ − {0},∙) .
1
Then for any 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑦 = 𝑥 ∈ ℝ − {0} and 𝑥. 𝑦 = 𝑦. 𝑥 = 1
Hence, each elements of ℝ − {0} is invertible.

Consider the algebraic structure(ℤ,∙). Then the only invertible elements are 1and -1.
Notation:
Let (𝑆, ∆) be an algebraic structure. If x has an inverse, then the inverse is denoted by
𝑥 −1 .
Theorem 3.2.4 (uniqueness of an inverse)
Let (𝑆, ∆) be an associative algebraic structure. Then, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 has at most one inverse.
Proof:
Let 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ∆ . Then
𝑧 = 𝑧∆𝑒 = 𝑧∆(𝑥∆𝑦) = (𝑧∆𝑥)∆𝑦 = 𝑒∆𝑦 = 𝑦

Example: . the following is an example of non-associative binary operation in which the
inverse of an element is not unique.
∆ 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 1 0 0
2 2 0 0
0 is the identity element for ∆, ∆ is not associative
Since (2∆2)∆1 = 0∆1 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2∆(2∆1) = 2∆0 = 2
But 1∆1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1∆2 = 0 = 2∆1
Hence 1 has no unique inverse.
Theorem 3.2.5
Let (𝑆, ∆) be associative algebraic structure. If 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑥 −1 )−1 = 𝑥
Proof:
Since ∆ is an associative binary operation .If x is invertible then its inverse is unique.
Let it be 𝑥 −1 , again 𝑥 −1 has a unique inverse (𝑥 −1 )−1 . But x is also an inverse of 𝑥 −1.
By the uniqueness of 𝑥 −1 it follows that (𝑥 −1 )−1 = 𝑥.
Theorem 3.2.6
Let (𝑆, ∆) be an associative algebraic structure. If 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are invertible elements, then
𝑥∆𝑦 is invertible and its inverse (𝑥∆𝑦)−1 = 𝑦 −1 ∆ 𝑥 −1 .
Proof: Let x and y be invertible elements of S. Then 𝑥 −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 −1 are the inverses of
𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦.
Since 𝑥 −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 −1 are in 𝑆 and S is closed under ∆.
𝑥 −1 ∆𝑦 −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 −1 ∆𝑥 −1
Then (𝑥∆𝑦)∆(𝑦 −1 ∆𝑥 −1 ) = [(𝑥∆𝑦)∆𝑦 −1 ]∆𝑥 −1
= [𝑥∆(𝑦∆𝑦 −1 )]∆𝑥 −1
= [𝑥∆𝑒]∆𝑥 −1
= 𝑥∆𝑥 −1
=𝑒
Similarly, it is easy to show that (𝑦 −1 ∆ 𝑥 −1 )∆(𝑥∆𝑦)
Therefore, we conclude that (𝑥∆𝑦)−1 = 𝑦 −1 ∆𝑥 −1

Theorem 3.2.7
Let (𝑆, ∆) be an associative algebraic structure and 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑆. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛
If both x and y commute with z, then 𝑥∆𝑦 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑧.
If x commutes with y and if both 𝑥 & 𝑦 are invertible , then 𝑥 −1 commutes with 𝑦 −1 .
If x commutes with y and y is invertible , then x commutes 𝑦 −1 .
Proof:
Suppose the assumption in (1) is true. Then,
𝑧∆(𝑥∆𝑦) = (𝑧∆𝑥)∆𝑦
= (𝑥∆𝑧)∆𝑦
= 𝑥∆(𝑧∆𝑦)
= 𝑥∆(𝑦∆𝑧)
= (𝑥∆𝑦)∆𝑧
Then we get that 𝑧∆(𝑥∆𝑦) = (𝑥∆𝑦)∆𝑧
Suppose the assumption in (2) is true. Then,
𝑥 −1 ∆𝑦 −1 = (𝑦∆𝑥)−1
= (𝑥∆𝑦)−1
= 𝑦 −1 ∆𝑥 −1
Hence 𝑥 −1 ∆𝑦 −1 = 𝑦 −1 ∆𝑥 −1
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆 such that y is invertible and 𝑥∆𝑦 = 𝑦∆𝑥. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑥∆𝑦 −1 = 𝑒∆(𝑥∆𝑦 −1 )
= (𝑦 −1 ∆𝑦)∆(𝑥∆𝑦 −1)
= 𝑦 −1 ∆[(𝑦∆𝑥)∆𝑦 −1 ]
= 𝑦 −1 ∆[(𝑥∆𝑦)𝑦 −1 ]
= (𝑦 −1 ∆𝑥)∆(𝑦∆𝑦 −1)
= (𝑦 −1 ∆𝑥)∆𝑒
= 𝑦 −1 ∆𝑥
Hence, we get 𝑥∆𝑦 −1 = 𝑦 −1 ∆𝑥
Activity 2
1. Let x, y and z be invertible elements of an algebraic structure (𝑆, ∆).
Show that
[(𝑥∆𝑦)∆𝑧]−1 = 𝑧 −1 ∆(𝑦 −1 ∆𝑥 −1 ) 𝑖𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒.

2. Let 𝑎𝑖 be invertible for each i∈ 𝑁. Then show that
−1
[𝑎1 ∆𝑎2 … ∆𝑎𝑛 ]−1 = 𝑎𝑛−1 ∆𝑎𝑛−1 … ∆𝑎1−1 .
3. We define ∆ 𝑜𝑛 ℤ for x, y ∈ ℤ , 𝑥∆𝑦 = 𝑦 . Then
4. Find the right and left identities. ( if they exist)
5. What is the left and right inverses of 3, 4,5,12,125 etc?
6. Determine whether or not each of the following algebraic structures admits an identity
element and find the invertible elements.
1
(ℝ, ∆) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥∆𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦
2
(ℤ, ∆) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥∆𝑦 = (1 − 𝑥)𝑦
(ℕ, ∆) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥∆𝑦 = 𝑥
(ℝ, ∆) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥∆𝑦 = |𝑥||𝑦|
(ℤ, ∆) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥∆𝑦 = |𝑥| + 𝑦
7. Let 𝑆 = {𝑎, 𝑏. 𝑐} with multiplication table as defined below.
∆ a b c
a a b c
b b c a
c c a b
a) What is the identity element for ∆ 𝑖𝑛 𝑆.
b) Find the inverses of 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐.
3.3. Morphisms
Definition 3.3.1
Let (𝐸, ∆) and (𝐹,∗) be algebraic structures with one binary operation.
Let 𝑓: 𝐸 → 𝐹 be a function from E into F such that
𝑓(𝑥∆𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑓(𝑦) ∀ 𝑥. 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸
Then we say f is a homomorphism from (𝐸, ∆) 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜 (𝐹,∗)
Definition 3.3.2
Let (𝐸, ∆, ∇) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐹,∗, ⨂) be algebraic structure with two binary operations.
Let 𝑓: 𝐸 → 𝐹. We say f is a homomorphism from (𝐸, ∆, ∇) into(𝐹,∗, ⨂) if f satisfies the
following.
𝑓(𝑥∆𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑓(𝑦) , ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸
𝑓(𝑥∇𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⊕ 𝑓(𝑦) , ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸

Examples:
Show that 𝑓: (ℤ, +) → (3ℤ, +) defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 𝑖𝑠 homomorphism.
Solution: Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ. 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 3(𝑥 + 𝑦)
= 3𝑥 + 3𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑦)
Hence, for all x,y in z , we get that 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑦) ∀ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ
i.e 𝑓 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚.
2. Let 𝑓: (ℤ, +) → (ℝ,∙) defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 .
Then show that f is a homomorphism
Solution: Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 , 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 2𝑥+𝑦 = 2𝑥 ∙ 2𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑓(𝑦)
So, f is a homomorphism from (ℤ, +) 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 (ℝ,∙)
3. Let f: (ℝ, +) → (ℝ,∙) such that f(x) = x + 2 is not a homomorphism.
Solution: Let𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 3 𝑖𝑛 ℝ . Then, 𝑓(2 + 3) = 𝑓(5) = 5 + 2 = 7
But, 𝑓(2) ∙ f(3) = 4 ∙ 5 = 20. Thus we see that , f(2 + 3) ≠ f(2) ∙ f(3)
Therefore, f is not a homomorphism.
Definition 3.3.3
Let f be a homomorphism from one algebraic structure into another. Then f is said to be
An epimorphism if f is surjective.
A mononorphism if f is injective.
An isomorphism if is bijective.
Example:
Let 𝑓: (ℝ, +) → (ℝ,∙) 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 . Show that f is an isomorphism.
Proof: Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡,f
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 3(𝑥+𝑦)
= 3𝑥 ∙ 3𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑓(𝑦)
Therefore, f is homomorphism. ------------- (1)
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦)
Then, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦) ⟺ 3𝑥 = 3𝑦
⇔ log 3 3𝑥 = log 3 3𝑦

⇔𝑥=𝑦
Hence, f is injective. ----------------------- (2)
Now we will show that f is surjective . For this let𝑦 ∈ ℝ+ . Then we see that log 3 𝑦 ∈ ℝ.
More, it is easy to see that 𝑓(log 3 𝑦) = 𝑦.
Hence, f is surjective. -------------------- (3)
Therefore, by (1),(2) and (3) , we conclude that f is an isomorphism.
Note: Let (𝐸, ∆) and (𝐹,∗) be algebraic structures then we say that they are isomorphic if
and only if there exists a bijective function between (𝐸, ∆) and (𝐹,∗).
In this case, we write (𝐸, ∆) ≅ (𝐹,∗)
Definition 3.3.4
Let (𝐸, ∆) and (𝐹,∗) be two algebraic structures.
Let 𝑓: (𝐸, ∆) → (𝐹,∗) be an isomorphism. Then :
If ∆ is associative so is ∗.
If ∆ iscommutative so is ∗.
If e is the identity element for ∆, then 𝑓(𝑒) is the identity element for ∗.
−1
If 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 is invertible for ∆, then 𝑓(𝑥) is invertible for ∗ and 𝑓(𝑥 −1 )=(𝑓(𝑥))
Proof: Let 𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ , 𝑧 ′ ∈ 𝐹 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ′ , 𝑓(𝑦) = 𝑦 ′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 ′ for some
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐸.
(𝑥 ′ ∗ 𝑦 ′ ) ∗ 𝑧 ′ = [𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑓(𝑦)] ∗ 𝑓(𝑧)
= 𝑓(𝑥∆𝑦) ∗ 𝑓(𝑧)
= 𝑓[(𝑥∆𝑦)∆𝑧]
= 𝑓[𝑥∆(𝑦∆𝑧)]
= 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑓(𝑦∆𝑧)
= 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ [𝑓(𝑦) ∗ 𝑓(𝑧)]
= 𝑥 ′ ∗ (𝑦 ′ ∗ 𝑧 ′ )
𝑥 ′ ∗ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑓(𝑦)
= 𝑓(𝑥∆𝑦)
= 𝑓(𝑦∆𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦) ∗ 𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑦′ ∗ 𝑥′

𝑥 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥∆𝑒) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) ∗ 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑥 ′ ∗ 𝑓(𝑒)
𝑥 ′ = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑒∆𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑒) ∗ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑒) ∗ 𝑥 ′
Hence, ∀𝑥 ′ ∈ 𝐹, 𝑥 ′ ∗ 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑥 ′ = 𝑓(𝑒) ∗ 𝑥 ′
Therefore, 𝑓(𝑒) is the identity element for ∗.
𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑓(𝑥∆𝑥 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑓(𝑥 −1 ) = 𝑥 ′ ∗ 𝑓(𝑥 −1 )

𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑓(𝑥 −1 ∆𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 −1 ) ∗ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 −1 ) ∗ 𝑥 ′
Thus ∀ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ′ ∈ 𝐹, 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒,
𝑥 ′ ∗ 𝑓(𝑥 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑓(𝑥 −1 ) ∗ 𝑥 ′
We see that 𝑓(𝑥 −1 ) must be the inverse of 𝑥 ′ .
Example:
There is no isomorphic from (ℝ∗ ,∙) 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 (ℝ, +). Where ℝ∗ is the set of non-zero real
numbers.
Proof:
Suppose ∋ an isomorphism𝑓: (ℝ∗ ,∙) 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 (ℝ, +).
Then 𝑓(1) = 0 since 1 is the identity element in ℝ∗ and 0 is the identity element in ℝ. But
𝑓[(−1) ∙ (−1)]=𝑓(−1) + 𝑓(−1) = 2𝑓(−1)
Hence, 𝑓(−1) = 0. 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
Let E= the set of even integers.
Let 𝑓: (ℤ, +) → (𝐸, +) such that𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥.
f is an isomorphism from (ℤ, +) 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 (𝐸, +).
Activity
1. Consider 𝐴 = {6𝑛/𝑛 ∈ ℤ} and 𝐵 = ℤ. Then , give an isomorphism between
(𝐴, +) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝐵, +).
2. Let 𝐴 = (0,1) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = (−1,0). Then
a) Give a bijective function from A to B.
b) Give a bijective function from B to A.
𝑥𝑦
3. Define “∗ "on ℝ, 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 11
, then
a) Give an isomorphism from (ℝ,∗) 𝑡𝑜 (ℝ,∙)

b) Give the image of 11 using the function defined in (a).
c) Find the inverse of 52 in (ℝ,∗) .

d) Find the inverse of 52 in (ℝ,∙)
4. Let C be the set of all continuous functions defined in some subset D of ℝ.
5. Defined “∗ " on C by for 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐶 , (𝑓 ∗ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝐷. Then,
a) Find the identity element of “∗ " in C.
b) What elements of C are invertible?
1
6. Find the inverse of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≠ 0 .
7. Is the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝐷 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒?

8. Consider the two algebraic structures (ℝ, +) 𝑡𝑜 (ℝ+ ,∙) where ℝ is the set of real
numbers, ℝ+ is the set of positive real numbers and + and ∙ are the usual addition and
multiplication.
9. Let 𝑓: (ℝ, +) → (ℝ+ ,∙), such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 10𝑥 .
a) Is f a homomorphism ? an epimorphism? a monomorphism? an isomorphism?
10. Prove that (ℚ, +) 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑜 (ℚ+ ,∙).

3.4. Definition and examples of groups
Definition 3.4.1
Let S be anon empty set and ∗ be a binary operation on S. Then the algebraic structure
(𝑆,∗) is said to be a group if it satisfies the following axioms.
Closure property
For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆
Associativity of ∗
For all 𝑥, 𝑦. 𝑧 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) = (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧
Existence of identity element
For all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒 ∈ 𝑆 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑥
Existence of inverse
For each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆, there exists a 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑦 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑒
Here the element y is called the inverse of x.
N.B If the set S is finite then (𝑆,∗) is called a finite group, otherwise it is called infinite
group.
Example:1
(ℤ, +) is a group , further it is an infinite group, since ℤ is an infinite set.
(ℤ, −) is not a group.
(ℝ,∙) is not a group.
(ℝ, +) is a group.
(ℚ − {0}, +) is a group.
2. Let ℚ+ be the set of all positive rational numbers . We define a binary operation on ℚ+
𝑥𝑦
as follows. 𝑎∗𝑏 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℚ+ . Then show that (ℚ+ ,∗)is a group.
5
Solution: Let 𝑎, 𝑏, & 𝐶 ∈ ℚ+

𝑎𝑏
Closure pro∗perty 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = ∈ ℚ+ .( Hence ℚ+ is closed under ∗)
5
Associativity
𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏
𝑏𝑐 𝑎( ) ( )𝑐
𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐)=𝑎 ∗ ( 5 ) = 5
= 5
= (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐
5 5
Hence ∗ is associative in ℚ+ .
Existence of identity

Let 𝑒 ∈ ℚ+ 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 ∗.
Then 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎
𝑎𝑒
𝑎∗𝑒=𝑎 ⟺ =𝑎
5
⟺ 𝑒 = 5 (Since a≠ 0)
Hence the identity element is 𝑒 = 5
Let 𝑎 ∈ ℚ+ and 𝑏 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎. Then
𝒂∗𝑏 =𝑏∗𝑎 = 𝑒 = 5
𝑎𝑏
Now we have 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 5 ⟺ =5
5
25
⟺𝑏= , ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 0)
5
25
Therefore the inverse of a is which is in ℚ+ .
𝑎
Hence by (𝑖), (𝑖𝑖), (𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖𝑣) , we conclude that (ℚ+ ,∗) is a group.
Definition 3.4.2
𝐿𝑒𝑡 (𝐺,∗) be a group . The G is called an Abelian group if and only if
𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.
In case if there exists a, b in G such 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ≠ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎, then the group G is called non-abelian
group.
Example :1. (ℤ, +) is an abelian group.
Notation :
Let G be a group. Then,
The inverse of a in G is denoted by 𝑎−1 .
The element 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 is denoted by 𝑎𝑏.
For 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝑛 ∈ ℤ, we define
𝑎𝑎 … 𝑎 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑛 (−𝑎)(−𝑎) … (−𝑎) 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑎 ={
𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = 0
d. A group with a binary operation ∗ on it is usually denoted by G.
Theorem 3.4.3:
Let G be a group . Then,
Identity element of G is unique.

Every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 has unique inverse in 𝐺.
For every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, (𝑎−1 )−1
For all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1
Proof: i. This proof is a direct copy of the proof of theorem 3.2.2
This is as in the proof of theorem 3.2.4 , the uniqueness of the inverse follows because of
associativity of the binary operation in G.
Since for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 , 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 𝑎 = 𝑒. We conclude that by the definition of inverse of
a is an inverse of 𝑎−1 . But by the uniqueness of an inverse the only inverse of 𝑎 −1 is a,
i.e (𝑎−1 )−1 .
The proof follows from the proof of 3.2.6
Theorem 3.4.4 (cancellation Laws)
Let G be a group the for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ G.
𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐 ⟹ 𝑏 = 𝑐 ( 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑤)
𝑏𝑎 = 𝑐𝑎 ⟹ 𝑏 = 𝑐 ( 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑎𝑤)
Proof:
ab = ac ⟹ a−1 (ab) = a−1 (ac)
⟹ (𝑎−1 𝑎)𝑏 = (𝑎−1 𝑎)𝑐
⟹ 𝑒𝑏 = 𝑒𝑐
⟹𝑏=𝑐
𝑏𝑎 = 𝑐𝑎 ⟹ (𝑏𝑎)𝑎−1 = (𝑐𝑎)𝑎−1
⟹ 𝑏(𝑎𝑎 −1 ) = 𝑐(𝑎𝑎−1 )
⟹ 𝑏𝑒 = 𝑐𝑒
⟹𝑏=𝑐
Some finite groups
Addition modulo n
Let 𝑥 ∈ ℤ. Then we try to determine the equivalent class determined by x.
Applying the division algorism there are integers q, r such that
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑞 + 𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑛
Then 𝑥 − 𝑟 = 𝑛𝑞 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑛. 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 ∈ 𝑟̅ and clearly𝑥 ∈ 𝑥̅ .
Therefore, the intersection of the equivalence classes is non-empty.
Hence, 𝑥̅ = 𝑟̅ where 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑛

Thus, the distinct equivalence classes are 0̅, 1̅, … ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑛 − 1).
Now define a binary operation on 𝑆 = {0̅, 1̅, … ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑛 − 1)} which makes S a group.
We define a binary operation on S as follows.
For any 𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅ ∈ 𝑆, 𝑥̅ ⨁𝑦̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥+𝑦
Theorem 3.4.6
(ℤ𝒏 , ⨁𝒏 ) is an abelian group.
Proof:
Closure:
Let 𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅ ∈ ℤ𝑛 . Then , since the only equivalence classes of the above relation are elements
of ℤ𝑛 , we see that 𝑥̅ ⨁𝑦̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥 + 𝑦 ∈ ℤ𝑛 . 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒, ℤ𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 "⨁".
Associativity :
Let ̅𝑥 , 𝑦̅, 𝑧̅ ∈ ℤ𝑛 , then
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥̅ ⨁(𝑦̅⨁𝑧̅) = 𝑥̅ ⨁(𝑥 + 𝑦)
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
=𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧)
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
=𝑥 + 𝑦⨁𝑧̅
= (𝑥̅ ⨁𝑦̅)⨁𝑧̅
Therefore ⨁ is associative in ℤ𝑛 .
Existence of identity element:
Let 𝑥̅ ∈ ℤ𝑛 . Then, 0̅ ∈ ℤ𝑛 such ̅0⨁𝑥̅ = 𝑥̅ ⨁0̅
Therefore,0̅ is the identity element of ⨁ in ℤ𝑛 .
Let 𝑥̅ ∈ ℤ𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛, since 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑛 − 1, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑛 − 𝑥 ≤ 𝑛 − 1, 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑛 − 𝑥 ∈ ℤ𝑛
And moreover 𝑥̅ ⨁̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑛−𝑥 =𝑥 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
+ (𝑛 − 𝑥) = 𝑛̅ = 0̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅⨁𝑥̅
𝑛−𝑥
Hence, each element in 𝑧𝑛 is invertible.
Commutativity:
Let 𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅ ∈ ℤ𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥̅ ⨁𝑦̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥 + 𝑦 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑦 + 𝑥 = 𝑦̅⨁𝑥̅
Hence ⨁ is commutative in ℤ𝑛 .
Therefore by (i), (ii),(iii) , (iv) &(v), (ℤ𝑛 , ⨁) is a group.

Notation:
We shall denote elements of the group ℤ𝑛 by 0,1, 2,…,𝑛 − 1 instead of denoting by
0̅, 1̅, 2̅, … , ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑛−1
Example:
Construct the addition modulo 3 for ℤ𝑛 = {0,1,2}
⨁ 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
1 1 1 0
2 0 0 1
The group permutations

Let A be non empty set . Let 𝑆(𝐴) be the set of all one-to-one mapping of A onto itself .
𝑆(𝐴) is called the set of all permutations of A. We want to show that with composition of
mappings as a binary operation, 𝑆(𝐴) is a group.
Proof:
To show that that 𝛼𝜊𝛽 ∈ 𝑆(𝐴 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆(𝐴) , we need only show that
𝛼𝜊𝛽 is one-to -one and onto.
One-to oneness of 𝜶𝝄𝜷
(αοβ)(a) = (αοβ)(b) ⟹ α(β(a)) = α(β(b))
⟹ β(a) = α(b) ⟹ a = b
⟹ αοβ is one − to − one.
Ontoness of 𝜶𝝄𝜷
Suppose 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴. since 𝛼 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝛼(𝑥) = 𝑏. since 𝛽 is onto ∃𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 such
that,𝛽(𝑎) = 𝑥. Therefore,(𝛼𝜊𝛽)(𝑎) = 𝛼(𝛽(𝑎)) = 𝛼(𝑥) = 𝑏 Hence , 𝛼𝜊𝛽 is onto.
To show that 𝛼𝜊(𝛽𝜊𝛾) = (𝛼𝜊𝛽)𝜊𝛾
(𝛼𝜊(𝛽𝜊𝛾))(𝑎) = 𝛼 (𝛽(𝛾(𝑎))) While ((𝛼𝜊𝛽)𝜊𝛾)(𝑎) = (𝛼𝜊𝛽)(𝛾(𝑎)) = 𝛼 (𝛽(𝛾(𝑎))).
Therefore, (𝛼𝜊(𝛽𝜊𝛾))(𝑎) = ((𝛼𝜊𝛽)𝜊𝛾)(𝑎) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.

Hence , 𝛼𝜊(𝛽𝜊𝛾) = (𝛼𝜊𝛽)𝜊𝛾
The identity mapping 𝐼𝐴 : 𝐴 → 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ,

i.e 𝛼𝜊𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴 𝜊𝛼 = 𝛼 ∀𝛼 ∈ 𝑆(𝐴)
4. Since 𝛼 is onto , for each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 , ∃𝑎′ ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝛼(𝑎′ ) = 𝑎 𝐵𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑡𝑜 −
𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝛼, 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑎′ is unique. Hence the corresponding a to 𝑎′ is a mapping.
We denote this mapping by 𝛼 −1 .
Notice that (𝛼𝜊𝛼 −1 )(𝑎) = 𝛼(𝛼 −1 (𝑎)) = 𝛼(𝑎−1 ) = 𝑎 = 𝐼𝐴 (𝑎) and
(𝛼 −1 𝜊𝛼)(𝑎′ ) = 𝛼 −1 (𝛼(𝑎′ )) = 𝛼 −1 (𝑎) = 𝑎′ = 𝐼𝐴 (𝑎′ )
Therefore , 𝛼𝜊𝛼 −1 = 𝛼 −1 𝜊𝛼 = 𝐼𝐴
Hence from (1),(2),(3) & (4) 𝑆(𝐴) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝.
The symmetric Group
Let X be the set with n elements. Then, the permutation group on X is called symmetric
group.
Theorem 3.4.7
Let X be a set with n elements and𝑆𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑛 𝑋. Then the number of
elements in 𝑆𝑛 is 𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 3) … 3.2.1
Proof: Let 𝐴 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 } and let 𝛼 ∈ 𝑆(𝐴). Then 𝛼 is a bijective function from A into
A.
Then the number of ways that 𝛼 maps 𝑎1 is n possible ways.
𝛼 maps 𝑎2 in only n-1 possible ways.
𝛼 maps 𝑎3 in only n-2 possible ways. Continuing this process , 𝛼 maps 𝑎𝑛 in only one
way.
Hence , the total number of bijective functions from A to A is given by multiplication
principles of counting 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … 3.2.1 = 𝑛!
Hence , the total number of bijective functions from A to A is 𝑛!.
Notation:
1. Let 𝛼 ∈ 𝑆𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝛼(𝑎𝑖 ) = 𝑟𝑖 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖 is any one of the values for i= 1,2,3…,n.
Then , we say denote 𝛼 by the following notation.
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 … 𝑎𝑛
i.e. 𝛼 = ( 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟𝑛 ) this means 𝛼 𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑠 𝑎𝑖 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1,2,3,4 … 𝑛.
1 2 3 …
2. From now on the symmetric group of objects will be considered on a set

𝑆 = {1,2,3,4, … , 𝑛}

Example:
Consider the symmetric group of 2 objects, i.e . 𝑠2 . Then , list the elements of 𝑆2.
Here , we consider the set A to be {1,2}. Then recall that 𝑆2 is the set of all bijective
functions from A to A.
1 2 1 2
Then 𝛼 = ( ) and 𝛽 = ( ) are the only elements of 𝑆2 .
1 2 2 1
Hence 𝑆2 has 2! = 2 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠.
Find the elements of 𝑆3 .
Solution: we see by the theorem above that 𝑆3 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 3! = 6
Then
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝛼=( ), 𝛼=( ), 𝛾=( ),
1 2 3 2 1 3 1 3 2
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝜆=( ), 𝜃=( ), 𝜔=( )
3 2 1 2 3 1 3 1 2
are the only elements of 𝑆3 .
Example: Consider the symmetric group of three elements, i.e 𝑆3 .
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Let 𝛼 = ( ), 𝛽=( ) , 𝛾=( )
1 2 3 2 1 3 1 3 2
Find 𝛼𝜊𝛽 , 𝛽𝜊𝛼, 𝛽𝜊𝛾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾𝜊𝛽
Solution:
𝛼(𝛽(1)) = 𝛼(2) = 2 and 𝛽 (𝛾(1)) = 𝛽(1) = 2
𝛼(𝛽(2)) = 𝛼(1) = 1 𝛽 (𝛾(2)) = 𝛽(1) = 3
α(β(3)) = α(3) = 3 β (γ(3)) = β(1) = 1
Hence using the above notation, we have that
1 2 3 1 2 3
𝛼𝜊𝛽 = ( ) and 𝛽𝜊𝛾 = ( )
2 1 3 2 3 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
𝛽𝜊𝛼 = ( ) 𝛾𝜊𝛽 = ( )
2 1 3 3 1 2
Therefore 𝛽𝜊𝛾 ≠ 𝛾𝜊𝛽, i.e 𝑆3 is non-abelian group with 6 elements.
Remark: For each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, we have seen that 𝑆𝑛 is non- abelian group. Therefore there are
infinitely many non-abelian groups.

Activity
1. Let 𝑆 = {𝑎 + 𝑏√2 : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℚ}, 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛
a) Show that (𝑆, +) is group.
2. Find the inverse of 1 + √2, 2√2 .
3. Find the identity element.
4. Define "∆" on ℝ − (0) as follows.
𝑎𝑏
For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ − {0}, 𝑎∆𝑏 = 27
Then ,
Show that (ℝ − {0}, ∆) is an abelian group
Find the identity element.
Give the inverse of 1,2,3,27,112
5. Let S be set of all polynomial with degree less than or equal to 2. We define, ∆ on S as
follows.
For 𝑓, 𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑆 , (𝑓∆𝑔)(𝑥) ≔ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) for all x in the common domain of 𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔.
Then ,
Show that (𝑆, ∆) is an abelian group.
6. Find the inverses of , 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 6, 𝑔(𝑥) = −𝑥 + 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ(𝑥) = 23
7. Construct the addition table for ℤ𝑛 , where 𝑛 = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7, and find the inverses of each
of the element of ℤ𝑛 .
8. Find all the elements of 𝑆𝑛 for 𝑛 = 3,4,5,6
9. How many elements does 𝑆𝑛 for 𝑛 = 3,4,5,6
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
10. Let 𝛼 = ( ), 𝛽=( )
2 3 4 1 3 4 1 2
Find 𝛼𝜊𝛽, 𝛽𝜊𝛼, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼𝜊𝛽 3
Find the inverses 𝛼𝜊𝛽, 𝛽𝜊𝛼, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼𝜊𝛽 3
11. Give an addition table for ℤ5 .
12. Give a multiplication table for 𝑆3 .
13. Let G be a group containing an even numbers of elements. Show that there exists 𝑎 ∈
𝐺, 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎 = 𝑎−1 .
14. Let G be a group and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. 𝐼𝑓 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 = 1, 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎.
15. If G is a group and ( 𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑎−1 𝑏−1 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 abelian group.
16. If G is a group such that (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 for every pair 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. Prove that G is abelian.

3.5. Subgroups, cosets, and Lagrange’s theorem
3.5.1 Subgroups and cosets
Definition 3.5.1.1
A non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G denoted by 𝐻 ≤ 𝐺 if H is a group
with the binary operation of G.
We can see, from the above definition, that for any group G, the subsets
𝐻 = {𝑒} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 = 𝐺 are subgroups of G . These subgroups are called trivial (improper)
subgroups. The subgroup H of a group which is different from {𝑒} and G, is called non-
trivial
(Proper) subgroup.
Example:
Let E= the set of all even integers. Then (𝐸, +) is a proper subgroup of (ℤ, +) where “+” is
addition of integers.
(ℚ+ ,∙) is a proper subgroup of (ℝ+ ,∙)
(ℤ, +) 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 (ℝ, +) 𝑏𝑢𝑡 (ℚ+ ,∙) 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 (ℝ, +) even though as
sets ℚ+ ⊂ ℝ.
Theorem 3.5.1.2
Let G be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is a subgroup of G if and only if
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐻;
a ∈ H ⟹ a−1 ∈ H;
Proof:
(⟹) If H is a subgroup, (1) and (2) clearly hold.
(⟹) Suppose (1) and (2) hold. Then we need only check b and c.
Let𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐻. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺.
Since G is group,𝑎(𝑏𝑐) = (𝑎𝑏)𝑐. 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐺2 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐻.
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦(2), 𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻. 𝐵𝑦 (2) we obtain 1 = 𝑎𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻. 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 (𝑐).
Therefore H is a group and hence a subgroup of G.
Corollary 3.5.1.3
Let G be a group. A non-empty subset H of G is a subgroup of G if and only if:
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⟹ 𝑎−1 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻

Proof:
(⟹): Assume that H is a subgroup of G. Then, H is a group and 𝐻 ≠ ∅.
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎−1 , 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻. 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 , 𝑎−1 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.
(⟸) Suppose 𝑎 −1 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ∀ a, b ∈ H.
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒 = 𝑎−1 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻. 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 , 𝑎 −1 = 𝑎−1 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 theorem 3.6.1 we
conclude that H a subgroup of G. This completes the proof of the theorem.
Example :
Consider(ℤ4, ⨁4 ). Recall that(ℤ4, ⨁4 ) is abelian group.
Let H= {0,2}, then we use theorem 3.6.1 to verify that 𝐻 ≤ ℤ4
H is non-empty.
0 + 2 = 2 ∈ 𝐻, 0 + 0 ∈ 𝐻 & 2 + 2 = 0 ∈ 𝐻
The inverse of 0 is 0 and the inverse of 2 is 2.
Therefore, 𝐻 = {0,2 } 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺.
Corollary 3.5.1.4:
Let G be a group and H , K be its sub groups. Then, 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is also a subgroup.
Proof:
Suppose H and K are subgroups of G. Then , H and K are non-empty subsets of G. Let
𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐾.
Since H and K are subgroups of G.
We have 𝑥 −1 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 −1 𝑦 ∈ 𝐾
Therefore 𝑥 −1 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾. 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 Corollary 3.6.3 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is a sub group of G.
Corollary 3.5.1.5:
Let G be a group and {𝐻𝑘 : 𝐻𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺 }. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝐾 = ⋂ 𝐻𝐾 is a sub group of G.
Proof: 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐾. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 , 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑘 = 1,2,3, …
Since for each k, 𝐻𝑘 is a subgroup of G, we have 𝑥 −1 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻𝐾 .
Hence, 𝑥 −1 𝑦 ∈∩ 𝐻𝑘 , 𝑖. 𝑒 𝐾 = ⋂ 𝐻𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺.
Definition 3.5.1.6:
Let G be a group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. Then , the centralizer of a in G denoted by C(𝒂) is defined by
𝑪(𝒂) = {𝒙 ∈ 𝑮: 𝒙𝒂 = 𝒂𝒙}

From this definition, it is clear that 𝑒 ∈ 𝐶(𝑎) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶(𝑎) ≠ ∅
Theorem 3.5.1.7:
For any a in a group G, 𝑪(𝒂) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺.
Proof: From the definition it is clear that 𝐶(𝑎) is non-empty as it contains identity element.
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶(𝑎), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑎𝑦 … . (∗)
Now we will show that 𝑥 −1 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶(𝑎)
From ( ∗ ) we have 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥𝑎 −1 and hence , 𝑥 −1 = (𝑎𝑥𝑎−1 )−1 = (𝑎−1 )−1𝑥 −1 𝑎−1 =
𝑎𝑥 −1 𝑎−1 … (∗∗)
Then , (𝑥 −1 𝑦)𝑎 = (𝑎𝑥 −1 𝑎−1 𝑦)𝑎 = (𝑎𝑥 −1 𝑎−1 )(𝑦𝑎) = (𝑎𝑥 −1 𝑦)(𝑎−1 𝑎) = 𝑎(𝑥 −1 𝑦) … (∗∗
∗)
Therefore from ( ∗∗∗ ) we see that (𝑥 −1 𝑦)𝑎 = 𝑎(𝑥 −1 𝑦). Hence by the definition
of 𝐶(𝑎), we conclude that 𝑥 −1 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶(𝑎). 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝐶(𝑎) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺.
Definition 3.5.1.8
Let G be a group. Then the center of G usually denoted by 𝑍(𝐺 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦
𝑍(𝐺 ) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑥𝑔 = 𝑔𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺}
Theorem 3.5.1.9
𝑍(𝐺 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺.
Proof: Since the identity element e commutes with every g in G , we have that 𝑍(𝐺 ) ≠ ∅.
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑍(𝐺 ). 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑥𝑔 = 𝑔𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑔 = 𝑔𝑦
⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑔𝑦𝑔−1 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑦 −1 = 𝑔𝑦 −1 𝑔−1
Hence , 𝑥𝑦 −1 𝑔 = 𝑥𝑔𝑦 −1 𝑔−1 𝑔
= 𝑔𝑥𝑦 −1 𝑔−1 𝑔
= 𝑔𝑥𝑦 −1
Therefore, 𝑥𝑦 −1 ∈ 𝑍(𝐺 ), 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑍(𝐺 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺.
Corollary 3.5.1.10
For any group G, 𝑍(𝐺 ) = 𝐺 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝.
Proof: Suppose that 𝑍(𝐺 ) = 𝐺. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑍(𝐺 ), 𝑥𝑔 = 𝑔𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑔𝑦 = 𝑦𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺.
In particular, 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑤𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝑦.
Hence, G is abelian.

Suppose that G is abelian group.
By the definition of 𝑍(𝐺 ), it is clear that 𝑍(𝐺 ) ⊆ 𝐺 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐺 ⊆ 𝑍(𝐺 ).
Let now 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑦𝑥, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑦 ∈ 𝑍(𝐺 ).
Hence, G ⊆ 𝑍(𝐺 ). 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐺 = 𝑍(𝐺 )..
Theorem 3.5.1.11
Let G be a group and let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. Then 𝐻 = {𝑎𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍} is a sub group of G and is the
smallest subgroup of G that contains a, that is every subgroup containing 𝑎 contains H.
This sub group H of G is called the subgroup of G generated by an element a and usually
denoted < 𝑎 >.
Proof:
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈H. Then 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑚 , 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑚, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 ∈ 𝐻 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚 + 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
Thus H is closed under the group operation of G.
Notice that 𝑥 −1 = 𝑎−𝑚 . 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐻.
Thus by Theorem 3.6.2 H is a subgroup of G.
Now we will show that it is the smallest subgroup of G containing a.
Let K be a subgroup of G containing a and K is a subset of H. Then we will show that
𝐻=𝐾
Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻 , then there exists n in ℕ 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛
Since K is a subgroup of G containing a , it is closed under the operation of K , i.e.
𝑥 ∈ 𝐾.
This shows that 𝐾 = 𝐻 .
Thus, we have shown that if there exists a subgroup K of G that that is contained in H and
contains a , then 𝐻 = 𝐾.
This implies that H is the smallest subgroup of G containing a.
Example: Consider the group (ℤ4 , ⨁4 ). Find the subgroups < 2 >, < 3 > 𝑎𝑛𝑑 < 1 >?
Solution: 𝐻 = 〈2〉 = {2𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ ℤ} = {2,0}
𝐾 = 〈3〉 = {3𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ ℤ} = {0,1,2,3, }
𝑀 = 〈1〉 = {1𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ ℤ} = ℤ4

Definition 3.5.1.12
Let H be a group. Then , H is said to be cyclic group if and only if there exists an element
a in H such that 𝐻 = {𝑎𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ ℤ}.
In this case, (H is generated by a ) a is called the generator of H and we write 𝐻 = 〈𝑎〉.
If H is a subgroup of G , then H is called acyclic subgroup of G.
Example:
The group (ℤ, +) is cyclic group . Both 1 and -1 are the only generators for the group.
(ℤ4 , ⨁4 ) is also a cyclic group both 1&3 are generators, i.e 〈1〉 = 〈3〉 = ℤ4
For 𝑛 ∈ ℤ+ , the group ℤ𝑛 under addition modulo n, cyclic . If 𝑛 > 1, then both 1 & n-1
are generators, but there may be others.
Theorem 3.5.1.13
If a group G is cyclic, then G is abelian group.
Proof: suppose G is cyclic group. Then by definition of cyclic group, there exists a in G
such that for each 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 , 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑛 𝑖𝑛 ℤ.
Let now 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑚 for some 𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ ℤ
Now, 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑦𝑥
Hence, this shows that G is abelian group.
Theorem 3.5.1.14
Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Proof:
Let G be group and H be a subgroup of G. If G is cyclic group then we want to show that
H is also a cyclic group.
Case 1: Suppose 𝐻 = {𝑒}. Then , it is clear that H is a cyclic group.
Case 2: Suppose 𝐻 ≠ {𝑒}. Then , there exists 𝑥 ∈ 𝐻 such that 𝑥 ≠ 𝑒. Then ,since H is a
subset of G and G is cyclic group, there exists n in ℤ such that 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛
Choose the smallest integer m such that 𝑎𝑚 ∈ 𝐻.
Then , we will show that 𝐻 = 〈𝑎𝑚 〉
Since 𝑎𝑚 ∈ 𝐻. It is clear that 〈𝑎𝑚 〉 ⊆ 𝐻…………………………..(1)
Now we show that 𝐻 ⊆ 〈𝑎𝑚 〉. For this we let 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻. Then, 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛 for some n in ℤ.
Now applying the division algorithm on m and n, there exists q and r in ℤ such that
𝑛 = 𝑞𝑚 + 𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑚 − 1

Then, we have 𝑟 = 𝑛 − 𝑚𝑞.
Therefore, 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑚𝑞 = 𝑎𝑛 (𝑎𝑚𝑞 )−1 ∈ 𝐻. But this is a contradiction as m is the smallest
positive integer such that 𝑎𝑚 ∈ 𝐻.
Then, we conclude that 𝑟 = 0. This implies that 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛 = (𝑎𝑚 )𝑞 ∈ 〈𝑎𝑚 〉
Hence, H is subset of 〈𝑎𝑚 〉………………………………….(2)
Therefore, by (1) and (2) we conclude that 𝐻 = 〈𝑎𝑚 〉,
I.e. 𝐻 is cyclic group generated by 𝑎𝑚 .
Remark:
If a group G in non-abelian, then G is not cyclic group. For example, the symmetric group
𝑆𝑛 is non-abelian group and hence can’t by cyclic group for 𝑛 ≥ 3.
Definition 3.5.1.15
If a is an element of a group, then the smallest positive integer n such that 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 if it
exists, is called the order of a. If there is no such integer, then a is said to have infinite
order. The order of an element a will be denoted by 𝑜(𝑎).
Example:
Consider the symmetric group of three objects.
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝛼=( ), 𝛽=( ) and 𝛾 = ( )
2 3 1 1 3 2 3 2 1
Find the orders of 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 .
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Solution: 𝛼𝜊𝛼 = 𝛼 2 = ( )𝜊( )=( )
2 3 1 2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝑎3 = ( )𝜊( )=( )
2 3 1 3 1 2 1 2 3
Which is the identity in 𝑆3 .
Therefore, the order of 𝛼 𝑖𝑠 3.
In the group of non- zero rational numbers (operation multiplication), 2 has infinite order
because 2𝑛 ≠ 1 for every positive integer n.
The word order has been used in two senses; the order of a group and the order of an
element. The next theorem shows how the two are related.
Theorem 3.5.1.16
Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. If 𝐻 = 〈𝑎〉 and H is finite group, then the
order of H is the order of 𝑎. (left as exercise)

Theorem 3.5.1.17
Let G be a finite cyclic group generated by a. If 𝑜(𝐺) = 𝑛 , then:
𝑎𝑚 ≠ 𝑒 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑚 < 𝑛.
{𝑎, 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒} is precisely the set of elements belonging to G.
Proof:
Suppose 𝑚 < 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑘 for some integers k. By Division
Algorism, ∃ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑒 integers q, r such that 𝑘 = 𝑞𝑚 + 𝑟 and 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑚. Then 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑘 =
𝑎𝑞𝑚+𝑟 = (𝑎𝑚 )𝑞 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑒 𝑞 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑒𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎𝑟 .
Hence, every element of G is of the form 𝑎𝑟 , where 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑚.
Hence G has at most 𝑚 elements, where 𝑚 < 𝑛. Contradiction.
We know that the elements 𝑎, 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛 all belong to G. Next we show that these
elements are distinct. Suppose 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑗 for some positive integers 𝑖 < 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛. Then
multiplying by 𝑎−𝑖 , we get:
𝑒 = 𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑖−𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖 𝑎−𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑗 𝑎 −𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑗−𝑖
and since 𝑖 < 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛, we must have 0 < 𝑗 − 𝑖 < 𝑛. But by (1) above,
𝑎𝑚 ≠ 𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚 < 𝑛. Contradiction. Thus the elements 𝑎, 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛 are all distinct.
Since o(G)= 𝑛, then G must be precisely the set {𝑎, 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛−1 , 𝑎𝑛 }.
However, since G is a group, 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺. But 𝑎𝑚 ≠ 𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 < 𝑛. Hence, 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒.
Theorem 3.5.1.18.
Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Activity
1. Determine the elements in each of the cyclic subgroups of 𝑆3 . Also give the order of each
elements of 𝑆3 .
1 2 3 1 2 3
2. Show that {( ),( )} is a subgroup of 𝑠3 .
1 2 3 1 3 2
3. Let G be group, and let A and B be subgroups of G. Prove that 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is a subgroup of G.
Show that 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 need not be a subgroup of G.
4. Show that the set E of all even integers is a subgroup of addition group Z.
5. Consider the group, the set of all 2𝑥2 matrices with integers as entries, with matrix
addition
6. Prove that the set of all diagonal matrices forms a subgroup.
7. Find all subgroups of 𝑆3 .

8. Let G be an abelian group show that the set {𝑎 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 for some 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍} is a subgroup
of G.
9. Let G be a group and let 𝑍(𝐺) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺: 𝑥𝑔 = 𝑔𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺}. Prove that 𝑍(𝐺) is a
subgroup of G, called the center of G.
10. Let G be a group for 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, define 𝑐(𝑎) = {𝑔𝑎: 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺} prove that 𝑐(𝑎) is a subgroup of
G.
3.5.2. Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem
Definition 3.5.2.1.
Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of G, then 𝐻𝑎 = {ℎ𝑎|ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is called the right
coset of H in G determined by a.
The element a is often called a representative of the right coset 𝐻𝑎.
Similarly, 𝑎𝐻 = {𝑎ℎ|ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is called the left cosets of H in G. Of course, if G is abelian
𝐻𝑎 = 𝑎𝐻 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
Example
Consider 𝑍4 = {0,1,2,3} and its sub-group 𝐻 = {0,2} we will compute all the right cosets
of H in 𝑍4 .
𝐻𝑂 = 𝐻2 = {0,2}
𝐻1 = 𝐻3 = {1,3}
There are two distinct right cosects of H in 𝑍4 . Observe that, in fact, these distinct right
cosets of H form a partition of 𝑍4 .
Let 𝐺 = 𝑍 𝑛𝑎𝑑 𝐻 =< 7 > then
𝐻 + 3 =< 7 > +3 = {… , −14, −7,0,7,14, … } + 3
= {… , −11, −4,3,10,17, … }
This is the congruence class 3̅ in 𝑍7
Let 𝐺 = 𝑆3 and 𝐻 = {(1), (1,2)}. Then
𝐻(1) = {(1)(1), (1,2)(1)} = {(1), (1,2)}
𝐻(1,2,3) = {(1)(1,2,3), (1,2)(1,2,3)} = {(1,2,3), (2,3)}
𝐻(1,2,3) = {(1)(1,3,2), (1,2)(1,3,2)} = {(1,2,3), (1,3)}
Exhibit the left cosets and the right cosets of the subgroup 3𝑍 of Z .

Solution:
Our notation here is additive, so the coset of 3𝑍 containing 𝑚 is 𝑚 + 3𝑧. Taking 𝑚 = 0,
we see that 3𝑍 = {… , −9, −6, −3, 0, 3, 6, 9, … } is it self one of its left cosets, the coset
containing 0. To find another left coset, we select an element of 𝑍 not in 3𝑍, say 1, and
find the left coset containing it. We have
1 + 3𝑍 = {… , −8, −5, −2,1,4,7,10, … }
These two left cosets, 3𝑍 and 1 + 3𝑍, do not yert exhavst 𝑍. For example, 2 is in neither of
them. The left coset containing 2 is
2 + 3𝑍 = {… , −7, −4, −1,2,5,8,11, … }
It is clear that these three left cosets we have found do exhaust 𝑍, so they constitute the
partition of 𝑍 into left cosets of 3𝑍. Since 𝑍 is abelian, the left coset 𝑚 + 3𝑍 and the right
cosect 3𝑍 + 𝑚 are the same. So the partion of 𝑍 into right cosets is the same.
For a subgroup H of an abelian group G, the partion of G into left cosets of H and the
partion into right coseots are the same.
The group 𝑍6 is abelian. Find the partion of 𝑍6 into cosets of the subgroup
𝐻 = {0,3}
Solution:
One coset is {0,3} itself. The coset containing 1 is 1 + {0,3} = {1,4}. The coset containing
2 + {0,3} = {2,5} since {0,3}, {1,4} and {2,5} exhaust all of 𝑍6 , these are all the cosets.
Theorem 3.5.2.2.
Let G be a group, H be a subgroup of G and 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺. Then
(1)𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻 ⟺ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻
(2)𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻𝑏 ⟺ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻
(3)𝑎𝐻 = 𝑏𝐻 ⟺ 𝑎−1 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
Proof
Now 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻 ⟹ 𝑒𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻 𝑎𝑠 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻
⟹𝑎∈𝐻
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻 ⟺ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻
(⟸) Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, then ℎ𝑎 ∈ 𝐻∀ℎ ∈ 𝐻 as H is a subgroup, so by definition 𝐻𝑎 ⊆ 𝐻. Now
for any ℎ ∈ 𝐻, ℎ = (ℎ𝑎 −1 )𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑎. This yields 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐻𝑎
Thus 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻

Hence 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻 ⟺ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻
𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻𝑏 ⟹ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑏 Since 𝑎 = 𝑒𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑎
⟹ 𝑎 = ℎ𝑏 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 ℎ ∈ 𝐻
⟹ 𝐻𝑎 = 𝐻(ℎ𝑏) = (𝐻ℎ)𝑏
= 𝐻𝑏, Since 𝐻ℎ = 𝐻 𝑏𝑦 (1)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 proof (3) is similar to that of (2)
𝐃𝐞𝐟𝐢𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟑. 𝟓. 𝟐. 𝟑
Let G be a group and H is a subgroup of G. For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 we say a is congruent to b modulo
H, written as 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝐻), 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻
Note “Congruence modulo H is a relation on G
Theorem 3.5.2.4.
The relation 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝐻) is an equivalence relation on G.
Proof
Since H is a subgroup, 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒 ∈ 𝐻, 0 ≡ 𝑎(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝐻)
Suppose 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝐻) , i.e. 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻 then 𝑏𝑎−1 = (𝑎𝑏 −1 )−1 ∈ 𝐻 Hence, 𝑏 =
𝑎(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝐻)
Suppose 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝐻) and 𝑏 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝐻), i.e.
𝑎𝑏 −1 , 𝑏𝑐 −1 ∈ 𝐻 Now 𝑎𝑐 −1 = (𝑎𝑏)−1 (𝑏𝑐 −1 ) ∈ 𝐻
Hence, 𝑎 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝐻)
Therefore, the reflexive, symmetric and transitive properties hold and 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝐻) is an
equivalence relation on G.
Remark
If 𝐺 = 𝑍 and 𝐻 = 𝑛𝑍, then the relation 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝐻), i.e. 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐻, under the addition
notation𝑛, reads 𝑎 − 𝑏 is a multiple of 𝑛. This is the usual number theoretical congruence
modulo 𝑛.
Since the set of right cosets of H in G are simply the equivalence classes of an equivalence
relation on G, we immediately obtain the following theorem.
Theorem 3.5.2.5.
Let G be a group and let H be a subgroup of G. Then the set of all right cosets of H in G
form a partition of G. Hence every element of G belongs to one and only one right cosect

of H in G. i.e. any two right cosects of H in G are either identical or have no elements in
common.
Corollary 3.5.2.6
There is a 1-1 correspondence between any two right cosets of H in G.
Theorem 3.5.2.7. ( Lagrange)
If H is a subgroup of a finite group G, then the order of H is a divisor of the order of G
(𝑖. 𝑒. 0(𝐻)|0(𝐺)).
Proof
Let 𝑛 = 0(𝐺), 𝑚 = 0(𝐻) Let 𝐾 = the number of distinct right cosets of H in G.
By (3.5 − 6.6 & 3.5 − 6.7) any two distinct right cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺 have no element in
common and each has 𝑚 elements.
Hence 𝑛 = 𝑚𝑘
Therefore 0(𝐻)|0(𝐺)
Example
Since 𝑆3 has order 3! = 6, any subgroup of 𝑆3 must have order 1,2,3 or 6: 𝑆3 can not have
subgroups of order 4 or 5. A group of order 7 can have any the two obvious subgroups {𝑒}
of order and the group it self of order 7.
Definition 3.5.2.8
Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝐻 is subgroup of 𝐺. The number of distinct right cosets of H in 𝐺 is
called the index of 𝐻 in 𝐺. The symbol 𝑖𝐺 (𝐻) denotes the index of 𝐻 in 𝐺.
By Lagrang’s Theorem, in case 𝐺 is a finite group
0(𝐺)
𝑖𝐺 (𝐻) =
0(𝐻)
Definition 3.5.2.9
If G is a group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, the order (or period) if 𝑎 is the least positive integer m such that
𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒. If no such integer exists, we say that 𝑎 is infinite order. We use the notation 0(𝑎)
for the order of a.
Note that o(𝑎) = 𝑜(𝐻) where 𝐻 =< 𝑎 >
Corollary 3.5.2.10
If G is a finite group 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, then the order of 𝑎 is divisor of the order of G.
(𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑜(𝑎)|𝑜(𝐺))

Proof:
We know 𝑜(𝑎) = 𝑜(𝐻) , where𝐻 = 〈𝑎〉. We also know by lag rage’s theorem 𝑜(𝐻)/𝑜(𝐺)
Corollary 3.5. 2.11 :
If G is a finite group of order n, then 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
Proof:
Let 𝑚 = 0(𝐻) from the above corollary 1
𝑛 = 𝑚𝑘 for some positive integer k.
Thus 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑘 = (𝑎𝑚 )𝑘 = 𝑒 𝑘 = 𝑒 since 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒
Corollary 3.5.2.12
If G is a finite group of order p where p is a prime number, then G is cyclic and every
elements of G except the identity element is a generator of G.
Proof
Let 𝑒 ≠ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 by corollary 1, 0(𝑎)|𝑝. Since p is prime and 0(𝑎) > 1, 0(𝑎) = 𝑝. Hence
the cyclic subgroup generated by any element of G other than the identity e has order p and
therefore must be all of G.
Corollary 3.5.2.13
A group G of prime order contains no subgroup other than {𝑒} and G.
Proof
This is a direct consequences of Lagrangels Theorem, since a prime has not positive
divisor other than 1 and itself.
Activity
1. Let n be a positive integer. List all right cosets of nZ in Z.
2. Let G be a group, 0(𝐺) = 12. What is the maximum number of proper subgroup G can
have? If G has subgroup of order 2 and 3, what is the minimum number of proper
subgroups G can have
3. Let G be an abelian group, 𝐻 < 𝐺, 𝐾 < 𝐺, with 0(𝐻) = 5 and 0(𝐾) = 7. Prove that there
exists an element in G of order 35
4. Let 𝑅[𝑥] be the set of all polynomials over the reals and L be the set of all polynomials in
𝑅[𝑥] of degree 1 or less.
5. In 𝑅[𝑥], is 3𝑥 2 ≡ (1 + 2𝑥 2 )(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑙)?
6. In 𝑅[𝑥], is 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 ≡ (4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 19)(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑙)?
7. In 𝑅[𝑥], is 𝑥 2 ≡ (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑙)?

8. Find all cosets of the subgroup 4𝑍 of 2𝑍
9. Find all cosets of the subgroup < 4 > of 𝑍12
10. Let 𝛿 = (1,2,5,4)(2,3)𝑖𝑛 𝑆5 . Find the index of < 𝛿 > in 𝑆5
11. Let 𝐺 = 𝑆3 and 𝐻 =< (1,3) >
Determine the right cosets of H in G.
Determine the left cosets of H in G.
Verify that the collection of right cosets is different from the collecton of left cosets
3.6. Normal subgroups and quotient groups
3.6.1. Definition
A subgroup H of a group G is normal ( 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝐻 ≤ 𝐺) if its left and right cosets
concide, that is, if gH = Hg for all g ∈ G. For a group G, G and {e} are always normal
subgroups of G and these subgroups are called trivial normal subgroups. A group G ≠ {e}
which does not have any non-trival normal subgroup is called a simple group.
Theorem 3.6.2.
A subgroup H of a group G is normal iff g −1 hg ∈ H for every h ∈ H, g ∈ G.
Proof
Let H be a normal subgroup of G. Let ℎ ∈ 𝐻, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺. Then 𝐻𝑔 = 𝑔𝐻 (definition of normal
subgroup)
Now ℎ𝑔 ∈ 𝐻𝑔 = 𝑔𝐻
So ℎ𝑔 = 𝑔ℎ1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻
i.e. 𝑔−1 ℎ𝑔 = ℎ1 ∈ 𝐻
Conversely let H be such that
𝑔−1 ℎ𝑔 ∈ 𝐻 ∀ ℎ ∈ 𝐻, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
Consider 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 for any ℎ ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎−1 ℎ𝑎 ∈ 𝐻
Therefore ℎ𝑎 = 𝑎(𝑎−1 ℎ𝑎) ∈ 𝐻
Consequently 𝐻𝑎 ⊆ 𝑎𝐻
Let 𝑏 = 𝑎−1
Then 𝑏 −1 ℎ𝑏 ∈ 𝐻
But 𝑏 −1 ℎ𝑏 = (𝑎−1 )−1 ℎ𝑎−1 = 𝑎ℎ𝑎−1
This gives 𝑎ℎ𝑎−1 ∈ 𝐻
So that 𝑎ℎ = (𝑎ℎ𝑎−1 )𝑎 ∈ 𝐻𝑎

Which proves that 𝑎𝐻 ⊆ 𝐻𝑎
Hence 𝑎𝐻 = 𝐻𝑎
⟹ 𝐻 is a normal subgroup of G.
Definition 3.6.3
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = {𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 : ℎ ∈ 𝐻}𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
Corollary 3.6.4
A subgroup H of a group G is normal 𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 ⊂ 𝐻 ∀ 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
Note
If 𝐻 ≤ 𝐺 and 𝐻 ≠ 𝐺, where write 𝐻 < 𝐺 (𝐻 ≤ 𝐺 ≡ 𝐻 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺)
Example
If H is a subgroup of an abelian group G and ℎ ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺, then
𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 = ℎ ∈ 𝐻. Thus every subgroup of an abelian group is a normal subgroup.
The subgroup < (12) >= {(1), (12)} of 𝑠3 is not normal, because for example
(1 2 3)(1 2)(1 2 3)−1 = (2 3) ∉< (1,2) >
Properties of normal subgroups
Theorem 3.6.5
The following are three equivalent conditions for subgroup H of a group G to be a normal
subgroup of G.
𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐻 for all 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 & ℎ ∈ 𝐻
𝑔𝐻𝑔−1 = 𝐻 for all 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
𝑔𝐻 = 𝐻𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺
Corollary 3.6.6:
Let G be a group and 𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 are normal subgroups of G . Then 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is a normal
subgroup of 𝐺.
Proof
Suppose H and K are normal subgroups of G. Then, since H and K are subgroups, we
recall that 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is a subgroup of G. Now, for all 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and for all ℎ ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾, we have
𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑔ℎ𝑔 −1 ∈ 𝐾. This shows that 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾. Hence, 𝐻 ∩ 𝐾 is a normal
subgroup of G.
Definition 3.6.7.

Let G be a group and let 𝑁 ≤ 𝐺. Then we define 𝐺⁄𝑁 = {𝑁𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺}. In other words, 𝐺 ⁄𝑁
is the collection of all right cosets of N in G.
Theorem 3.6.8
Let G be a group and let 𝑁 ≤ 𝐺. Then 𝐺 ⁄𝑁 is a group under the operation 0 defined by
𝑁𝑎0𝑁𝑏 = 𝑁𝑎𝑏 ∀ 𝑁𝑎, 𝑁𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 ⁄𝑁
Proof
First we shall prove that the binary operation is well defined in 𝐺/𝑁.
Let 𝑎1 ∈ 𝑁𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏1 ∈ 𝑁𝑏
⟹ 𝑎1 = 𝑛1 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏1 = 𝑛2 𝑏 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 ∈ 𝑁
⟹ 𝑎 = 𝑛1−1 𝑎1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑛2−1 𝑏1
⟹ 𝑎𝑏 = (𝑛1−1 𝑎1 )(𝑛2−1 𝑏1 )
= 𝑛1−1 (𝑎1 𝑛2−1 )𝑏1
= 𝑛1−1 (𝑛3 𝑎1 )𝑏1
= (𝑛1−1 𝑛3 )𝑎1 𝑏1 ∈ 𝑁𝑎1 𝑏1
⟹ 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝑁𝑎1 𝑏1
But 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝑁𝑎𝑏
Therefore 𝑁𝑎𝑏 = 𝑁𝑎1 𝑏1
Hence, 0 is well defined
Closure
𝑁𝑎0𝑁𝑏 = 𝑁𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 ⁄𝑁 (because Nab is also a right coset). Hence 𝐺/𝑁 is closed under 0.
Associativity
𝑁𝑎𝑜(𝑁𝑏𝑜𝑁𝑐) = 𝑁𝑎𝑜(𝑁𝑏𝑐)
= 𝑁𝑎(𝑏𝑐)
= 𝑁(𝑎𝑏)𝑐
= 𝑁𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑁𝑐
= (𝑁𝑎𝑜𝑁𝑏)𝑜𝑁𝑐 ∀𝑁𝑎, 𝑁𝑏, 𝑁𝑐 ∈ 𝐺/𝑁
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 o is associative.
Existence of Identity
Let e be the identity of G. Then 𝑁𝑒 = 𝑁 𝑁𝑒𝑜𝑁𝑎 = 𝑁𝑒𝑎 = 𝑁𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑎𝑜𝑁𝑒 = 𝑁𝑎𝑒 =
𝑁𝑎 ∀ 𝑁𝑎 ∈ 𝐺/𝑁 . Hence Ne is the identity element of G/N.

Existence of Inverses
Let 𝑁𝑎 ∈ 𝐺/𝑁. Then 𝑁𝑎𝑜𝑁𝑎 −1 = 𝑁𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑁𝑒 = 𝑁 𝑁𝑎−1 𝑜𝑁𝑎 = 𝑁𝑎−1 𝑎 = 𝑁𝑒 = 𝑁
Therefore (𝑁𝑎)−1 = 𝑁𝑎 −1
Hence (𝐺/𝑁, 𝑜) forms a group.
Definition 3.6.9
The group (𝐺/𝑁, 𝑜) is called the quotient group or the factor group of 𝐺 by 𝑁. A factor
group 𝐺/𝑁 is called proper if 𝑁 ≠ 𝐺 & 𝑁 ≠ {𝑒}.
Corollary 3.6.10
If G is a finite group and 𝑁 ≤ 𝐺, then
𝑜(𝐺)
𝑜(𝐺⁄𝑁) =
𝑜(𝑁)
Proof
The elements of 𝐺/𝑁 are subsets of 𝐺. If 𝐺 is finite, then the order of 𝐺/𝑁 is the number
of right cosets of 𝑁 in G that is 𝑖𝐺 (𝑁) the index of 𝑁 in 𝐺. From Lagrange’s theorem.
𝑜(𝐺)
𝑖𝐺 (𝑁) =
𝑜(𝐻)
𝑜(𝐺)
𝑜(𝐺⁄𝑁) =
𝑜(𝑁)
Example: consider 𝐺/𝑁 for 𝐺 = 𝑆3 and 𝑁 =< (1,2,3) >. We have
𝑆 6
𝑁 = {(1), (1,2,3), (1,3,2)} ≤ 𝐺3 and 𝑜 ( 3⁄𝑁) =3 = 2
Theorem 4.6.11.
Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal .
Example
Let 𝐺 = 𝑍 then (𝑍, +) is a group
Let 𝑁 = 3𝑍 = {… , −9, −6, −3,0,3,6,9, … }
𝑁 is a cyclic subgroup generated by 3. Therefore, 𝐺 is an abelian group.
Hence 𝑁 ≤ 𝐺.
Consider the group (𝑍, +) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 = {𝑘𝑛, 𝑘 ∈ 𝑍}, since (𝑍, +) is an abelian group ,
every subgroup is normal and in particular 𝐻 is a normal subgroup of (𝑍, +)

Activity
1. Let 𝐺 be an abelian group and 𝑁, a subgroup of 𝐺. Prove that the quotient group 𝐺/𝑁 is
abelian.
2. Let 𝑛 be a positive integer and 𝑁 =< 𝑛 > by the cyclic subgroup of the additive group 𝑍
of integers. Show that 𝑜(𝑍/𝑁) = 𝑛.
3. Let H be the subgroup of 𝑍12 generated by 3. List the cosets of H in 𝑍12 and construct a
table for 𝑍12 |𝐻
4. Consider the group 𝐺 = {1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖} under multiplication of real numbers
5. Let 𝐻 = {1, −1}. The𝑛,
a) Find the quotient group
b) Find the number of elements in the quotient group
c) What is the identity element in the quotient group?
d) Find the inverse of each element in the quotient group?
3.7. Homomorphisms
Definition
Let G and 𝐺 ′ be any two groups let ‘0’ and ‘∗’ denote their respective binary operations.
Then a mapping 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ called a homomorphism if 𝑓(𝑎𝑜𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) ∗ 𝑓(𝑏) ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.
Definition
Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be a homomorphism
If 𝑓 is onto, 𝑓 is called an epimorphism.
If f is one-to-one, f is called a monomorphism.
If 𝑓 is both an epimorphism and a monomorphism then 𝑓 is called an isomorphism. If 𝑓 is
an isomorphism then 𝐺 and 𝐺 ′ are said to be isomorphic, & we write 𝐺 ≅ 𝐺 ′ .
For any groups G and 𝐺 ′ , there is always atleast one homomorphism 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ namely the
trivial homomorphism defined by 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. Where e the identity in 𝐺 ′ .
Example
Consider Z, the additive group of integers and 𝐺 = {2𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍}
G is a group under the usual multiplication of real numbers.
Define 𝑓: 𝑍 → 𝐺 by 𝑓(𝑛) = 2𝑛 ∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑍
Since 𝑓(𝑛 + 𝑚) = 2𝑛+𝑚 = 2𝑛 . 2𝑚 = 𝑓(𝑛)𝑓(𝑚) ∀ 𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ 𝑍
𝑓 is a homomorphism of 𝑍 in to 𝐺. Clearly 𝑓 is onto and 𝐺 is a homorphic image of 𝑍.

Let 𝐺 be the multiplicative group of all non singular 𝑛𝑥𝑛 matrices over the real numbers.
Let 𝑅 ∗ be the multiplicative group of all non zero real numbers.
Define 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝑅 ∗ by 𝑓(𝐴) = 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴 for all 𝐴 ∈ 𝐺 . Since for any two 𝑛𝑥𝑛 matrices
𝐴, 𝐵 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴𝐵) = 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴. 𝑑𝑒𝑡B we get 𝑓(𝐴𝐵) = 𝑓(𝐴)𝑓(𝐵)
Hence f is a homomorphism of G into 𝑅 ∗ . 𝑓 is also onto
Let 𝐺 = {1, −1}, 𝐺 is a group under multiplication. Define 𝑓: 𝑍 → 𝐺 by putting 𝑓(𝑛) = 1
if n is even and 𝑓(𝑛) = −1 if 𝑛 is odd consider any two integers 𝑚, 𝑛.
Both 𝑚, 𝑛 are even. Then 𝑚 + 𝑛 is even consequently by definition 𝑓(𝑚) = 1, f(n)=1,
𝑓(𝑚 + 𝑛) = 1. This yields 𝑓(𝑚 + 𝑛) = 𝑓(𝑚)𝑓(𝑛).
One of m and n is even other odd. To be define let us suppose m is even and n is odd then
𝑓(𝑚) = 1 and 𝑓(𝑛) = −1 . Further as 𝑚 + 𝑛 is also odd, 𝑓(𝑚 + 𝑛) = −1 = 1(−1) =
𝑓(𝑚)𝑓(𝑛).
Both of m and n are odd. Then 𝑓(𝑚) = −1 and 𝑓(𝑛) = −1. Now as 𝑚 + 𝑛 is even,
𝑓(𝑚 + 𝑛) = 1 = (−1)(−1) = 𝑓(𝑚)𝑓(𝑛). 𝑇 his shows that (𝑚 + 𝑛) = 𝑓(𝑚)𝑓(𝑛)
∀𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍 . Since 𝑓(2) = 1, 𝑓(3) = −1 we see that 𝑓 is also onto hence 𝑓 is an
epimorphism
Corollary
Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be a homorphism of groups and let 𝑒, 𝑒 ′ are identity elements of 𝐺 and 𝐺 ′
respectively. Then:
𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝑓) = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐺|𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 ′ }, is called the kernel of 𝑓
Im(f)={𝑎′ ∈ 𝐺 ′ |𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎′ } for some 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is called the image of 𝑓.
Corollary
Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be homorphism. Let 𝑒, 𝑒 ′ be identity elements of 𝐺 and 𝐺 ′ respectively.
Then
𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′
𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎)−1 ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐺
𝐾𝑒𝑟(𝑓) is a normal subgroup of 𝐺
Proof
𝑒. 𝑒 = 𝑒
𝑓(𝑒)𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑓(𝑒), However 𝑓(𝑒) ∈ 𝐺 ′ gives
𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′ 𝑓(𝑒). 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑓(𝑒)𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′ 𝑓(𝑒)

⟹ 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′ , 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐺 ′
For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, Since 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒, we get 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎𝑎 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′
Similarly 𝑎−1 𝑎 = 𝑒 gives 𝑓(𝑎′ )𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 ′
Hence 𝑓(𝑎−1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎)−1
Since 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′ , 𝑒 ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟𝑓
This shows that ker 𝑓 ≠ ∅
Now let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ker 𝑓, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑎 ∈ ker 𝑓, 𝑏 ∈ ker 𝑓
⟹ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 ′ , 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑒
⟹ 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑒 ′ , 𝑓(𝑏 ′ ) = 𝑓(𝑏)−1 = (𝑒 ′ )−1 = 𝑒 ′
⟹ 𝑓(𝑎𝑏 −1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑏)−1 = 𝑒 ′ 𝑒 ′ = 𝑒 ′
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 that 𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝑓 is a subgroup of 𝐺. It remains to show that it is also normal.
Now 𝑓(𝑥 −1 𝑎𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 −1 )𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑓(𝑥)−1 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑓(𝑥)−1 𝑒 ′ 𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑓(𝑥)−1 𝑓(𝑥)
= 𝑒′
Consequently 𝑥 −1 𝑎𝑥 ∈ 𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝑓
Hence 𝑘𝑒𝑟 𝑓 is normal subgroup of 𝐺.
Theorem
Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be a homorphism. Then
𝑓 is an epimorphism if and only if 𝐼𝑚(𝑓) = 𝐺 ′
𝑓 is a monomorphism if and only if 𝑘𝑒𝑟(𝑓) = {𝑒}.
Where e is the identity element in G.
Proof
It is obvious
Suppose f is a monomorphism. Let 𝑎 ∈ ker{𝑓}. Then 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′ . Where 𝑒 ′ is the identity
element in 𝐺 ′ . But 𝑓(𝑒) = 𝑒 ′ . Hence 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑒). Since 𝑓 is one-to-one, 𝑎 = 𝑒. Therefore
𝑘𝑒𝑟(𝑓) = {𝑒}.
Suppose ker(f)={e}. Let a,b∈ 𝐺 such that f(a)=f(b). Then 𝑒 1 = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑏)−1 = 𝑓(𝑎𝑏 −1 ) =
𝑓(𝑎𝑏 −1 ) ⟹ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ ker 𝑓

⟹ 𝑎𝑏 −1 = 𝑒 ⟹ 𝑎 = 𝑏. Hence, 𝑓 is monomorphism
Theorem
Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be an ephimorphism.
Then 𝐺 ′ ≅ 𝐺 ⁄ker(𝑓)
Proof
Define a map Φ: 𝐺/ker(∝) → 𝐺̅ by Φ(Ka) =∝ (a), where 𝐾 = ker(∝).
Claim Φ is well-defined. We need to show that if 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾𝑎 then ∝ (𝑎) =∝ (𝑏). But
𝑏 ∈ 𝐾𝑎 ⟺ 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑𝐾) ⟺ 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈ 𝐾 ⟺ 𝑎𝑏 −1 = 𝐾 for some 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾. Therefore,
𝑎 = 𝐾𝑏 for some 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾. Hence, ∝ (𝑎) =∝ (𝑘) ∝ (𝑏) = 1̅. ∝ (𝑏). Thus Φ is well-defined.
Now Φ(KaKb) = Φ(Kab) =∝ (𝑎𝑏) =∝ (𝑎) ∝ (𝑏) = Φ(Ka)Φ(Kb). Hence, Φ is a
homomorphism.
Suppose Φ(Ka) = Φ(Kb) ⇒∝ (a) =∝ (b) ⇒∝ (ab−1 ) =∝ (a) ∝ (b)−1 = 1̅ ⇒ ab−1 ∈
ker(∝) ⇒ a ≡ b(mod K) ⇒ Ka = Kb. Hence Φ is one-to-one. Clearly, Φ is onto, since ∝
is onto. Hence, Φ is an isomorphism.
Activity
1. Let 𝜑: 𝐺 → 𝐺 ′ be homomorphism . Prove that
a) 𝐼𝑚(𝜑) is a subgroup of 𝐺 ′ .
2. If 𝜑 is onto and 𝐻 ≤ 𝐺, then 𝜑(𝐻) ≤ 𝐺.
3. If 𝐺 cyclic , then 𝐼𝑚(𝜑) 𝑖𝑠 cyclic.
4. If 𝐺 is abelian then 𝐼𝑚(𝜑) is abelian.
5. Let 𝐺 be a finite group and 𝑜(𝐺) = 𝑝, where 𝑝 is a prime. Prove that ℤ𝑝 ≅ 𝐺.
6. Define 𝑓: (ℝ, +) → (ℝ+ , . ) by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 . Show that 𝑓 is an isomorphism.
7. Let 𝑅 = {𝑥: 𝑥 > 0}. Then ,identify which of the following functions are homomorphism,
monomorphism and isomorphism.
𝑓: (𝑅, +) → (𝑅, . ) 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥
𝑓: (𝑅 + , . ) → (𝑅, +) 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑥
𝑓: (𝑅, . ) → (𝑅, . ) 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑓(𝑥) = √2
Find the kernel and image of the functions in question 4 above.

Review exercise
1. Let (𝑋, ⨁) be an algebraic structure where ⨁ is defined on 𝑋 = [3, ∞) as follows.
For 𝑥, 𝑦 in X, 𝑥⨁𝑦 = 𝑀𝑖𝑛{𝑥, 𝑦}. Show that ⨁ has no identity element in X.
2. Let Z be the set of integers. Define “∗” on Z as follows.
For all 𝑥, 𝑦 in 𝑍, 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦. Then,
a) Show that 0 is the identity element
b) Show that “∗” is associative .
c) Is “∗” commutative?
3. Let ⨁ defined on R by, for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑥⨁𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3
a) Show that (R, ⨁) is associative and commutative algebraic structure with identity
4. Compute 12⨁[3 ⨁ 10] and find it’s inverse
5. Consider the algebraic structure (𝑅, ⨁) where 𝑥⨁𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 2 for 𝑥, 𝑦 in R.
a) Then show that (𝑅, ⨁) is a commutative algebraic structure and find the inverse of each
element (if invertible)
6. Let 𝑓: (𝑅, +) → (𝑅 + , . ) be defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 . Then, show that 𝑓 is an isomorphism and
give three different isomorphisms which are different from 𝑓.
a) Prove that (𝑅 − {0}, . )𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑅, +) can’t be isomorphic
7. Give three isomorphism from (𝑍, +) 𝑡𝑜 (𝑘𝑍, +) where 𝑘 = 4,6,8,10.
𝑥𝑦
8. Let ⨁ be defined on R by for 𝑥, 𝑦 in R , 𝑥⨁𝑦 = . Prove that (𝑅, . ) and (𝑅, ⨁) are
√2
isomorphic. Give at least four isomorphism.

9. Let G be a group such that 𝑎2 = 𝑒 for all a in G. Then, show that G is abelian group.
10. Let a be in a group G of order n. Prove that 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒 iff n divides m
11. Let G be a group such that (𝑎𝑏)2 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 in G. Then show that G is abelian group
12. Define (𝑅 − {−1},∗) where “ ∗ ” is defined by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑏. Then, show that (𝑅 −
{−1},∗) is an abelian group.
13. Let G be a group of order p, p is prime. If 𝐻 ⊴ 𝐺, and that 𝐻 ≠ {𝑒}, then
14. Prove that 𝑜(𝐺/𝐻) = 1.
a) Give the number of generators of G/H.
15. Let ∝: (𝑅, . ) → (𝑅, +) be defined by ∝ (𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥. Then
a) Show that ∝ is homomorphism.
b) Find the kernel of ∝, image of ∝.
c) Is ∝ a homomorphism?

Unit Summary
An algebraic structure can have at most one identity element
An associative algebraic structure can have at most one inverse (if possible) for each
element of the algebraic structure (𝑥,∗)
The product of invertible element is also an invertible element
Two algebraic structures are said to be isomorphic if and only if there is an isomorphism
between them.
The composition of isomorphisms is also an isomorphism
The group of all bijective functions from a non empty set x to x is called the permutation
group
If two algebraic structures are said to be isomorphic, then both are commutative and
associative
Let ∝: (𝑥,∗) → (𝑦, ∆) be isomorphism and x be in X. then, x is invertible if and only if
∝ (𝑥) is invertivel and [∝ (𝑥)]−1 =∝ (𝑥 −1 )
For any group G, and 𝑎, 𝑏 in G, if 𝑎 and 𝑏 are invertible, then 𝑎, 𝑏 is also invetible
Ever finite semigroup which satisfies all the cancellation laws is also a group
The group of addition modulo for any positive integer n, is an abelian group
Permutation group is a non-abelian group
Let G be a group and H be a non empty subset of G. Then H is a subgroup of G if and only
if for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻, 𝑥𝑦 −1 ∈ 𝐻
The intersection of any collection of subgroups (normal subgroups) is also a subgroup
(normal subgroup)
Let G be a group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. Then,
𝐶(𝑎) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺/𝑥𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥} is called the centralizer of a
𝑍(𝐺) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺/𝑥𝑔 = 𝑔𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺} is called the center of 𝐺
𝐶(𝑎) and 𝑍(𝐺) are subgroups of a group 𝐺
A group is abelian if and only if 𝑍(𝐺) = 𝐺
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝐻 = {𝑎𝑛 ⁄𝑛 ∈ 𝑁}. Then, 𝐻 is a subgroup of 𝐺 and is called the smallest
subgroup of 𝐺 containing a.
A subgroup of cyclic group is also cyclic
A group of prime order is cyclic

Cyclic group is always abelian group
𝑍𝑝 is a cyclic group that has p-1 generators
𝑇ℎ𝑒 external product of groups is abelian if and only if each of the groups abelian groups
𝑇ℎ𝑒 order of a subgroup of a are finite order divides the order of the group (Lagrange’s
theorem)
A subgroup of a group is normal if and only if the left and right cosets are the same
Let G be a group and H be a subset of G. Then, H is normal if and only if 𝑔ℎ𝑔−1 ∈ 𝐻
Let G be a group and H be a normal subgroup of G. Then, if G is abelian (cyclic) group,
then G/H is also abelian (cyclic)
Let G be a group and H be a subset of G. Then, the index of H in G denoted by [𝐺, 𝐻] =
𝑛(𝐺)
.
𝑛(𝐻)
The homomorphic image of an abelian group is also abelian

Let ∝: (𝐺,∗) → (𝐻, ∆) be homomorphism. Then, 𝛼 is monomorphism if and only if
𝐾𝑒𝑟 ∝= {𝑒}.
A cyclic of order n is isomorphic to 𝑍𝑛

References
 Demissu Gemeda and Seid Mohammed ,(2008),fundamental concepts of algebra, Dept. of
Mathematics,AAU
 Durabin ,J.R. (2005). Modern Algebra, An introduction, 6𝑡ℎ ed., John Wily&Sons, New
york
 Fraleigh,J.B. (2003). A First Course In Abstract Algebra,7𝑡ℎ ,ed. ,Addison Wesley-World
Student Series.
 Sing , S. & Zameerudin, Q. (1990). Modern Algebra,3𝑟𝑑 ed.,Vikas Publishing House,New
Delhi.

Chapter 4
Rings
Introduction
Many sets are naturally endowed with two binary operations: addition and multiplication.
Examples that quickly come to mind are the integers, the integers modulo n, the real
numbers, matrices, and polynomials. When considering these sets as groups, we simply
used addition and ignored multiplication. In many instances, however, one wishes to take
into account both addition and multiplication. One abstract concept that does this is a ring.
This notion was originated in the mid-nineteenth century by Richard Dedekind.
Objectives:
State the definition of rings and give some examples.
Discuss some elementary properties of rings and apply them to solve some related
problems.
Describe some types of rings such as division ring, commutative rings integral domain and
fields.
Explain sub rings and characteristic of ring.
Define ideals and quotient rings.
Explain what is meant by ring homomorphism.
Discuss on polynomial rings.
Define prime ideals.
4.1. Definitions of Rings and examples
Can you explain rings and their properties?
Definition 4.1.1.
Let R be any non-empty set with two binary operations+ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⋅. Then (𝑅, +,⋅) is said to be
a ring if and only if
(𝑅, +) is an abelian group
⋅ is associative in 𝑅

⋅ is distributive over “ + ” i.e for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅,
𝑎 ⋅ (𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐 (left distributive )
(𝑏 + 𝑐) ⋅ 𝑎 = 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑎 + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑎 (right distributive)
We note that " + " and " ⋅ " may not be the usual addition and multiplication of real
numbers.
Notation:
In a ring (𝑅, +,⋅)
The identity element for (𝑅, +) is usually denoted by 0.
If the𝑟𝑒 exis𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛 identity element for ⋅ in 𝑅, we call it the unity of the ring (𝑅, +,⋅) and
denoted by 1.
The inverse of a with respect to " + " is denoted by – 𝑎.
If the inverse of a in R with respect to " ⋅ " exists, then it is denoted by 𝑎 −1 .
Examples:
(ℤ, +,⋅), (ℚ, +,⋅) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (ℝ, +,⋅) are rings where " + " and " ⋅ " are usual addition and
multiplication of real numbers.
Let ℝ be the set of real numbers
We define " ∗ " on ℝ as follows.
𝑎𝑏
For 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = . Then show that (ℝ, +,∗) is a ring.
3
Solution
It is clear that (ℝ, +) is an abelian group
Associatively of " ∗ "
𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏𝑐
Let, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ. Then, 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) = 𝑎 ∗ ( 3 ) = 9
and (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = ( 3 ) ∗ 𝑐 = 9
Hence, (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐) for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ. i.e. " ∗ "is associative in ℝ.

Distributive property of " ∗ " over " + ".
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ. Then
𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑐
𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 + 𝑐) = = = + = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) + (𝑎 ∗ 𝑐)
3 3 3 3
(𝑎+𝑏)𝑐 𝑎𝑐+𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑐 𝑏𝑐
Similarly, (𝑎 + 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = = = + = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑐) + (𝑎 ∗ 𝑐)
3 3 3 3
Hence, " ∗ " is distributive over " + ".

Therefore by 1,2 and 3 above, (ℝ, +,∗) is a ring.

Definition 4.1.2.
Let (ℝ, +,⋅) be a ring. We say:
(ℝ, +,⋅) is a commutative ring if 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑎 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ.
If ∃𝑢 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑢 = 𝑢 ⋅ 𝑎 = 𝑎 ∀ 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, then it is easy to show that 𝑢 is unique. 𝑢 is
called a unity element of ℝ and is often denoted by 1 and (ℝ, +,⋅) is called a ring with
unity.
(ℝ, +,⋅) is called a division ring if it is a ring with unity and for each non-zero 𝑎 ∈ ℝ, ∃
and element 𝑏 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑎 = 1.
(ℝ, +,⋅) is called a field if it is a commutative division ring.
Example
(ℤ, +,⋅) is a commutative ring with unity.
(ℚ, +,⋅) and (ℝ, +,⋅) are fields.
(ℤ𝑛 , ⨁𝑛 , ⨀𝑛 ) is a commutative ring with unity.
(ℤ7 , ⨁7 , ⨀7 ) is a field.
(ℤ6 , ⨁6 , ⨀6 ) is not a field.
Elementary Properties of Ring
Theorem 4.1.3.
Let (ℝ, +,⋅) be a ring. Then, for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, we have:
𝑎 ⋅ 0 = 0 ⋅ 𝑎 = 0.
𝑎 ⋅ (−𝑏) = (−𝑎) ⋅ 𝑏 = −(𝑎𝑏).
(– 𝑎) ⋅ (−𝑏) = 𝑎𝑏.
(−1) ⋅ (𝑎) = −𝑎, if 𝑅 has unity element 1.
(−1) ⋅ (−1) = 1, if 𝑅 has unity element 1.
𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐨𝐟
Observe that 𝑎 ⋅ 0 = 𝑎 ⋅ (0 + 0) = 𝑎 ⋅ 0 + 𝑎 ⋅ 0
Therefore, 0 = 𝑎 ⋅ 0 + [−(𝑎 ⋅ 0)] = {𝑎 ⋅ 0 + 𝑎 ⋅ 0} + [−(𝑎 ⋅ 0)]
= 𝑎 ⋅ 0 + {𝑎 ⋅ 0 + [−(𝑎 ⋅ 0)]}
=𝑎⋅0+0
= 𝑎 ⋅ 0.
Observe that 0 = 𝑎 ⋅ 0 = 𝑎 ⋅ [𝑏 + (−𝑏)] = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑎 ⋅ (−𝑏).

Therefore, 𝑎 ⋅ (−𝑏) = −(𝑎𝑏).
Similarly, (−𝑎) ⋅ 𝑏 = −(𝑎𝑏).
(−𝑎) ⋅ (−𝑏) = −[𝑎 ⋅ (−𝑏)] (by (2))
= −(−𝑎𝑏) (by(2))
= 𝑎𝑏.
(−1) ⋅ 𝑎 = −(1 ⋅ 𝑎) (by (2))
(−1) ⋅ (−1) = (1 ⋅ 1) (by (3))
=1
Theorem 4.1.4
Let (𝑅, +,⋅) be a ring with unity. Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅. If 𝑎 has right inverse 𝑏 and 𝑎 left inverse 𝑐
under the multiplicative binary operation (i.e. 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = 1 and 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑎 = 1), then 𝑏 = 𝑐.
Proof
𝑏 = 1 ⋅ 𝑏 = (𝑐𝑎)𝑏 = 𝑐(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑐. 1 = 𝑐.
Remark
Let (𝑅, +,⋅) be a ring with unity. Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅. If 𝑎 has both a right and a left inverse under
the multiplicative binary operation, the two are the same by Theorem 4.1.4 above. We shall
denote the unique two-sided inverse of 𝑎 by 𝑎−1 . An element of R which has a two sided
inverse under the multiplicative binary operation is called a unit element of R.
Theorem 4.1.5
(𝑅, +,⋅) be a ring with unity. Let 𝑈𝑅 be the set of all units of R. 𝑈𝑅 is a group under the
multiplicative binary operation of R.
Activity
1. Identify which of the following subsets of ℝ are rings or not?
a) (ℤ, +,⋅) (d) ({𝑎 + 𝑏√2|, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ}, +,⋅)
b) (ℕ, +,⋅) (e) (ℝ+ , +,⋅)
c) (ℚ, +,⋅) (f) ({𝑏√3|𝑏 ∈ ℝ}, +,⋅)
2. Let C denote the set of all continuous functions on [0,1]
For all 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐶, we define, 𝑓 + 𝑔, and 𝑓. 𝑔 by
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) and (𝑓. 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥), ∀𝑥 ∈ [0,1]
Then show that (𝐶, +,⋅) is a ring
3. Let 𝑆 = {𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖|𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℚ, 𝑖 = √−1}

Then (𝑆, +,⋅) is a ring where " + " and " ⋅ " are the usual addition and multiplication of
complex numbers.
4.2. Sub rings and characteristics of a ring
A non –empty subset S of a ring R is a sub ring of R if S itself is a ring with respect to the
binary operation of R.
Example :
The ring of even integers is a subring of the ring of all integers. The ring of integers is a
subring of the ring of rational numbers. If R is any ring , then R is a subring and {0} is
asubring.
Theorem 4.2.1
Let R be a ring and let S be a non –empty subset of R. Then S is a subring of R if and only
if
𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 ⟹ 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆; 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑎 ∈ 𝑆 ⟹ −𝑎 ∈ 𝑆
Proof:
(⟹): If S is a subring of R, clearly (1) and (2)
(⟸): Suppose (1) and (2) hold
Since 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 ⟹ 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, it follows that S is a subgroup of R under the
additive binary operation of R. Moreover, the additive binary operation of R is
commutative in R and hence in S. Therefore, S is an abelian group under the additive
binary operation of R.
Since the multiplicative binary operation of R is associative on R, it is also associative on
S.
The multiplicative binary operation of R is both left and right distributive over the binary
operation of R. This still holds when we restrict the underlying set to S. Therefore, S is a
ring under the binary operation of R and , hence S is a subring of R.
Theorem 4.2.2:
Let R be a ring and 𝑚, 𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠. Then for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 the following holds:
𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛
(𝑎𝑚 )𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑛
(𝑚 + 𝑛)𝑎 = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑛𝑎

𝑚(𝑛𝑎) = (𝑚𝑛)𝑎
(𝑚𝑎)(𝑛𝑏) = (𝑚𝑛)(𝑎𝑏) = (𝑛𝑎)(𝑚𝑏)
Proof (left as an exercise)
Definition 4.2.3:
Let R be a ring. If there exists a positive integer n such that 𝑛𝑎 = 0 for each 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, the
smallest such positive integer is called the characteristic of R. If no such positive integer
exists, R is said to have a characteristic zero.
Notation: The characteristic of R is denoted by charR.
Example :
The ring ℤ𝑛 is of characteristic n, while ℤ, ℚ, ℝ and ℂ all have characteristic 0.
Theorem 4.2.4
If R is a ring with unity, then R has characteristic 𝑛 > 0 if and only if 𝑛 is the smallest
positive integer such that 𝑛𝑒 = 0.
Proof:
(⟹) suppose 𝑛 > 0 is the characteristic of R. Then 𝑛𝑎 = 0 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅. In particular,
𝑛1 = 0. Suppose there is a positive integer 𝑚 such that 𝑚 < 𝑛 and 𝑚𝑒 = 0. Then for each
𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, we have:
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + ⋯ + 𝑎(𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)
= 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑒 + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑒 + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑒 + ⋯ + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑒(𝑚 factors)
= 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑒 + ⋯ + 𝑒)
= 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑚𝑒)
=𝑎⋅0
= 0.
However, this contradicts the fact that 𝑛 is the smallest positive integer such that 𝑛𝑎 = 0
for each 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅. Hence, 𝑛 is the smallest positive integer such that 𝑛1 = 0.
(⟸): Suppose 𝑛 is the smallest positive integer such that 𝑛1 = 0. Let 𝑎 be any element of
R. Then:
𝑛𝑎 = 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + ⋯ + 𝑎(𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)
= 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑒 + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑒 + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑒 + ⋯ + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑒(𝑛 factors)
= 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑒 + 𝑒 + 𝑒 + ⋯ + 𝑒)
= 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑛1)

=𝑎⋅0
= 0.
Activity
1. Which of the following become ring under addition and multiplication? If not why?
2. The set of positive integers.
3. The set of odd integers.
{𝑎 + 𝑏√2 ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℚ}
4. Determine whether the following rings are commutative , division rings or not?
a) (ℤ6 , +,∙)
b) (ℤ, +,∙)
c) (ℚ, +,∙)
d) (ℤ5 , +,∙)
5. Let * be defined on ℝ − {0} by :
𝑎𝑏
𝑎∗𝑏 = , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ − {0}
√3
Then
a) Is (ℝ − {0}, +,∗) a commutative ring?
b) Is (ℝ − {0}, +,∗) a division ring?
4.3. Ideals and quotient rings

Definition 4.3.1
A non-empty subset I of a ring R is called
A left ideal of R if
𝑎 − 𝑏 ∈ 𝐼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐼
𝑟𝑎 ∈ 𝐼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐼
and I is called a right ideal if
𝑎 − 𝑏 ∈ 𝐼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐼
𝑎𝑟 ∈ 𝐼 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐼
A non empty subset I of ring R is called an ideal (two sided ideal) if I is both left and right
ideal of R.
Example:
Let R be a ring. Then R and {0} are ideals of the ring.

Here R and {0} are trivial (improper) ideals of R. Any right , left or two sided ideal I of R ,
which is not equal to {0} and R is called a proper right , left or two –sided ideal of R.
Let 𝐸 = {2𝑚 ∶ 𝑚 ∈ ℤ} and consider the ring (ℤ, +,∙)
Then for any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑟 ∈ ℤ , we have
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2𝑝 − 2𝑎
= 2(𝑝 − 𝑎)
= 2ℎ, ℎ = 𝑝 − 𝑎 ∈ ℤ i.e. 𝑥 − 𝑦 ∈ 𝐸
Moreover , 𝑟𝑥 = 𝑟(2𝑝) = 2(𝑝𝑟) = 2𝑠 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟 ∈ ℤ
and 𝑥𝑟 = (2𝑝)𝑟 = 2(𝑝𝑟) ∈ 𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑟 ∈ ℤ
Hence, is a two sided ideal of the ring of integers.
Let 𝑆 = {𝑎 + 𝑏√2 ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} .Then , show that S is a two sided ideal of (ℝ, +,∙)
Solution:
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆, then, 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏√2 , 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ
𝑦 = 𝑎′ + 𝑏 ′ √2, 𝑎′ , 𝑏 ′ ∈ ℝ
Then , i. 𝑥 − 𝑦 = (𝑎 − 𝑎′ ) + (𝑏 − 𝑏 ′ )√2
= 𝑐 + 𝑑√2 ∈ 𝑆 Where 𝑐 = 𝑎 − 𝑎′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 = 𝑏 − 𝑏 ′
For all 𝑟 ∈ ℝ,
𝑟𝑥 = 𝑟(𝑎 + 𝑏√2)
= 𝑟𝑎 + 𝑟𝑏√2
= ℎ + 𝑘√2, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ℎ = 𝑟𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = 𝑟𝑏 ∈ ℝ
⟹ 𝑟𝑥 ∈ 𝑆
Similarly,𝑥𝑟 ∈ 𝑆 for all 𝑟 ∈ ℝ. Thus, S is a two sided ideal of (ℝ, +,∙)
Definition 4.3.2
Let R be a commutative ring with unity and let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅. The ideal (𝑎) = {𝑎𝑟: 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅} is
called the principal of R generated by a.
Theorem 4.3.3
Every ideal of the ring ℤ of integers is principal.
Proof:
Let I be an ideal of ℤ .We must show that 𝐼 = (𝑎) for some 𝑎 ∈ ℤ.
𝐼𝑓 𝐼 = (0), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼 = (0) = {0. 𝑟: 𝑟 ∈ 𝑅} , hence I is principal.

Suppose I contains a non –zero element, say𝑥. If 𝑥 is negative , then –𝑥 is positive and
−𝑥 ∈ 𝐼
Hence I contains a positive integer. Let a be the smallest positive integer contained in I.
Claim: 𝐼 = (𝑎) , clearly (𝑎) ⊆ 𝐼. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑏 ∈ 𝐼, by division algorithm ∃ 𝑞, 𝑟 ∈ ℤ such that
𝑏 = 𝑞𝑎 + 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑎 . 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 I is an ideal and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐼, 𝑞𝑎 ∈ 𝐼.
Thus 𝑟 = 𝑏 − 𝑞𝑎 belongs to I. Since a was the smallest positive integer belonging to I ,
we must have 𝑟 = 0.
Hence , 𝑏 = 𝑞𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ (𝑎). 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝐼 ∈ (𝑎), 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝐼 = (𝑎)
Quotient Rings
Ideals play approximately the same role in the theory of rings as normal subgroups do in
the theory of groups.
We now proceed to define the quotient ring of a ring R modulo an ideal of R.
Let R be a ring and let I be an ideal of R. Consider the additive group (𝑅, +) and the
quotient group R/I in which addition is given by:
(𝑎 + 𝐼) + (𝑏 + 𝐼) = (𝑎 + 𝑏) + 𝐼.
We wish to make the quotient group R/I into ring.
Theorem 4.3.4
If multiplication is defined by
(𝑎 + 𝐼)(𝑏 + 𝐼) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝐼
Then the quotient group R/I becomes a ring.
Proof
We first show that the multiplication given in R/I is well defined.
Suppose 𝑎 + 𝐼 = 𝑎′ + 𝐼 and 𝑏 + 𝐼 = 𝑏 ′ + 𝐼.
Then, 𝑎 = 𝑎′ + 𝑥 and 𝑏 = 𝑏 ′ + 𝑦 for some 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼
⟹ 𝑎𝑏 = (𝑎′ + 𝑥)(𝑏 ′ + 𝑦) = 𝑎′ 𝑏 ′ + 𝑥𝑏 ′ + 𝑎′ 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦
⟹ 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎′ 𝑏 ′ = 𝑥𝑏 ′ + 𝑎′ 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 ∈ 𝐼
⟹ 𝑎𝑏 + 𝐼 = 𝑎′ 𝑏 ′ 𝐼.
Therefore, (𝑎 + 𝐼)(𝑏 + 𝐼) = (𝑎′ + 𝐼)(𝑏 ′ + 𝐼)
2.The multiplication is associative and distributive over addition .

Definition 4.3.5
If R is a ring, I is ideal of R, then the ring R/I is called the Quotient ring (or factor ring) of
R modulo I.
Example :
Let 𝐼 = {6𝑛: 𝑛 ∈ ℤ}. Then we have then before that 𝐼 is an ideal of (ℤ, +, . ).
Then , ℤ⁄𝐼 ={𝐼, 1 + 𝐼, 2 + 𝐼, 3 + 𝐼, 4 + 𝐼, 5 + 𝐼}
The ℤ⁄𝐼 is a ring called the ring of integers modulo 6 and multiplication modulo 6.
Activity
1. List all ideals of 𝐴12 .
2. Let S be the ring of all continuous functions from R into R with the usual addition and
multiplication of functions and let 𝐼 = {𝑓 ∈ 𝑆: 𝑓(𝑛) = 0∀𝑛 ∈ 𝑁}
a) Show that I is an ideal of S.
b) If 𝐼1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 are ideals of a ring R.
3. Prove that 𝐼1 ∩ 𝐼2 is an ideal of R. Give an example to show that 𝐼1 ∪ 𝐼2 need not be an
ideal of R.
4. Let I be an ideal of a ring R.
If 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∈ 𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 − 𝑑 ∈ 𝐼, prove that 𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑 ∈ 𝐼
5. Find the ideal generated by 2 in 𝑍8 .
6. Let S and W be rings. Define addition and multiplication on 𝑆 × 𝑊 𝑎𝑠 follows:
(𝑎, 𝑏) + (𝑐, 𝑑) = (𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑏 + 𝑑)
(𝑎, 𝑏) × (𝑐, 𝑑) = (𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑑)
a) Prove that 𝑆 × 𝑊 is a ring.
G. Prove that the intersection of arbitrary family of ideals is an ideal
H .Let a be fixed element of a ring R. Then show that 𝐼 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 ∶ 𝑎𝑥 = 0} is an ideal of R.
Prove that the intersection of two left ideals of a ring is again a left ideal of the ring.
𝑎 0
The set N of all 2x2 matrices of the form [ ] for 𝑎, 𝑏 integers is a left ideal but not a right
𝑏 0
ideal in the ring R of all 2x2 matrices with elements as integers.
If R is a ring and 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, let 𝑀 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 ∶ 𝑎𝑥 = 0}. Prove that M is a right ideal of R.
4.4. Homomorphism of rings

Definition 4.4.1
Let 𝑓 be a mapping from a ring R into a ring S such that

i. 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑏), a,b ∈ 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑
ii. 𝑓(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑏), 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅
Then , 𝑓 is called a homomorphism of R into S.
Note:
If 𝑓 is one to one , then f is called a monomorphism of R into S.
If 𝑓 is onto , then 𝑓 is called an epimorphism of R into S.
If 𝑓 is both one to one and onto , then 𝑓 is called an isomorphism of R into S. In this case
, we say that the two rings R and S are isomorphic and we write 𝑅 ≅ 𝑆.
Theorem 4.4.2
Let 𝑓: 𝑅 ⟶ 𝑆 be a homomorphism of a ring R in to a ring S. Then we have the following:
If 0 is the zero of R , then 𝑓(0) is the zero of S.
If 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, then 𝑓(−𝑎) = −𝑓(𝑎)
Proof:
Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅. Then 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎 + 0) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(0). But
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 0. Hence ,𝑓(𝑎) + 0 = 𝑓(𝑎)+𝑓(0). Since (𝑆, +) is a group , we have by
cancellation property that 𝑓(0) = 0. Hence , 𝑓(0) is the zero element of S.
0 = 𝑓(0) = 𝑓(𝑎 + (−𝑎)) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(−𝑎), therefore ,
𝑓(−𝑎) = −𝑓(𝑎)
Definition 4.4.3.
Let 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑆 be a homomorphism of a ring R into a ring S.
The set {𝑓(𝑎): 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅} is called the homomorphic image of R by the mapping 𝑓 and is
denoted by Imf.
The set {𝑎 ∈ 𝑅: 𝑓(𝑎) = 0} is called the kernel of f and is denoted by kerf.
Theorem 4.4.4
Let 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑆 be a homomorphism of a ring R into a ring S. Then
Imf is a subring of S.
Kerf is an ideal of R.
Proof
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼𝑚𝑓. Then ∃ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑏). Then:
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏) ∈ 𝐼𝑚𝑓:

𝑥𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎𝑏) ∈ 𝐼𝑚𝑓.
−𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(−𝑎) ∈ 𝐼𝑚𝑓.
Hence, Imf is a sub ring of S.
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝑓 and let 𝑟 ∈ 𝑅 then:
𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑏) = 0 + 0 = 0
Therefore, 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝑓.
𝑓(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎). 𝑓(𝑏) = 0.0 = 0
Therefore, 𝑎𝑏 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝑓.
𝑓(−𝑎) = −𝑓(𝑎) = −0 = 0
Therefore, −𝑎 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝑓.
Thus, Kerf is a sub ring of R, and then
𝑓(𝑟𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑟)𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑟). 0 = 0
𝑓(𝑎𝑟) = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑟) = 0. 𝑓(𝑟) = 0
Therefore, 𝑟𝑎, 𝑎𝑟 ∈ 𝐾𝑒𝑟𝑓.
Hence, Kerf is a two-sided ideal of R.
Theorem 4.4.5
Let 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑆 be a homomorphism of a ring R into a ring S. Then:
If 1 is the unity of R, then 𝑓(1) is the unity of the subring Imf of 𝑆.
If R is a commutative ring, then Imf is a commutative ring.
Proof
Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝑚𝑓. Then ∃𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 such that 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎). Then
𝑓(1)𝑥 = 𝑓(1)𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(1𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑥
𝑥𝑓(1) = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(1) = 𝑓(𝑎1) = 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑥
Hence, 𝑓(1)𝑥 = 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓(1)∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐼𝑚𝑓.
Therefore, 𝑓(1) is the unity of the subring 𝑖𝑚𝑓 of S.
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑖𝑚𝑓. 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∃ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ such that 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑏)
Then , 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑏𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑦𝑥
Therefore , 𝐼𝑚𝑓 is a commutative ring.
Let R be a ring and I be an ideal of R. Recall that regarding R as an additive group and R/I
as the quotient group, the map 𝜑: → 𝑅/𝐼 given by 𝜑(𝑟) = 𝑟 + 𝐼 is an epimorphism of the
group R onto the grup R/I. It was called the canonical epimorphism. The kernel of 𝜑 is I.

We show below that 𝜑 is also an epimorphism of the ring R onto the quotient ring R/I with
kernel I.
Theorem 4.4.6
Let R be a ring and I an ideal of R. The mapping 𝜑: 𝑅 → 𝑅/𝐼 given by 𝜑(𝑟) = 𝑟 + 𝐼 is an
epimorphism of rings with kernel I.
Proof
Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅
𝜑(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝐼 = (𝑎 + 𝐼)(𝑏 + 𝐼) = 𝜑(𝑎)𝜑(𝑏)
Therefore, 𝜑 also preserves multiplication and hence is an epimorphism of rings.
Ker(𝜑) = {𝑎 ∈ 𝑅: 𝜑(𝑎) = 𝐼}
= {𝑎 ∈ 𝑅: 𝑎 + 𝐼 = 𝐼}
= {𝑎 ∈ 𝑅: 𝑎 ∈ 𝐼}
= 𝐼.
Theorem 4.4.7
(Fundamental theorem of homomorphisms).
Let 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑆 be a homomorphism of a ring R into a ring S with ker 𝑓 = 𝐾.
Then 𝑅/𝐾 ≅ 𝐼𝑚𝑓.
Proof
Define 𝜓: R/K→ 𝐼𝑚𝑓 by 𝜓(𝑎 + 𝐾) = 𝑓(𝑎).
𝜓 is a group isomorphism. Therefore, it remains only to show that 𝜓 preserves
multiplication.
Let 𝑎 + 𝐾, 𝑏 + 𝐿 ∈ R/K. Then
𝜓[(𝑎 + 𝐾)(𝑏 + 𝐾)] = 𝜓(𝑎𝑏 + 𝐾) = 𝑓(𝑎𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑏)
= 𝜓(𝑎 + 𝐾)𝜓(𝑏 + 𝐾)
Thus, 𝜓 preserves multiplication and hence is an isomorphism of a ring R/K onto the ring
Imf.
Consider the ring Z of integers. We saw That every ideal of Z is of the form 𝑛𝑍, where 𝑛
is the smallest positive integer contained in the ideal.
Theorem 4.4.8
Let 𝑛 be a positive integer grater than or equal to 2. Then 𝑍𝑛 ≅ 𝑍⁄𝑛𝑍 as rings.
Proof

Define 𝜙: 𝑍𝑛 → 𝑍⁄𝑛𝑍 by 𝜙(𝑎) = 𝑎 + 𝑛𝑍.
It is an easy exercise to show that 𝜙 is an isomorphism of rings.
Activity
1. Let 𝑓: 𝑆 → 𝑊 and 𝑔: 𝑊 → 𝑇 be ring homomorphisms. Prove that
𝑔𝑜𝑓: 𝑆 → 𝑇 is a ring homomorphism.
2. Let R be a ring with 1, and 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 be given by 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥. is 𝑓 a ring homomorphism?
3. Let S be the ring of polynomials over R and let 𝑟 ∈ 𝑅. Let 𝛼𝑟 : 𝑆 → 𝑅 be defined by
𝛼𝑟 (𝑓) = 𝑓(𝑟) for 𝑓 ∈ 𝑆. Is 𝛼𝑟 a ring homomorphism?
4. Let 𝑓: 𝑍4 → 𝑍2 be given by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . Is 𝑓 a ring homomorphism?
4.5 Integral Domains and the field of quotients

One of the most important algebraic properties of our usual number system is the fact that
if the product of two numbers is zero, then at least one of the two numbers is zero. This is
the basis for solving quadratic equations. For example, to solve the equation
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 = 0 in the real number system. We need only observe that 𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6 =
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3). Then, by the above mentioned property of the real number system, it
follows that either 𝑥 − 2 = 0 or x − 3 = 0, and hence 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3.
One the other hand, in 𝑍12 , (2)(6) = 0, although 2 ≠ 0 and 6 ≠ 0, showing that 𝑍12 does
not possess the above mentioned property.
Definition 4.5.1
Let R be a ring. Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅\{0}. If 𝑎𝑏 = 0, then 𝑎 and 𝑏 are called zero divisors (or
divisors of zero). In, particular, 𝑎 is a left divisor of zero and 𝑏 is right divisor of zero.
In a commutative ring, there is no distinction between left and right divisors of zero.
Example
The rings Z,Q and R do not contain zero divisors; 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9 and 10 are zero divisors in
𝑍12 .
Definition 4.5.2
Let R be a ring. We say that the cancellation laws hold in R if for 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅, with 𝑎 ≠ 0,
we have:
𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐 ⟹ 𝑏 = 𝑐
𝑏𝑎 = 𝑐𝑎 ⟹ 𝑏 = 𝑐

Theorem 4.5.3
Let R be a ring. The cancelation laws hold in R if and only if R has no left or right divisors
of zero.
Proof
(⟹) Suppose the cancellation laws hold in R. Suppose 𝑎𝑏 = 0 for some 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅. We
must show that either 𝑎 = 0 or b = 0. If 𝑎 ≠ 0 then 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎. 0 implies that 𝑏 = 0 .
Similarly, 𝑏 ≠ 0 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎 = 0, so there can be no left or right divisors of zero.
(⟸) Conversely, suppose R has no left or right divisors of zero. Suppose 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐 with
𝑎 ≠ 0. Then 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏 − 𝑐) = 0
Since 𝑎 ≠ 0, we must have 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 0, i.e. 𝑏 = 𝑐. A similar argument shows that 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑐𝑎
with 𝑎 ≠ 0 implies 𝑏 = 𝑐.
Definition 4.5.4
An integral domain is a commutative ring with unity containing no divisors of zero.
Example
The rings 𝑍, 𝑄, 𝑅 are integral domains. The ring 𝑍12 is not an integral domain, although it
is a cumulating ring with unity.
The ring 𝑍𝑛 is not an integral domain, if n is not a prime number. To see this, let 𝑚 ∈ 𝑍𝑛 ,
where 𝑚 ≠ 0 and gcd(𝑚, 𝑛) ≠ 1. Let 𝑑 = gcd(𝑚, 𝑛).
𝑛 𝑛 𝑚 𝑛
Then 𝑚 (𝑑) = 0 𝑖𝑛 𝑍𝑛 , since 𝑚 (𝑑) = ( 𝑑 ) 𝑛, a multiple of n, while neither 𝑚 𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 0.
𝑑
Hence, 𝑚 is a divisor of zero in 𝑍𝑛 .

Every field is an integral domain. To see this, let F be a field. Suppose 𝑎𝑏 = 0 for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈
𝐹, 𝑎 ≠ 0.
1 1 1
Then, 𝑏 = 1𝑏 = (𝑎 . 𝑎) 𝑏 = 𝑎 (𝑎𝑏) = (𝑎) 0 = 0.
Thus, there are no divisors of zero in F.

Theorem 4.5.5
Every finite integral domain is a field.
Proof
Let D be a finite integral domain.
Let 0,1, 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … 𝑎𝑛 be all the elements of D.
Let 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑥 ≠ 0.

Now consider 𝑥1, 𝑥𝑎1 , 𝑥𝑎2 , … 𝑥𝑎𝑛 .
These elements of D are distinct, for 𝑥𝑎𝑖 = 𝑥𝑎𝑗 implies that 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎𝑗 , by the cancellation
laws. Also, none of these elements is zero, since D has no zero divisors.
Hence by counting, we find that 𝑥1, 𝑥𝑎1 , 𝑥𝑎2 , … 𝑥𝑎𝑛 are the elements 1, 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … 𝑎𝑛 in
some order. Therefore, either = 𝑥1 = 1, in which case 𝑥 = 1, or 𝑥𝑎𝑖 = 1 for some 𝑎𝑖 . In
either case, there exist 𝑦 ∈ 𝐷 such that 𝑥𝑦 = 1, showing that 𝑥 has a multiplicative inverse.
D is a a commutative ring with unity in which every non-zero element is invertible under
multiplication. Hence, D is a field.
Corollary 4.5.6
If p is prime, then 𝑍𝑝 is a field.
Proof
Follows from the fact that 𝑍𝑝 is a finite integral domain.
Field of Quotients of an integral domain
Let D be an integral domain.
Let 𝐸 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑏 ≠ 0}
Define a relation ~ on E by:
(𝑎, 𝑏)~(𝑐, 𝑑) ⇔ 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐
Theorem 4.5.7
The relation ~ is an equivalence relation on E.
Proof
(𝑎, 𝑏)~(𝑎, 𝑏), since 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 for all (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝐸.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒fore, ~ reflexive.
Suppose (𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑐, 𝑑) ∈ 𝐸 such that (𝑎, 𝑏)~(𝑐, 𝑑).
Then, 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐
⟹ 𝑑𝑎 = 𝑐𝑏, since R is a commutative ring
⟹ (𝑐, 𝑑)~(𝑎, 𝑏)
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, ~ is symmetric.
Suppose (𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑐, 𝑑), (𝑒, 𝑓) ∈ 𝐸 such that (𝑎, 𝑏)~(𝑐, 𝑑) and (𝑐, 𝑑)~(𝑒, 𝑓).
Then 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐 and 𝑐𝑓 = 𝑑𝑒.
⟹ 𝑎𝑑𝑓 = 𝑏𝑐𝑓 and bcf = bde (multiplying the first equation by 𝑓 and the second by b)

⟹ 𝑎𝑑𝑓 = 𝑏𝑑𝑒
⟹ 𝑎𝑓𝑑 = 𝑏𝑒𝑑
⟹ 𝑎𝑓 = 𝑏𝑒 (by cancellation as 𝑑 ≠ 0)
⟹ (𝑎, 𝑏)~(𝑒, 𝑓)
Therefore, ~ is transitive.
Notation
𝑎
We shall denote the equivalence class of (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝐸 by , i.e.
𝑏
𝑎
= {{(𝑐, 𝑑) ∈ 𝐸: (𝑐, 𝑑)~(𝑎, 𝑏)} = (𝑐, 𝑑) ∈ 𝐸: 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐}.
𝑏
Let 𝐹 = The set of all equivalence classes of ~ on E.

𝑎
= { : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑏 ≠ 0}
𝑏
We define “addition” and “multiplication” on F by:
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐
+ = ; 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑐 𝑎 𝑐
. = 𝑏𝑑 for all 𝑏 , 𝑑 ∈ 𝐹.
𝑏 𝑑
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒎 4.5.8
The “addition” and “multiplication” given above are well-defined.
Proof
𝑎 𝑎′ 𝑐 𝑐′
Suppose 𝑏 = 𝑏′ and 𝑑 = 𝑑′
Then 𝑎𝑏 ′ = 𝑐𝑑′ = 𝑐 ′ 𝑑 … (1)

Multiplying the first equation by 𝑑𝑑 ′ and the second by 𝑏𝑏 ′ we obtain
𝑎𝑑𝑏 ′ 𝑑 ′ = 𝑎′ 𝑑 ′ 𝑏𝑑 … (2)
𝑏𝑐𝑏 ′ 𝑑 ′ = 𝑏 ′ 𝑐 ′ 𝑑 … (3)
Adding (2) and (3) we obtain:
(𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑏 ′ 𝑑 ′ = (𝑎′ 𝑑 ′ + 𝑏 ′ 𝑐 ′ )𝑏𝑑
𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐 𝑎′ 𝑑′ + 𝑏 ′ 𝑐 ′
⟹ =
𝑏𝑑 𝑏′ 𝑑′
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎′ 𝑐 ′
⟹ + = ′+ ′
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏 𝑑
Therefore, the “addition” given is well-defined. It can similarly be shown that the
“multiplication” given is also well-defined.

Theorem 4.5.9
F, with respect to the addition and multiplication defined above, is a field.
Proof
It is an easy exercise to show that the addition defined on F is both commutative and
associative.
0
The zero element of F is 𝑥 for any 0 ≠ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷.
𝑎 −𝑎
The additive inverse of 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 .
𝑏
Therefore, (𝐹, +) is an abelian group.

It is also an easy exercise to show that the multiplication defined on F is both commutative
and associative.
Similarly, it is an easy exercise that the multiplication defined on F is distributive over the
addition defined on F. Therefore, (𝐹, +, . ) is a commutative ring.
𝑥
The unit element of F is 𝑥 for any 0 ≠∈ 𝐷.
𝑎 𝑏
Let 𝑏 be an non-zero element of F, i.e. 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 0 then 𝑎 is also an element of F. And
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎𝑏
(𝑏) (𝑎) = 𝑏𝑎 = The unit element of F.
Hence, every non-zero element of F is invertible under multiplication. Therefore, (𝐹, +, . )

is a field.
Definition 4.5.10
F is called the field of quotients of D (or the field of fractions of D).
Observe that in the special case when D is the ring of integers Z, the field F so constructed
above is the field of rational numbers Q. The field F so constructed could be regarded in
some sense as the smallest field containing D. This is obvious, since every field containing
𝑎
D must contain all elements of the form 𝑏 for 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐷 with 𝑏 ≠ 0.
Activity
1. List all zero divisors of 𝑍14 .
2. Let 𝑓: 𝑆 → 𝑊 be a ring isomorphism. Prove that if 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆 is a zero divisor , then 𝑓(𝑎) is a
zero divisor in W.
3. Find the field of quotients of 𝑍3 .
4. Let 𝑓: 𝑆 → 𝑊 be a ring homomorphism which is onto. If 𝑛 ≠ 0 is the characteristic of S,
show that characteristic of W is non-zero and divides 𝑛.

4.6. Polynomial Rings
If R is a commutative ring and 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ∈ 𝑅, then an expression of the form
𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 (∗)
is called a polynomial in 𝑥. It is a finite sum of terms, each of which is some element of R
times a nonnegative integral power of 𝑥. We become acquainted with such expressions,
and how to add and multiply them, in elementary algebra. H𝑒𝑟𝑒we want to consider
polynomials in the context of commutative rings.
Definition 4.6.1
Let R be a commutative ring. A polynomial is indeterminate 𝒙 over R is an expression of
the form (*) where the coefficients 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are elements of R.
Note
If 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 , then the integer n is the degree of the polynomial, and 𝑎𝑛 is its leading
coefficient.
A polynomial over a field is said to be monic if its leading coefficients is the unity of the
field.
Two polynomials in x are equal if and only if the coefficients of like powers of 𝑥 are
equal.
The set of all polynomials in 𝑥 over R will be denoted by R[x].
The indeterminate x used in constructing R[x] can be any element such that an expression
of the form (*) equals the zero element of R if and only if 𝑎0 = 𝑎1 = ⋯ = 𝑎𝑛 = 0 . This
requirement on x is equivalent to the requirement that two polynomials in x are equal if
and only if the coefficients of like powers of x are equal.
Polynomials are added by adding coefficients of like powers of 𝑥. They are multiplied by
assuming that the laws of a commutative ring apply to all symbols present (the elements of
R, the powers of 𝑥, the + sing, and the juxtaposition of the coefficients with powers of 𝑥).
Before stating the formal definition that follows from this assumption, let us look at an
example.
ln 𝑍[𝑥],
(2𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 ) + (1 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 )
= (0 + 2𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 + 0𝑥 3 )(1 + 0𝑥 + (−3)𝑥 2 + (−1)𝑥 3 )

= (0 + 1) + (2 + 0)𝑥 + (5 − 3)𝑥 2 + (0 − 1)𝑥 3
= 1 + 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 , and
(2𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 )(1 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 ) = 2𝑥(1 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 ) + 5𝑥 2 (1 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 )
= (2𝑥 − 6𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 4 ) + (5𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 5 )
= 2𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 3 − 17𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 5
Definition 4.6.2
Let
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚 𝑥 𝑚
And
𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
be polynomials over a commutative ring R. Then
𝑝(𝑥) + 𝑞(𝑥) = (𝑎0 + 𝑏0 ) + (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 )𝑥 + ⋯ + (𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 )𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛+1 𝑥 𝑛+1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 ,
for 𝑚 ≥ 𝑛 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- (1)
With a similar formula if 𝑚 < 𝑛.
And 𝑝(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑎0 𝑏0 + (𝑎0 𝑏1 + 𝑎1 𝑏0 )𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑚+𝑛 --------- (2)
The coefficient of 𝑥 𝑘 being
𝑎0 𝑏𝑘 + 𝑎1 𝑏𝑘−1 + 𝑎2 𝑏𝑘−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑘 𝑏0
Example
In ℤ4 [𝑥]
2 + 2𝑥 + (2 + 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )
And (2 + 2𝑥)(2 + 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) = 2𝑥 + 2𝑥 2
Theorem 4.6.3
If R is a commutative ring then 𝑅[𝑥] is commutative ring with respect to the operations
defined by (1) and (2). If R is an integral domain, then 𝑅[𝑥] is an integral domain.
Proof:
Then zero of 𝑅[𝑥] is the polynomial; having all coefficients equal to the zero of R.
Assume that R is an integral domain, with unity 1. Then it is easy to verify that the
polynomial of degree zero with coefficient 1 is a unity for 𝑅[𝑥]. Also, if 𝑝(𝑥) and 𝑞(𝑥) is
nonzero elements of 𝑅[𝑥], with leading coefficient 𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑛 ≠ 0, and thus 𝑝(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥) is also

nonzero. Therefore, 𝑅[𝑥] have no zero divisors. This proves that 𝑅[𝑥] is an integral
domain.
Notice, in particular, that 𝐹[𝑥] is an integral domain if F is a field. However 𝐹[𝑥] is not a
field, no matter what F is. The ring 𝑅[𝑥] is called the ring of polynomial in 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑅. In the
following sections we concentrate on rings of polynomials over fields. We use deg𝑓(𝑥) 𝑡𝑜
denote the degree of a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥).
Theorem: (Division Algorithm) 4.6.4
If 𝑓(𝑥 ) and 𝑔(𝑥) are polynomials over a field F, with 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0 then there exist unique
polynomial 𝑞(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟(𝑥) over F such that
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥), with 𝑟(𝑥) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟(𝑥) < 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑔(𝑥).
The polynomial 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) are called, respectively , the quotient and remainder in the
division of 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒃𝒚 𝒈(𝒙).
Proof:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 .
Since 𝑔(𝑥) = 0, 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑏𝑛 ≠ 0 so that deg 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑛. The theorem is trivial
for 𝑓(𝑥) = 0, and therefore we also assume that 𝑎0 ≠ 0 so that deg 𝑓(𝑥)=m.
We first prove that the existence of 𝑞(𝑥) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟(𝑥), using induction on m. If 𝑚 < 𝑛, then
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥).0+𝑓(𝑥) gives the required representation ; that is , we can take
𝑞(𝑥) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥). 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 assume that 𝑚 ≥ 𝑛. If 𝑚 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 and
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑏0 in this case 𝑎0 = 𝑏0 𝑏0−1 𝑎0 + 0; hence we can take 𝑞(𝑥)=𝑏0−1 𝑎0 and 𝑟(𝑥) = 0
It remains to prove the statement for deg 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚 , on the basis of the induction
hypothesis that it is true whenever 𝑓(𝑥) is replaced by a polynomial of degree less than m.
Let 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑚−𝑛 𝑔(𝑥). Then 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑓1 (𝑥) < 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑓(𝑥).
Therefore, by induction hypothesis, there exist polynomials 𝑞1 (𝑥) and 𝑟1 (𝑥) 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ∶
𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑞1 (𝑥) + 𝑟1 (𝑥), with 𝑟1 (𝑥) = 0 𝑜𝑟 deg 𝑟1 (𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥).
This implies that :
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑚−𝑛 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)𝑞1 (𝑥) + 𝑟1 (𝑥)
= 𝑔(𝑥)[𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑚−𝑛 + 𝑞1 (𝑥)] + 𝑟1 (𝑥).
Thus we can take 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑚−𝑛 + 𝑞1 (𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑟1 (𝑥). This proves the
existence of 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥).

To prove that the polynomial 𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) are unique, assume that 𝑞 ∗ (𝑥) and 𝑟 ∗ (𝑥) are
also polynomial over F, and that
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑞 ∗ (𝑥) + 𝑟 ∗ (𝑥), 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟 ∗ (𝑥) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟 ∗ (𝑥) < deg 𝑔(𝑥)
Then 𝑔(𝑥)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑞 ∗ (𝑥) + 𝑟 ∗ (𝑥)
And 𝑔(𝑥)[𝑞(𝑥) − 𝑞 ∗ (𝑥)] = 𝑟 ∗ (𝑥) − 𝑟(𝑥)
The right side of this equation is zero or of degree less than deg 𝑔(𝑥). Since the left side is
zero or of degree at least 𝑔(𝑥), this forces 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑞 ∗ (𝑥). Then we must also have 𝑟 ∗ (𝑥) =
𝑟(𝑥).
If the indeterminate 𝑥 in a polynomial.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥]
Is replaced by an element 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹, then the result is an element of F:
𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑐 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑐 𝑛 ∈ 𝐹.
The mapping from 𝐹[𝑥]to F given by 𝑓(𝑥) ⟶ 𝑓(𝑐) is a ring homomorphism , because of
the way in which the operations are defined on 𝐹[𝑥]. We say that 𝑓(𝑐) results from 𝑓(𝑥)
,by substitution of 𝑐 for 𝑥. 𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑖𝑛 𝐹[𝑥], 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓(𝑐) = 𝑔(𝑐) in F.
Example
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 2 ∈ ℝ[𝑥], 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑓(3) = 33 − 2. 32 + 2 = 11 ∈ ℝ
Theorem: (Remainder theorem) 4.6.5
If 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝐹[𝑥], 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹,then the remainder in the division of 𝑓(𝑥) by 𝑥 − 𝑐 is 𝑓(𝑐).
Proof:
Because deg(𝑥 − 𝑐) = 1, the remainder in t he division of 𝑓(𝑥) by 𝑥 − 𝑐 must be either 0
or degee 0. Thus , for some 𝑞(𝑥)∈F[x].
f(x) =(x-c)q(x)+r, with r∈F
Substitution of c for x yields
f(x) =(c-c)q(x)+r=r
Example:
Divide f(x) =𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 2 ∈ ℝ[𝑥] by 𝑥 − 3
The quotient is 𝑥 2 +x+3 and the remainder is 11. Also, 𝑓(3) = 11, as we saw in the
example above.

If f(x), g(x)∈F[x] , with g(x)≠0, then f(x) is divisible by g(x) over F if f(x)q(x) for some
𝑞(𝑥) ∈ 𝐹[𝑥].Thus 𝑓(𝑥) is divisible by 𝑔(𝑥) if the remainder in the division of 𝑓(𝑥) by
𝑔(𝑥) is zero. If f(x) is divisible by 𝑔(𝑥) over F, then we also say that 𝑔(𝑥) is a factor of
𝑓(𝑥) over F.
Theorem 4.6.6
If 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝐹(𝑥) and 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹, then 𝑥 − 𝑐 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) if and only if 𝑓(𝑐) = 0.
Proof:
An element 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹 is called a root (or zero) of a polynomial, f(x)∈ 𝐹[𝑥] 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑐) = 0
Then by factor theorem, c is a root of 𝑓(𝑥) if and only if 𝑥 − 𝑐 is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥).
Definition 4.6.7
A polynomial 𝑝(𝑥) ∈ 𝐹[𝑥] is irreducible (or prime ) over F if:
𝑖. 𝑝(𝑥) has a positive degree:
𝑖𝑖. 𝑝(𝑥) is not expressible as a product of polynomials of positive degree over F.
Note:
The property of being irreducible depends on the field F. For example , 𝑥 2 − 2 is
irreducible over ℚ but reducible over ℝ, i.e. 𝑥 2 − 2 = (𝑥 + √2)(𝑥 − √2)
Activity
1. Perform the following operation.
(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) + (2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2) 𝑖𝑛 ℤ3 [𝑥]
(2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) + (−𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1) 𝑖𝑛 ℤ3 [𝑥]
(3𝑥 + 4) + (2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 + 2) 𝑖𝑛 ℤ6 [𝑥]
(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2)+(𝑥 − 2) 𝑖𝑛 ℤ5 [𝑥]
2. Which of the following polynomials are irreducible over ℤ5 [𝑥]? If reducible , factorize it.
a) 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 3
b) 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 + 1
c) 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4
3. Find the quotient and the remainder of
a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 2 when divided by (𝑥 + 1) 𝑖𝑛 ℤ3 .
b) 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 when divided by (𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑖𝑛 ℤ𝑛 .

4.7. Prime fields
Let R be ring with unity 1.
Recall that:
1 + 1 + ⋯ + 1(𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠), 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 > 0
𝑛1 { (−1) + (−1) +⋯+ (−1)(|𝑛|𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠), 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 < 0
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = 0
Theorem 4.7.1
Let R be a ring with 1. Define ∅: 𝑍 → 𝑅 by 𝜙(𝑛) = 𝑛1. Then ϕ is a homomorphism of
rings.
Proof
ϕ(m + n) = (m + n)1 = m1 + n1 = ϕ(m) + ϕ(n). Notice that by the distributive
property in R, for 𝑚, 𝑛 > 0, and we have:
ϕ(mn) = (mn)1 = (m1)(n1) = ϕ(m)ϕ(n) for, 𝑛 > 0. Similar argument can be given
for and 𝑚, 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍.
Corollary 4.7.2
If R is a ring with 1 and char 𝑅 = 𝑛 > 1, then R contains a subring isomorphic to 𝑍𝑛 . If
cha 𝑅 = 0, then R contains a subring isomorphic to Z.
Proof
By theorem 4.5.11 The map ϕ: Z → R given by ϕ(n) = n1 is a ring homomorphism.
Observe that:
If char 𝑅 = 𝑛 > 1, then ker ϕ = nZ.
If char 𝑅 = 0, then 𝑛1 ≠ 0 for all 𝑛 ≠ 0, and so ker ϕ = {0}.
Therefore, it follows that:
If Char R = n > 1, 𝐼𝑚 ϕ ≅ Z⁄nZ ≅ Zn .
If char 𝑅 = 0, 𝐼𝑚 ϕ ≅ Z.
Theorem 4.7.3
Let F be field. Then either
Char F is a prime number p and in this case F contains a subfield isomorphic to 𝑍𝑝 . or
Char F is 0 and in this case F contains a subfield isomorphic to Q.

Proof
Suppose char 𝐹 = 𝑚 > 1. Then, by corollary 4.5.12, F contains a subring isomorphic to
𝑍𝑛 . Then n must be a prime number 𝑝, otherwise F would have zero divisors.
Suppose char F=0. Then, by corollary 4.5.12 F contains a subring isomorphic to Z. But any
field which contains Z contains Q. Hence, F contains a subfield isomorphic to Q.
Definition 4.7.4
The fields 𝑍𝑝 and Q are called prime fields.
Activity
1. Consider the subring 𝑆 = {0,2,4,6} of 𝑍8 . What is the characteristic of S?
2. Does 𝑍6 have a subring isomorphic to the ring 𝑍3 ? Justify your answer.

Review Exercise
For each of the following problems, show your work clearly.
1. Prove that the intersection of arbitrary family of ideals (subrings) is an ideal (subring)
2. Let (G,+) be an abelian groups.
3. Define “∗” on G by: for 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 0.
a) Show that (𝐺, +, . ) is ring.
4. Let R be a ring. Then the center of R denoted by Z(R) is defined by,
𝑍(𝑅) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅|𝑥. 𝑟 = 𝑟. 𝑥, ∀𝑟 ∈ 𝑅}.
𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑤 that Z(R) is a subring of R.
5. Let R be a ring and 𝑆 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅|𝑥. 𝑦 = 0, ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝑅}. Then, S is an ideal of R.
6. Show that 𝑆 = 𝑅 × 𝑅 is a field for the two operations defined as follows
(𝑎, 𝑏)(𝑐, 𝑑) = (𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑏 + 𝑑),
(𝑎, 𝑏). (𝑐, 𝑑) = (𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑, 𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)
7. Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅 be fixed, where R is a ring.
Then show that 𝐶(𝑎) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅|𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥𝑎} is a subring of R.
8. Let a be fixed element of the ring R.
Then show that 𝐼 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑅|𝑎𝑥 = 0} is an ideal of R.
9. Let R be a commutative ring with unity such that the only ideals are are {0} and R. Prove
that R is a field.
3𝑎𝑏
10. Consider the ring (𝑅, +, . ). We define, “*” on R by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 =
4
Then, show that (𝑅, +, . ) and (𝑅, +,∗) are isomorphic.

11. Let 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑆 be homomorphism. Then, show that
Ker 𝑓 is sub ring of 𝑅
𝑓(𝑅) is a sub ring of S
12. Let 𝑓: (𝑅, 𝛻,∗) → (𝑆, ⨂, ⨁)
𝑔: (𝑆, ⨂, ⨁) → (𝐺,⋄, 𝑥) be ring isomorphisms.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, show that (𝑅, 𝛻,∗) and (𝐺,⋄, 𝑥) are isomorphic
13. Let (𝑅, 𝛻, ⨁) be a ring with unity 1.
14. Let ∝: (𝑅, 𝛻, ⨁) → (𝑆,∘,∗) be ring isomorphism. Then, prove that
∝ (1) is the unity of (𝑆,∘,∗).
15. If u in R is unit element, then prove that ∝ (𝑢) is also a unit element of S.

Summary
Let (𝑅, +, . ) be a ring. Then, for all 𝑥, 𝑦 in R.
𝑥. 0 = 0 = 0. 𝑥
𝑥. (−𝑦) = (−𝑥). 𝑦 = −(𝑥. 𝑦)
(−𝑥). (−𝑦) = 𝑥𝑦
Let (𝑅, +, . ) be a ring. Then (𝑅, +, . ) is called
Commutative ring if and only if 𝑎. 𝑏 = 𝑏. 𝑎 fro all 𝑎, 𝑏 in the ring
Division ring if and only if every non-zero elements of the ring R are invertible with
respect to “.”.
Let (R,+,.) be a ring. Then 𝑥 ∈ (𝑅, +, . ) such that 𝑥 ≠ 0 is called a zero divisor of the ring
(𝑅, +, . ) if and only if there exists 𝑦 in (𝑅, +, . ) such that 𝑦 ≠ 0 and 𝑥. 𝑦 = 0
A rign (𝑅, +, . ) is called an integral domain if and only if (𝑅, +, . ) has no zero divisors
𝑍𝑛 is and integral domain if and only if 𝑛 is prima e
If ring (R,+,.) is an integral domain, then it satisfies all the cancellation laws
𝑚 ∈ 𝑍𝑛 is a zero divisor if and only if 𝐺𝐶𝐹(𝑚, 𝑛) ≠ 1
Every field is an integral domain
Every finite integral domain is a field
The intersection of subrings (ideals) is also a subring (ideal)
Every ideal is a subring
A field has no proper ideal
Let (𝑅, +, . ) and (𝑆, +,∗) be rings and 𝑓: (𝑅, +, . ) → (𝑆, +,∗) be an osomorphism, then
kernel of 𝑓 denoted by ker 𝑓 is an ideal (subring) of (𝑅, +, . )

References
 Demissu Gemeda and Seid Mohammed ,(2008),fundamental concepts of algebra, Dept. of
Mathematics,AAU
 Durabin ,J.R. (2005). Modern Algebra, An introduction, 6𝑡ℎ ed., John Wily&Sons, New
york
 Fraleigh,J.B. (2003). A First Course In Abstract Algebra,7𝑡ℎ ,ed. ,Addison Wesley-World
Student Series.
 Sing , S. & Zameerudin, Q. (1990). Modern Algebra,3𝑟𝑑 ed.,Vikas Publishing House,New
Delhi.

CHAPTER 5
The System of Integers
Introduction
In the most general sense, number theory deals with the properties of different sets of
numbers. In this chapter, we will discuss some particularly important set of numbers,
called the set of integers. Logical development of the system of integers will be explained
based on few assumptions (axioms). One of the most important proof techniques in
number theory (and in much of mathematics) is mathematical induction. We will discuss
the two forms of mathematical induction, illustrate how they can be used to prove various
results, and explain why mathematical induction is a valid proof technique. Continuing, we
will deals with a fundamental notion in number theory, that of divisibility. We will
establish some of the basic properties of division of integers, including the "division
algorithm". The purpose of the final section of this chapter this chapter is to explain how
integers are represented using base b expansions, and how basic arithmetic operations can
be carried out using these expansions. In particular, we will show that when b is a positive
integer, every positive integer has a unique base b expansion.
Objectives
 At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
 Define set of integers.
 State the order and the well ordering axioms on the set of integers prove related
theorems.
 State the principle of mathematical induction and prove related assertions.
 Identify the system of integers as a well ordered integral domain and conversely.
 Prove elementary divisibility properties in ℤ.
 Compute GCD (greatest common divisor) and LCM (least common multiple) for
given finite number of non-zero integers.
 State Euclidean algorithm and apply to find GCD of a finite number of non-zero
integers.
 Define a prime number and express a positive composite integer as product of
positive prime numbers.

 Express an integer in different bases.
5.1. Properties of Addition and Multiplication
Can you explain properties of addition and multiplication of integers?
The theory of numbers is concerned, at least in its elementary aspects, with properties of
the integers and more particularly with the positive integers 1, 2, 3, … (also known as the
natural numbers). The origin of this misnomer harks back to the early Greeks for whom the
word number meant positive integer, and nothing else. The natural numbers have been
known to us for so long that the mathematician Leopold Kronecker once remarked, "God
created the natural numbers, and all the rest is the work of man." Far from being a gift
from Heaven, number theory has had a long and sometimes painful evolution, a story that
is told in the ensuing pages.
We frequently use the integers, and particularly the natural numbers. Though the integers
seem to be familiar objects, we often ask ourselves whether a fact about integers is indeed
so because it is itself an axiom or a consequence of the axioms. When specially confronted
with some of the challenging problems in integers, we frequently ask ourselves about what
the integers actually are, that is the basic axioms governing them and consequences of
these assumptions.
We shall try to construct the integers axiomatically, assuming that any student using this
module is familiar with basic definitions in group and ring theory and at least has an
exposure to some models satisfying the basic notions.
We assume that the system of integers is a non-empty the ℤ, with two binary operations:
the first called addition and denoted by ‘ + ’ and the second is called multiplication and
denoted by ‘. ’ satisfying the following four axioms.
(ℤ, +) is an abelian group.
(ℤ, +, . ) is an integral domain, that is a commutative ring with unity having no zero
divisor.
Definition 5.1.1. 0 denotes the additive identity while 1 denotes the multiplicative identity.
Definition 5.1.2. The binary operation subtraction denoted by ‘ − ’ is define on ℤ as
follow, 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑥 + (−𝑦), 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℤ.

5.2 Order axiom of the system of integers
(Order Axiom) ℤ has a non-empty subset, denoted by P, such
P is closed under ‘+’ and ‘.’
For each 𝑥 ∈ ℤ, exactly one of the three conditions 𝑥 ∈ 𝐏, or −𝑥 ∈ 𝐏, or 𝑥 = 0 holds.
Definition 5.2.1. A ring R satisfying axiom 1, 2 and 3 is called an ordered integral domain.
The sub set P whose existence guaranteed by the order axiom is called the set of ’positive’
elements of R.
Notation: We denote the set of positive elements of ℤ, by ℕ.
Definition 5.2.2. If R is an ordered integral domain with P as the set of positive elements
of R, We can introduce order on R as follows. If 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐑, we say that
𝑥 > 𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 + (−𝑦) ∈ 𝐏.
𝑥 ≥ 𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑦.
Notation: 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑦 < 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 𝑦.
Example 1. Consider the set of rational numbers, ℚ , and the set of real numbers, ℝ , under
addition and multiplication of real numbers, both are ordered integral domains with P
respectively denoting ℚ+ = { 𝑥 ∈ ℚ ∶ 𝑥 > 0} and ℝ+ = { 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∶ 𝑥 > 0}.
Definition 5.2.3. If S is a non empty sub set of ℤ, then 𝛼 ∈ S is a least element of S if and
only if 𝛼 ≤ 𝑥 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ S.
5.3 Well-Ordering axiom
(Well Ordering Axiom) Every non-empty subset of P has a least element.
Remark: The above four axioms precisely describes the ring of integers up to
isomorphism.
Well Ordering Axiom plays a critical role in the proofs here and in subsequent chapters;
we will use it to show that the set of positive integers has what is known as the
Archimedean property. Before that, let us deduce some important results about set of
integers.
Example1. Show that 1 is the least element of ℕ, that is 1 is the smallest positive integers.
Proof : In Exercise 1.1, you will show that 1 = 12 is a positive element of ℤ. Hence
1 ∈ ℕ. By Well Ordering Axiom, ℕ has a least element, say 𝛼. We will show that 𝛼 = 1.
suppose 𝛼 ≠ 1, then 𝛼 < 1. (𝑤ℎ𝑦? ) Hence 1 − 𝛼 , 𝛼 ∈ ℕ . But ℕ is closed under

multiplication, then(1 − 𝛼)𝛼 = 𝛼 − 𝛼 2 ∈ ℕ. It follows that 𝛼 2 < 𝛼 and 𝛼 2 ∈ ℕ, as ℕ is
closed under multiplication. This contradicts the assumption that 𝛼 is the least element of
ℕ. Hence 𝛼 = 1 is the least element of ℕ.
Activity : Explain why the following holds true.
0 = −0
0∉ℕ
−1 < 0
𝑎 − 1 < 𝑎, ∀𝑎 ∈ ℤ.
Example 2. Show that if 𝑎 ∈ ℤ, there is no integer between 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 + 1.
Proof: Let 𝑎 ∈ ℤ and suppose there exists an integer 𝑏 between 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 + 1, that is
𝑎 < 𝑏 < 𝑎 + 1.
Then 𝑎 + 1 − 𝑏 = 𝑎 + 1 − 𝑎 + 𝑎 − 𝑏 = (𝑎 + 1 − 𝑎) − (𝑏 − 𝑎) ∈ ℕ . Hence (𝑏 − 𝑎) <
(𝑎 + 1 − 𝑎) = 1, but 𝑏 − 𝑎 ∈ ℕ. (𝑤ℎ𝑦? ) Hence 1 is not the smallest positive integer.
This is a contradiction. Thus if 𝑎 is an integer, then there is no integer between 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 +
1.
Theorem 5.3.1. (Archimedean property) If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are any positive integers, then there
exists a positive integer 𝑛 such that 𝑛𝑎 > 𝑏.
Proof: Assume that the statement of the theorem is not true, so that for some 𝑎 and 𝑏,
𝑛𝑎 < 𝑏 for every positive integer 𝑛 . Then the set S = {𝑏 — 𝑛𝑎 ∶ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} , consists
entirely of positive integers. By the Well Ordering Axiom, S will possess a least element,
say, 𝛽, that is 𝛽 = 𝑏 — 𝑚𝑎, 𝑚 ∈ ℕ. Notice that 𝑏 — (𝑚 + 1)𝑎 ∈ S, because S contains
all integers of this form. Furthermore, we have
𝑏 — (𝑚 + 1)𝑎 = (𝑏 — 𝑚𝑎) — 𝑎 < 𝑏 — 𝑚𝑎 , contrary to the choice of 𝛽 =
𝑏 — 𝑚𝑎 as the smallest integer in S. This contradiction arose out of our original
assumption that the Archimedean property did not hold; hence, this property is proven true.
Notation: We define the notation 1 + 1 = 2, 2 + 1 = 3, 3 + 1 = 4, 4 + 1 = 5, 6 + 1 =
7, 7 + 1 = 8 and 8 + 1 = 9.We shall later see that every integer, and in fact every real
number, can be expressed essentially using the different ten symbols 0,1,2, … ,9 known as
base ten numeration.
Theorem 5.3.2. In the set of integers, ℕ = { 1,2,3, … }

Proof: Since 1 ∈ ℕ , as ℕ is closed under addition, we have {1,1 + 1,1 + 1 + 1, … } ⊆ ℕ
Using the above notation, { 1,2,3, … } ⊆ ℕ. It remains to show that ℕ ⊆ { 1,2,3, … }
suppose ℕ ⊈ { 1,2,3, … }. Then S = {𝑥 ∈ ℕ ∶ 𝑥 ∉ { 1,2,3, … } } is a non-empty subset of ℕ
. It follows that by Well Ordering Axiom S has a least element, say 𝜃. As 1 ∉ S, we
conclude that 𝜃 > 1. As 𝜃 − 1 ∈ ℕ and 𝜃 − 1 < 𝜃, we have 𝜃 − 1 ∉ S . Hence 𝜃 − 1 ∈
{ 1,2,3, … }. But then, 𝜃 = (𝜃 − 1) + 1 ∈ { 1,2,3, … }
This is a contradiction as S ∩ { 1,2,3, … } = ∅. Hence ℕ ⊆ { 1,2,3, … }. Therefore, ℕ =
{ 1,2,3, … }
Corollary 5.3.3: The set of integers ℤ, is given by ℤ = {… , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … }.
Proof: we know that ℕ = { 1,2,3, … } ⊆ ℤ and 0 ∈ ℤ, since (ℤ, +) is a group,
{… , −3, −2, −1} ∈ ℤ. (𝑤ℎ𝑦? ) Hence {… , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … } ⊆ ℤ . Conversely, if
𝑥 ∈ ℤ , by order axiom ,either 𝑥 ∈ ℕ 𝑜𝑟 − 𝑥 ∈ ℕ or 𝑥 = ℕ . Using Theorem 1.1.2, it
follows that 𝑥 ∈ {… , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … }. Hence {… , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … } ⊆ ℤ .
Therefore, ℤ = {… , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … }.
Activity
1. If 𝑅 is a ring, show that for every 𝑟, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑅
𝑟0 = 0𝑟 = 0.
(−𝑟)𝑠 = −(𝑟𝑠)
(−𝑟)(−𝑠) = 𝑟𝑠
2. If 𝑅 is a ring with unity and has at least two elements, then 0 ≠ 1.
3. Prove that any ordered integral domain has at least two elements.
4. conclude from 2 and 3 that in any integral domain 0 ≠ 1.
5. Let 𝑅 be an ordered integral domain and 𝑃 be the set of positive elements of 𝑅.
a) Show that for any 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅\{0} , 𝑥 2 is a positive element.
b) Show that {1, 1 + 1, 1 + 1 + 1, … } ⊆ 𝑃.
6. Conclude from 5(b) that every ordered integral domain is infinite.
5.4. Mathematical Induction
One of the most powerful techniques in proving assertions or solving problems that
involves integers is the Principle of Mathematical Induction (PMI).In this section, we
formulate two equivalent versions mathematical induction. With the Well Ordering Axiom
available, one can derive the First Principle of Mathematical Induction, which provides a

basis for a method of proof called mathematical induction. Loosely speaking, the First
Principle of Mathematical Induction asserts that if a set of positive integers has two
specific properties, then it is the set of all positive integers.
Theorem 5.4.1 (First Principle of mathematical Induction) Let S be a set of positive
integers with the following properties:
The integer 1 belongs to S.
Whenever the integer 𝑘 is in S, the next integer 𝑘 + 1 must also be in S.
Then S is the set of all positive integers. That is S = ℕ.
Proof: Let T be the set of all positive integers not in S, and assume that T is nonempty.
The Well Ordering Axiom tells us that T possesses a least element, which we denote by 𝑎.
Because 1 is in S, certainly 𝑎 > 1, and so 0 < 𝑎 — 1 < 𝑎 . The choice of 𝑎 as the
smallest positive integer in T implies that 𝑎 — 1 is not a member of T, or equivalently that
𝑎 — 1 belongs to S. By hypothesis, S must also contain (𝑎 — 1) + 1 = 𝑎 , which
contradicts the fact that 𝑎 lies in T. We conclude that the set T is empty and in
consequence that S contains all the positive integers.
Example 5.4.2 Here is a typical formula that can be established by mathematical
induction:
𝑛(2𝑛+1)(𝑛+1)
12 + 22 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 = , 𝑛≥1 Eq. (1)
6
In anticipation of using Theorem 1.2.1, let S denote the set of all positive integers 𝑛 for
which Eq. (1) is true. We observe that when 𝑛 = 1, the formula becomes
1(2+1)(1+1)
12 = = 1 . This means that 1 is in S. Next, assume that 𝑘 belongs to S (where
6
𝑘 is a fixed but unspecified integer) so that

𝑘(2𝑘+1)(𝑘+1)
12 + 22 + ⋯ + 𝑘 2 = Eq. (2)
6
To obtain the sum of the first 𝑘 + 1 squares, we merely add the next one, (𝑘 + 1)2, to
both sides of Eq. (2). This gives
𝑘(2𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1)
12 + 22 + ⋯ + 𝑘 2 + (𝑘 + 1)2 = + (𝑘 + 1)2
6
After some algebraic manipulation, the right-hand side becomes
𝑘(2𝑘 + 1) + 6(𝑘 + 1) 2𝑘 2 + 7𝑘 + 6
(𝑘 + 1) [ ] = (𝑘 + 1) [ ]
6 6

(𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 3)(𝑘 + 2)
=
6
Which is precisely the right-hand member of Eq. (1) when 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. Our reasoning
shows that the set S contains the integer 𝑘 + 1 whenever it contains the integer 𝑘. By
Theorem 1.2.1 (First Principle of mathematical Induction), S must be all the positive
integers; that is, the given formula is true for 𝑛 ≥ 1.
Although mathematical induction provides a standard technique for attempting to prove a
statement about the positive integers, one disadvantage is that it gives no aid in formulating
such statements. Of course, if we can make an "educated guess" at a property that we
believe might hold in general, then its validity can often be tested by the induction
principle.
Example 5.4.3 Consider, for instance, the list of equalities.
1=1
1+2 = 3
1 + 2 + 22 = 7
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 = 15
1+ 2 + 22 + 23 + 24=31
1+ 2 + 22 + 23 + 24 + 25 = 63
We seek a rule that gives the integers on the right-hand side. After a little reflection, you
might notice that
1 = 2-1 3 = 22- l 7 = 23- l
15 = 24 - 1 31 = 25 -1 63 = 26- l
(How one arrives at this observation is hard to say, but experience helps.) The pattern
emerging from these few cases suggests a formula for obtaining the value of the expression
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 +…+2n-1 ; namely,
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 +…+2n-1 = 2n-1 , for every positive integer 𝑛. Eq. (3)
To confirm that our guess is correct, let S be the set of positive integers 𝑛 for which Eq. (3)
holds. For 𝑛 = 1, Eq. (3) is certainly true, whence 1 belongs to the set S. We assume that
Eq. (3) is true for a fixed integer 𝑘, so that for this 𝑘
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 +…+2k-1 = 2k-1

and we attempt to prove the validity of the formula for 𝑘 + 1. Addition of the term 2k to
both sides of the last-written equation leads to
1 + 2 + 22 + 23 +…+ 2k-1 +2k = 2k-1+2k
= 2.2k-1=2k+1-1
But this says that Eq. (3) holds when 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, putting the integer 𝑘 + 1 in S so that
𝑘 + 1 is in S whenever 𝑘 is in S. According to the induction principle, S must be the set
of all positive integers.
Remark: When giving induction proofs, we shall usually shorten the argument by
eliminating all reference to the set S, and proceed to show simply that the result in
Activityis true for the integer 1, and if true for the integer 𝑘 is then also true for 𝑘 + 1.
We should inject a word of caution at this point, to wit, that one must be careful to
establish both conditions of Theorem 1.2.1 before drawing any conclusions; neither is
sufficient alone. The proof of condition (a) is usually called the basis for the induction, and
the proof of (b) is called the induction step. The assumptions made in carrying out the
induction step are known as the induction hypotheses. The induction situation has been
likened to an infinite row of dominoes all standing on edge and arranged in such a way that
when one falls it knocks down the next in line. If either no domino is pushed over (that is,
there is no basis for the induction) or if the spacing is too large (that is, the induction step
fails), then the complete line will not fall.
The validity of the induction step does not necessarily depend on the truth of the statement
that one is endeavoring to prove.
Example 5.4.4 Let us look at the false formula.
1 + 3 + 5 +…+(2n-1) = n2 + 3 Eq. (4)
Assume that this holds for 𝑛 = 𝑘 in other words,
1 + 3 + 5 +…+(2k-1) = k2 + 3
Knowing this, we then obtain
1 + 3 + 5 +…+(2k-1) +(2k+1) = k2 + 3+2k+1
= (k + 1)2 + 3
Which is precisely the form that Eq. (4) should take when 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1. Thus, if Eq. (4)
holds for a given integer, then it also holds for the succeeding integer. It is not possible,
however, to find a value of n for which the formula is true.

There is a variant of the induction principle that is often used when Theorem 1.2.1 alone
seems ineffective. As with the first version, this Second Principle of Mathematical
Induction gives two conditions that guarantee a certain set of positive integers actually
consists of all positive integers.
Theorem 5.4.5 (Second Principle of mathematical Induction) Let S be a set of positive
integers with the following properties:
If 𝑘 is a positive integer such that 1, 2, . . . , 𝑘 belong to S, then 𝑘 + 1 must also
be in S.
Proof: let T represent the set of positive integers not in S. Assuming that T is nonempty,
we choose 𝑛 to be the smallest integer in T. Then 𝑛 > 1, by supposition (a). The minimal
nature of 𝑛 allows us to conclude that none of the integers 1, 2, . . . , 𝑛 − 1 lies in T, or,
if we prefer a positive assertion, 1, 2, . . . , 𝑛 — 1 all belong to S. Property (b) then puts
𝑛 = (𝑛 — 1) + 1 in S, which is an obvious contradiction. We conclude that the set T is
empty and in consequence that S contains all the positive integers.
Remark : The First Principle of Mathematical Induction is used more often than is the
Second; however, there are occasions when the Second is favored and you should be
familiar with both versions. It sometimes happens that in attempting to show that 𝑘 + 1 is
a member of S, we require proof of the fact that not only 𝑘, but all positive integers that
precede 𝑘, lie in S. Our formulation of these induction principles has been for the case in
which the induction begins with 1. Each form can be generalized to start with any positive
integer 𝑛0 . In this circumstance, the conclusion reads as "Then S is the set of all positive
integers ≥ 𝑛0 . "
Mathematical induction is often used as a method of definition as well as a method of
proof. For example, a common way of introducing the symbol 𝑛! (pronounced "n
factorial") is by means of the inductive definition.
(a) 1! = 1,
(b) 𝑛! = 𝑛 ∙ (𝑛 — 1)! 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 > 1.

This pair of conditions provides a rule whereby the meaning of 𝑛! is specified for each
positive integer 𝑛. Thus, by (a), 1! = 1; (a) and (b) yield
2! = 2 ∙ 1! = 2 ∙ 1
While by (b), again,
3! = 3 ∙ 2! = 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1
Continuing in this manner, using condition (b) repeatedly, the numbers 1! ,2! ,3!, . . . , 𝑛! are
defined in succession up to any chosen 𝑛. In fact,
Definition 5.4.6 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑛, 𝑛! = 𝑛 ∙ (𝑛 − 1) … 3 ∙ 2 ∙ 1 .
Remark : Induction enters in showing that 𝑛!, as a function on the positive integers, exists
and is unique; however, we shall make no attempt to give the argument. It will be
convenient to extend the definition of 𝑛! to the case in which 𝑛 = 0 by stipulating that
0! = 1.
Example 5.4.7 To illustrate a proof that requires the Second Principle of Mathematical
Induction, consider the so-called Lucas sequence:
1,3,4,7, 11,18,29,47,76, …
Except for the first two terms, each term of this sequence is the sum of the preceding two,
so that the sequence may be defined inductively by
𝑎1 = 1
𝑎2 = 3
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 3
7
We argue that the inequality, 𝑎𝑛 < (4)𝑛 holds for every positive integer 𝑛.
The argument used is interesting because in the inductive step, it is necessary to know the
truth of this inequality for two successive values of 𝑛 to establish its truth for the following
value. First of all, for 𝑛 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2, we have
7 7
𝑎1 = 1 < (4)1 = 7/4 and 𝑎2 = 3 < (4)2 = 49/16
Whence the inequality in Activityholds in these two cases. This provides a basis for the
induction. For the induction step, choose an integer 𝑘 ≥ 3 and assume that the inequality
is valid for 𝑛 = 1, 2, . . . , 𝑘 − 1. Then, in particular,
7 7
𝑎𝑘−1 < (4)𝑘−1 = 7/4 and 𝑎𝑘−2 < (4)𝑘−2
By the way in which the Lucas sequence is formed, it follows that

7 7
𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎𝑘−1 + 𝑎𝑘−2 < ( )𝑘−1 + ( )𝑘−2
4 4
7 𝑘−2 7
=( ) ( + 1)
4 4
7 𝑘−2 11 7 𝑘−2 7 2 7
=( ) ( )<( ) ( ) = ( )𝑘
4 4 4 4 4
Because the inequality is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 whenever it is true for the integers
7
1, 2, . . . , 𝑘 — 1, we conclude by the second induction principle that 𝑎𝑛 < (4)𝑛 for all
𝑛 ≥ 1. Among other things, this example suggests that if objects are defined inductively,
then mathematical induction is an important tool for establishing the properties of these
objects.
Remark: We can use the following Extended Principle of mathematical Induction toshow
that a given statement is true for all natural
Extended Principle of mathematical Induction : If conditions (a) and (b) hold that is,
A statement is true for a natural number j
If the statement is true for some natural number k ≥ j, then it is also true for the next
natural number k + 1. then the statement is true for all natural numbers ≥ j.
Activity
1. Establish the formulas below by mathematical induction:
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
1 +2 +3 +⋯+ 𝑛 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 1.
2
1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 1.
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
1 ∙ 2 + 2 ∙ 3 + 3 ∙ 4 + ⋯ + 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 1.
3
𝑛(2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1)2 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 1.
3
2 + 4 + 6 + ⋯ + 2𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 1.
1
1 + 4 + 42 + ⋯ + 4𝑛−1 = (4𝑛 − 1) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 1.
3
2
3 3 3
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
3
1 + 2 + 3 +⋯+ 𝑛 = [ ] 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 1.
2
1 1 1 1 𝑛
+ + + ⋯+ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 1.
1∙2 2∙3 3∙4 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛 + 1

1 1 1 1 𝑛
+ + + ⋯+ = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 1.
1∙3 3∙5 5∙7 (2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1) 2𝑛 + 1
𝑛 < 2𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑛.
2𝑛 < 𝑛! 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 4.
𝑛5 − 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 5 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑛.
2. 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 9.
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛+1 −1)
If 𝑟 ≠ 1, show that for any positive integer 𝑛, 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑟−1
.
Use the Second Principle of Mathematical Induction to establish that 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 1,
𝑎𝑛 − 1 = (𝑎 − 1)(𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 + 𝑎𝑛−3 + ⋯ + 𝑎 + 1)
[𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕 ∶ 𝑎𝑛+1 − 1 = (𝑎 + 1)(𝑎𝑛 − 1) − 𝑎(𝑎𝑛−1 − 1)]
5.5. Characterization of the system of integers

Divisibility of integers
We start with a number of fairly elementary results and techniques, mainly about greatest
common divisors. You have probably met some of this material already, though it may not
have been treated as formally as here. There are several good reasons for giving very
precise definitions and proofs, even when there is general agreement about the validity of
the mathematics involved. The first is that 'general agreement' is not the same as
convincing proof: it is not unknown for majority opinion to be seriously mistaken about
some point. A second reason is that, if we know exactly what assumptions are required in
order to deduce certain conclusions, then we may be able to deduce similar conclusions in
other areas where the same assumptions hold true. Our starting-point is the division
algorithm, which is as follows:
The division Algorithm
We have been exposed to relationships between integers for several pages and, as yet, not a
single divisibility property has been derived. It is time to remedy this situation. One
theorem, the Division Algorithm, acts as the foundation stone upon which our whole
development rests. The result is familiar to most of us; roughly, it asserts that an integer
𝑎 can be "divided" by a positive integer 𝑏 in such a way that the remainder is smaller than
is 𝑏. The exact statement of this fact is Theorem 1.3.1.
Theorem (Division Algorithm) Given integers 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑏 > 0, there exist
unique integers 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 satisfying 𝑎 = 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑟, 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑏.

The integers 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 are called, respectively, the quotient and remainder in the division of
𝑎 𝑏𝑦 𝑏.
Proof: We begin by proving that the set 𝑆 = {𝑎 — 𝑥𝑏 | 𝑥 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟; 𝑎 — 𝑥𝑏 ≥ 0}
is nonempty. To do this, it suffices to exhibit a value of 𝑥 making 𝑎 — 𝑥𝑏 nonnegative.
Because the integer 𝑏 ≥ 1, we have |𝑎|𝑏 ≥ |𝑎|, and so
𝑎 — (— |𝑎|)𝑏 = 𝑎 + |𝑎|𝑏 ≥ 𝑎 + |𝑎| ≥ 0
For the choice 𝑥 = — |𝑎|, then, 𝑎 — 𝑥𝑏 lies in 𝑆. This paves the way for an application of
the Well-Ordering axiom, from which we infer that the set 𝑆 contains a smallest integer;
call it 𝑟 . By the definition of 𝑆 , there exists an integer 𝑞 satisfying
𝑟 = 𝑎 — 𝑞𝑏 , 0 ≤ 𝑟
We argue that 𝑟 < 𝑏. If this were not the case, then 𝑟 ≥ 𝑏 and
𝑎 − (𝑞 + 1)𝑏 = (𝑎 − 𝑞𝑏) − 𝑏 = 𝑟 − 𝑏 ≥ 0
The implication is that the integer 𝑎 — (𝑞 + 1)𝑏 has the proper form to belong to the set
𝑆. But 𝑎 — (𝑞 + 1)𝑏 = 𝑟 — 𝑏 < 𝑟, leading to a contradiction of the choice of 𝑟 as the
smallest member of 𝑆. Hence, 𝑟 < 𝑏.
Next we turn to the task of showing the uniqueness of 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟. Suppose that 𝑎 has
two representations of the desired form, say, 𝑎 = 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑟 = 𝑞′𝑏 + 𝑟′
where 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑏, 0 ≤ 𝑟′ < 𝑏. Then 𝑟′ — 𝑟 = 𝑏(𝑞 — 𝑞′) and,
owing to the fact that the absolute value of a product is equal to the product of the absolute
values,
| 𝑟′ — 𝑟 | = 𝑏 |𝑞 — 𝑞′|
Upon adding the two inequalities — 𝑏 < — 𝑟 ≤ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 ≤ 𝑟′ < 𝑏 , we obtain
— 𝑏 < 𝑟′ — 𝑟 < 𝑏 or, in equivalent terms, |𝑟′ — 𝑟| < 𝑏. Thus, 𝑏|𝑞 — 𝑞′| < 𝑏, which
yields 0 ≤ |𝑞 − 𝑞′| < 1
Because |𝑞 − 𝑞′| is a nonnegative integer, the only possibility is that |𝑞 − 𝑞′| = 0 ,
whence 𝑞 = 𝑞′ this, in turn, gives 𝑟 = 𝑟′ ending the proof.
A more general version of the Division Algorithm is obtained on replacing the restriction
that 𝑏 must be positive by the simple requirement that 𝑏 ≠ 0.
Corollary: If 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are integers, with 𝑏 ≠ 0, then there exist unique integers 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟
such that 𝑎 = 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑟 , 0 ≤𝑟 < |𝑏|

Proof: It is enough to consider the case in which 𝑏 is negative. Then |𝑏| > 0, and
Theorem 1.3.1 produces unique integers 𝑞′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 for which
𝑎 = 𝑞 ′ |𝑏| + 𝑟 , 0 ≤ 𝑟 < | 𝑏 | . Noting that |𝑏 | = — 𝑏, we may take 𝑞 = — 𝑞′ to
arrive at 𝑎 = 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑟, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑂 ≤ 𝑟 < |𝑏|.
To illustrate the Division Algorithm when 𝑏 < 0, let us take 𝑏 = — 7. Then, for the
choices of 𝑎 = 1, — 2, 61, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 — 59, we obtain the expressions
1 = 0(−7) + 1
−2 = 1(−7) + 5
61 = (−8)(−7) + 5
−59 = 9(−7) + 4
We wish to focus our attention on the applications of the Division Algorithm, and not so
much on the algorithm itself. As a first illustration, note that with 𝑏 = 2 the possible
remainders are 𝑟 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 1. When 𝑟 = 0, the integer 𝑎 has the form 𝑎 = 2𝑞 and
is called even; when 𝑟 = 1, the integer 𝑎 has the form 𝑎 = 2𝑞 + 1 and is called odd.
Now 𝑎2 is either of the form (2𝑞)2 = 4𝑘 𝑜𝑟 (2𝑞 + 1)2 = 4(𝑞 2 + 𝑞) + 1 = 4𝑘 +
1.The point to be made is that the square of an integer leaves the remainder 0 or 1 upon
division by 4.
We also can show the following: The square of any odd integer is of the form 8𝑘 + 1.
For, by the Division Algorithm, any integer is representable as one of the four forms:
4𝑞, 4𝑞 + 1, 4𝑞 + 2, 4𝑞 + 3 . In this classification, only those integers of the forms
4𝑞 + 1 and 4𝑞 + 3 are odd. When the latter are squared, we find that
(4𝑞 + 1)2 = 8(2𝑞 2 + 𝑞) + 1 = 8𝑘 + 1
and similarly
(4𝑞 + 3)2 = 8(2𝑞 2 + 3𝑞 + 1) + 1 = 8𝑘 + 1
As these remarks indicate, the advantage of the Division Algorithm is that it allows us to
prove assertions about all the integers by considering only a finite number of cases. Let us
illustrate this with one final example.
𝑎(𝑎2 + 2)
Example We propose to show that the expression is an integer for all 𝑎 ≥ 1.
3
According to the Division Algorithm, every 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 3𝑞, 3𝑞 + 1, 𝑜𝑟 3𝑞 + 2.

𝑎(𝑎2 + 2)
Assume the first of these cases. Then = 𝑞(9𝑞 2 + 2) , which clearly is an integer.
3
(3𝑞+1)((3𝑞+1)2 + 2)
Similarly, if 𝑎 = 3𝑞 + 1 , then = (3𝑞 + 1)(3𝑞 2 + 2𝑞 + 1) , 𝑎𝑛𝑑
3
𝑎(𝑎2 + 2)
is an integer in this instance also. Finally, for 𝑎 = 3𝑞 + 2 , we obtain
3
(3𝑞+2)((3𝑞+2)2 + 2)
= (3𝑞 + 2)(3𝑞 2 + 4𝑞 + 2), an integer once more. Consequently, our
3
result is established in all cases.

The greatest common divisor
Of special significance is the case in which the remainder in the Division Algorithm turns
out to be zero. Let us look into this situation now.
Definition An integer 𝑏 is said to be divisible by an integer 𝑎 ≠ 0, in symbols 𝑎 | 𝑏, if
there exists some integer 𝑐 such that 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐. We write 𝑎 ∤ 𝑏 to indicate that 𝑏 is not
divisible by 𝑎.
Thus, for example, — 12 is divisible by 4, because — 12 = 4(— 3). However, 10 is not
divisible by 3; for there is no integer c that makes the statement 10 = 3𝑐 true.
There is other language for expressing the divisibility relation 𝑎 | 𝑏 . We could say that
𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏, that 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏, or that 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎. Notice that in
Definition 1.3.2.1 there is a restriction on the divisor 𝑎: Whenever the notation a | b is
employed, it is understood that 𝑎 is different from zero.
If 𝑎 is a divisor of 𝑏 , then 𝑏 is also divisible by — 𝑎 (indeed, 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐 implies that
𝑏 = (— 𝑎)(— 𝑐)), so that the divisors of an integer always occur in pairs. To find all the
divisors of a given integer, it is sufficient to obtain the positive divisors and then adjoin to
them the corresponding negative integers. For this reason, we shall usually limit ourselves
to a consideration of positive divisors.
It will be helpful to list some immediate consequences of Definition 1.3.2.1
(Although not stated, divisors are assumed to be nonzero.)
Theorem 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑:
𝑎 | 0, 1 | 𝑎, 𝑎 | 𝑎.
𝑎 | 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 = ± 1.
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 | 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 | 𝑑, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑐 | 𝑏𝑑.
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 | 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 | 𝑐, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 | 𝑐.

𝑎 | 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 | 𝑎 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 = ±𝑏.
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 | 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ≠ 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 |𝑎| ≤ |𝑏| .
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 | 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 | 𝑐, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 | (𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦.
Proof: We shall prove assertions (f) and (g), leaving the other parts as an exercise. If 𝑎 | 𝑏,
then there exists an integer 𝑐 such that 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐; also, 𝑏 | 0 implies that 𝑐 | 0. Upon taking
absolute values, we get |𝑏| = |𝑎𝑐| = |𝑎||𝑏| |. Because 𝑐 ≠ 0, it follows that | 𝑐 | ≥ 1,
whence |𝑏| = |𝑎𝑐| = |𝑎||𝑏| ≥ |𝑎|.
As regards (g), the relations 𝑎 | 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 | 𝑐 ensure that 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑟 and 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑠 for suitable
integers 𝑟 and 𝑠. But then whatever the choice of 𝑥 and 𝑦, 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 = 𝑎𝑟𝑥 + 𝑎𝑠𝑦 =
𝑎(𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠𝑦)
Because 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠𝑦 is an integer, this says that 𝑎 | (𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦), as desired
It is worth pointing out that property (g) of Theorem 1.3.2.1 extends by induction to sums
of more than two terms. That is, if 𝑎 | 𝑏𝑘 for 𝑘 = 1, 2, . . . , 𝑛, then
𝑎 | (𝑏1 𝑥1 + 𝑏2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛 𝑥𝑛 )
for all integers 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … . , 𝑥𝑛 . The few details needed for the proof are so straightforward
that we omit them as exercise.
If 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are arbitrary integers, then an integer 𝑑 is said to be
𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 if both 𝑑 | 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 | 𝑏. Because 1 is a divisor of every
integer, 1 is a common divisor of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏; hence, their set of positive common divisors is
nonempty. Now every integer divides zero, so that if 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 0, then every integer
serves as a common divisor of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏. In this instance, the set of positive common
divisors of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 is infinite. However, when at least one of 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑏 is different from zero,
there are only a finite number of positive common divisors. Among these, there is a largest
one, called the greatest common divisor of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏. We frame this as Definition 1.3.2.2
Definition Let 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 be given integers, with at least one of them different from zero.
The greatest common divisor of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, denoted by 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏), is the positive integer 𝑑
satisfying the following:
𝑑 | 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 | 𝑏.
𝐼𝑓 𝑐 | 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 | 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐 ≤ 𝑑.

Example The positive divisors of —12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, whereas those of 30 are 1, 2,
3, 5, 6, 10, 15, 30; hence, the positive common divisors of — 12 and 30 are 1, 2, 3, 6.
Because 6 is the largest of these integers, it follows that 𝑔𝑐𝑑(— 12, 30) = 6. In the same
way, we can show that 𝑔𝑐𝑑(−5 , 5) = 5 , 𝑔𝑐𝑑(8, 17) = 1 , 𝑔𝑐𝑑(−8, −36) = 4
The next theorem indicates that 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) can be represented as a linear combination of
𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 . (By a linear combination of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 , we mean an expression of the form
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦, where 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are integers.) This is illustrated by, say,
𝑔𝑐𝑑(−12, 30) = 6 = (−12)2 + 30 ∙ 1
or
𝑔𝑐𝑑(−8, −36) = 4 = (−8)4 + (−36)(−1)
Now for the theorem.
Theorem Given integers 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, not both of which are zero, there exist integers 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦
such that 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 .
Proof : Consider the set 𝑆 of all positive linear combinations of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏:
𝑆 = {𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏𝑣 ∶ 𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏𝑣 > 0; 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠}
Notice first that 𝑆 is not empty. For example, if 𝑎 ≠ 0, then the integer |𝑎| = 𝑎𝑢 +
𝑏 ∙ 0 lies in 𝑆 , where we choose 𝑢 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑢 = — 1 according as 𝑎 is positive or
negative. By virtue of the Well-Ordering Axiom, 𝑆 must contain a smallest element 𝑑.
Thus, from the very definition of 𝑆, there exist integers 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 for which 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑥 +
𝑏𝑦 > 0. We claim that 𝑑 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏). Using the Division Algorithm, we can obtain
integers 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 such that
𝑎 = 𝑞𝑑 + 𝑟, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑑. Then 𝑟 can be written in the form
𝑟 = 𝑎 — 𝑞𝑑 = 𝑎 — 𝑞(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦)
= 𝑎(1 − 𝑞𝑥) + 𝑏(−𝑞𝑦)
If 𝑟 were positive, then this representation would imply that 𝑟 is a member of 𝑆,
contradicting the fact that 𝑑 is the least integer in 𝑆 (𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒓 < 𝑑). Therefore,
𝑟 = 0, and so 𝑎 = 𝑞𝑑, or equivalently 𝑑 | 𝑎. By similar reasoning, 𝑑 | 𝑏, the effect of
which is to make 𝑑 a common divisor of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏.
Now if 𝑐 is an arbitrary positive common divisor of the integers 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, then part (g) of
Theorem 1.3.2.1 allows us to conclude that 𝑐 | (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦); that is, 𝑐 | 𝑑. By part (f) of the

same theorem, 𝑐 = |𝑐| ≤ |𝑑| = 𝑑 , so that d is greater than every positive common
divisor of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏. Piecing the bits of information together, we see that d = gcd(a , b).
Piecing the bits of information together, we see that 𝑑 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏).
Remark: It should be noted that the foregoing argument is merely an "existence" proof and
does not provide a practical method for finding the values of 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦.
An inspection of the proof of Theorem 1.3.2.2 reveals that the greatest common divisor
of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 may be described as the smallest positive integer of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦.
Consider the case in which 𝑎 = 6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 15. Here, the set 𝑆 becomes
𝑆 = {6(−2) + 15 ∙ 1, 6(−1) + 15 ∙ 1, 6 ∙ 1 + 15 ∙ 0, . . . }
= {3,9,6, . . . }
We observe that 3 is the smallest integer in 𝑆, whence 3 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(6, 15).
The nature of the members of 𝑆 appearing in this illustration suggests another result, which
we give in the next corollary.
Corollary : If 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are given integers, not both zero, then the set
𝑇 = {𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 | 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠}
is precisely the set of all multiples of 𝑑 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏).
Proof : Because 𝑑 | 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 | 𝑏, we know that 𝑑 | (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦) for all integers 𝑥, 𝑦. Thus,
every member of 𝑇 is a multiple of 𝑑. Conversely, 𝑑 may be written as 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑥0 +
𝑏𝑦0 for suitable integers 𝑥0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦0 , so that any multiple 𝑛𝑑 of 𝑑 is of the form 𝑛𝑑 =
𝑛(𝑎𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 ) = 𝑎(𝑛𝑥0 ) + 𝑏(𝑛𝑦0 )
Hence, 𝑛𝑑 is a linear combination of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, and, by definition, lies in 𝑇.
It may happen that 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 — 1 are the only common divisors of a given pair of integers
𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, whence 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) = 1. For example:
𝑔𝑐𝑑(2, 5) = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(−9, 16) = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(−27 , −35) = 1
This situation occurs often enough to prompt a definition.
Definition Two integers 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, not both of which are zero, are said to be relatively
prime whenever 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) = 1.
The following theorem characterizes relatively prime integers in terms of linear
combinations.

Theorem Let 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 be integers, not both zero. Then 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are relatively prime if
and only if there exist integers 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 such that 1 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦.
Proof : If 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are relatively prime so that 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) = 1, then Theorem 1.3.2.2
guarantees the existence of integers 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 satisfying 1 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦.
As for the converse, suppose that 1 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 for some choice of 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦, and that
𝑑 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏). Because 𝑑 | 𝑎 and 𝑑 | 𝑏, Theorem 1.3.2.1 yields 𝑑 | (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦), or
𝑑 | 1. Inasmuch as 𝑑 is a positive integer, this last divisibility condition forces 𝑑 to equal 1
( part (b) of Theorem 1.3.2.1 plays a role here), and the desired conclusion follows.
This result leads to an observation that is useful in certain situations; namely,
Corollary : If 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) = 𝑑, then 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎/𝑑, 𝑏/𝑑) = 1.
Proof: Before starting with the proof proper, we should observe that although 𝑎/𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑏/𝑑 have the appearance of fractions, in fact, they are integers because 𝑑 is a divisor both
𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑏. Now, knowing that 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) = 𝑑, It is possible to find integers 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦
such that 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦. Upon dividing each side of this equation by 𝑑, we obtain the
𝑎 𝑏
expression, 1 = (𝑑) 𝑥 + (𝑑) 𝑦 , Because 𝑎/𝑑 and 𝑏/𝑑 are integers. The conclusion is that
𝑎/𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏/𝑑 are relatively prime.

For an illustration of the last corollary, let us observe that 𝑔𝑐𝑑(— 12, 30) = 6 and
𝑔𝑐𝑑(−12/6, 30/6) = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(−2, 5) = 1 as it should be.
It is not true, without adding an extra condition, that 𝑎 | 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 | 𝑐 together give 𝑎𝑏 | 𝑐.
For instance, 6 | 24 𝑎𝑛𝑑 8 | 24, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 6 ∙ 8 ∤ 24. If 6 and 8 were relatively prime, of course,
this situation would not arise. This brings us to the next Corollary.
Corollary : If 𝑎 | 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 | 𝑐, with 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) = 1, then 𝑎𝑏 | 𝑐.
Proof: Inasmuch as 𝑎 | 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 | 𝑐, integers 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 can be found such that
𝑐 = 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑏𝑠. Now the relation 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎, 𝑏) = 1 allows us to write 1 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 for
some choice of integers 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 . Multiplying the last equation by 𝑐 , it appears that
𝑐 = 𝑐 ∙ 1 = 𝑐(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦) = 𝑎𝑐𝑥 + 𝑏𝑐𝑦
If the appropriate substitutions are now made on the right-hand side, then
𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑠)𝑥 + 𝑏(𝑎𝑟)𝑦 = 𝑎𝑏(𝑠𝑥 + 𝑟𝑦)
or, as a divisibility statement, 𝑎𝑏 | 𝑐.
Our next result seems mild enough, but is of fundamental importance.

Theorem (Euclid's lemma) If 𝑎 | 𝑏𝑐, with 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 | 𝑐.
Proof: writing 1 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦, where 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are
integers. Multiplication of this equation by 𝑐 produces
𝑐 = 1 ∙ 𝑐 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦)𝑐 = 𝑎𝑐𝑥 + 𝑏𝑐𝑦
Because 𝑎 | 𝑎𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 | 𝑏𝑐, it follows that 𝑎 | (𝑎𝑐𝑥 + 𝑏𝑐𝑦), which can be recast as 𝑎 | 𝑐.
Remark: If 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are not relatively prime, then the conclusion of Euclid's lemma may
fail to hold. Here is a specific example: 12 | 9 ∙ 8, 𝑏𝑢𝑡 12 ∤ 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 12 ∤ 8.
The subsequent theorem often serves as a definition of 𝒈𝒄𝒅(𝒂 , 𝒃). The advantage of using
it as a definition is that order relationship is not involved. Thus, it may be used in algebraic
systems having no order relation.
Theorem Let 𝑎, 𝑏 be integers, not both zero. For a positive integer 𝑑,
𝑑 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓
𝑑 | 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 | 𝑏.
𝐼𝑓 𝑐 | 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 | 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐 | 𝑑.
Proof: To begin, suppose that 𝑑 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏). Certainly, 𝑑 | 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 | 𝑏, so that (a)
holds. In light of Theorem 1.3.2.2, 𝑑 is expressible as 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 for some integers
𝑥, 𝑦. Thus, if 𝑐 | 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 | 𝑏, then 𝑐 | (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦), or rather 𝑐 | 𝑑. In short, condition (b)
holds. Conversely, let 𝑑 be any positive integer satisfying the stated conditions. Given any
common divisor 𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, we have 𝑐 | 𝑑 from hypothesis (b). By part (f) of Theorem
1.3.2.1 , we have 𝑐 ≤ |𝑐| ≤ |𝑑| = 𝑑 , and consequently 𝑑 is the greatest common
divisor of a and b.
Euclidean algorithm and application to GCF
The greatest common divisor of two integers can, of course, be found by listing all their
positive divisors and choosing the largest one common to each; but this is cumbersome for
large numbers. A more efficient process, involving repeated application of the Division
Algorithm, is given in the seventh Book of the Elements. Although there is historical
evidence that this method predates Euclid, today it is referred to as the Euclidean
Algorithm.
The Euclidean Algorithm may be described as follows: Let 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 be two integers whose
greatest common divisor is desired. Because 𝑔𝑐𝑑(| 𝑎 |, | 𝑏 |) = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏),
there is no harm in assuming that 𝑎 ≥ 𝑏 > 0. The first step is to apply the Division

Algorithm to 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 to get
𝑎 = 𝑞1 𝑏 + 𝑟1 0 ≤ 𝑟1 < 𝑏
If it happens that 𝑟1 = 0 , then 𝑏 | 𝑎 and 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) = 𝑏. When 𝑟1 ≠ 0 divide 𝑏 𝑏𝑦 𝑟1
to produce integers 𝑞2 and 𝑟2 satisfying
𝑏 = 𝑞2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 0 ≤ 𝑟2 < 𝑟1
If 𝑟2 = 0, then we stop; otherwise, proceed as before to obtain
𝑟1 = 𝑞3 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 0 ≤ 𝑟3 < 𝑟2
This division process continues until some zero remainder appears, say, at the (𝑛 + 1)𝑡ℎ
stage where 𝑟𝑛−1 is divided by 𝑟𝑛 (a zero remainder occurs sooner or later because the
decreasing sequence 𝑏 > 𝑟1 > 𝑟2 > ⋯ ≥ 0 cannot contain more than 𝑏 integers).
The result is the following system of equations:
𝑎 = 𝑞1 𝑏 + 𝑟1 0 ≤ 𝑟1 < 𝑏
𝑏 = 𝑞2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 0 ≤ 𝑟2 < 𝑟1
𝑟1 = 𝑞3 𝑟2 + 𝑟3 0 ≤ 𝑟3 < 𝑟2
⋮
𝑟𝑛−2 = 𝑞𝑛 𝑟𝑛−1 + 𝑟𝑛 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑛 < 𝑟𝑛−1
𝑟𝑛−1 = 𝑞𝑛+1 𝑟𝑛 + 0
We argue that 𝑟𝑛 , the last nonzero remainder that appears in this manner, is equal to
𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏). Our proof is based on the lemma below.
Lemma : If 𝑎 = 𝑞𝑏 + 𝑟, then 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑏, 𝑟).
Proof: If 𝑑 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏), then the relations 𝑑 | 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 | 𝑏 together imply that
𝑑|(𝑎 — 𝑞𝑏), or 𝑑 | 𝑟. Thus, d is a common divisor of both 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟. On the other hand, if
𝑐 is an arbitrary common divisor of 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟, then 𝑐 | (𝑞𝑏 + 𝑟), whence 𝑐 | 𝑎. This makes
𝑐 a common divisor of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, so that 𝑐 ≤ 𝑑. It now follows from the definition of
𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑏, 𝑟) that 𝑑 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑏, 𝑟).
Using the result of this lemma, we simply work down the displayed system of equations,
obtaining 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑏, 𝑟1 ) = ⋯ = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑟𝑛−1 , 𝑟𝑛 ) = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑟𝑛 ,0) = 𝑟𝑛
as claimed.

𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) can be expressed in the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦, but the proof of the theorem gives no
hint as to how to determine the integers 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦. For this, we fall back on the Euclidean
Algorithm. Starting with the next-to-last equation arising from the algorithm, we write
𝑟𝑛 = 𝑟𝑛−2 − 𝑞𝑛 𝑟𝑛−1
Now solve the preceding equation in the algorithm for 𝑟𝑛−1 and substitute to obtain
𝑟𝑛 = 𝑟𝑛−2 − 𝑞𝑛 (𝑟𝑛−3 − 𝑞𝑛−1 𝑟𝑛−2 )
= (1 + 𝑞𝑛 𝑞𝑛−1 )𝑟𝑛−2 + (−𝑞𝑛 )𝑟𝑛−3
This represents 𝑟𝑛 as a linear combination of 𝑟𝑛−2 and 𝑟𝑛−3 . continuing backward through
the system of equations, we successively eliminate the remainders 𝑟𝑛−1 , 𝑟𝑛−2 , … . , 𝑟2, 𝑟1
until a stage is reached where 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) is expressed as a linear combination of
𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏.
Example Let us see how the Euclidean Algorithm works in a concrete case by calculating,
say, 𝑔𝑐𝑑( 12378, 3054). The appropriate applications of the Division Algorithm produce
the equations
12378 = 4 ∙ 3054 + 162
3054 = 18 ∙ 162 + 138
162 = 1 ∙ 138 + 24
138 = 5 ∙ 24 + 18
24 = 1 ∙ 18 + 6
18 = 3 ∙ 6 + 0
Our previous discussion tells us that the last nonzero remainder appearing in these
equations, namely, the integer 6, is the greatest common divisor of 12378 and 3054:
6 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑( 12378, 3054)
To represent 6 as a linear combination of the integers 12378 and 3054, we start with the
next-to-last of the displayed equations and successively eliminate the remainders 18, 24,
138, and 162:
6 = 24 − 18
= 24 – (138 − 5 ∙ 24)
= 6 ∙ 24 − 138
= 6(162 − 138) − 138
= 6 ∙ 162 − 7 ∙ 138

= 6 ∙ 162 – 7(3054 − 18 ∙ 162)
= 132 ∙ 162 − 7 ∙ 3054
= 132(12378 − 4 ∙ 3054) − 7 ∙ 3054
= 132 ∙ 12378 + (−535)3054
Thus, we have
6 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑( 12378 , 3054) = 12378𝑥 + 3054𝑦 , where 𝑥 = 132 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = — 535.
Note that this is not the only way to express the integer 6 as a linear combination of 12378
and 3054; among other possibilities, we could add and subtract 3054 ∙ 12378 to get
6 = (132 + 3054)12378 + (−535 – 12378)3054
= 3186 ∙ 12378 + (−12913)3054
The French mathematician Gabriel Lame (1795-1870) proved that the number of steps
required in the Euclidean Algorithm is at most five times the number of digits in the
smaller integer. In Example 1.3.3.1 , the smaller integer (namely, 3054) has four digits, so
that the total number of divisions cannot be greater than 20; in actuality only six divisions
were needed.
Another observation of interest is that for each 𝑛 > 0, it is possible to find integers
𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑛 such that exactly 𝑛 divisions are required to compute 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 ) by the
Euclidean Algorithm.
One more remark is necessary. The number of steps in the Euclidean Algorithm usually
𝑟
can be reduced by selecting remainders 𝑟𝑘+1 such that | 𝑟𝑘+1 | < 𝑘⁄2, that is, by working
with least absolute remainders in the divisions. Thus, repeating Example 1.3.3.1, it is more
efficient to write
12378 = 4 ∙ 3054 + 162
3054 = 19 ∙ 162 − 24
162 = 7 ∙ 24 − 6
24 = (−4)(−6) + 0
As evidenced by this set of equations, this scheme is apt to produce the negative of the
value of the greatest common divisor of two integers (the last nonzero remainder being
− 6), rather than the greatest common divisor itself.

An important consequence of the Euclidean Algorithm is the following theorem.
Theorem If 𝑘 > 0, then 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑘𝑎 , 𝑘𝑏) = 𝑘 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏).
Proof: If each of the equations appearing in the Euclidean Algorithm 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 (see
page 23) is multiplied by 𝑘, we obtain
𝑘𝑎 = 𝑞1 (𝑏𝑘) + 𝑟1 𝑘 0 ≤ 𝑟1 𝑘 < 𝑏𝑘
𝑏𝑘 = 𝑞2 (𝑟1 𝑘) + 𝑟2 𝑘 0 ≤ 𝑟2 𝑘 < 𝑟1 𝑘
𝑟1 𝑘 = 𝑞3 (𝑟2 𝑘) + 𝑟3 𝑘 0 ≤ 𝑟3 𝑘 < 𝑟2 𝑘
⋮
𝑟𝑛−2 𝑘 = 𝑞𝑛 (𝑟𝑛−1 𝑘) + 𝑟𝑛 𝑘 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑛 𝑘 < 𝑟𝑛−1 𝑘
𝑟𝑛−1 𝑘 = 𝑞𝑛+1 (𝑟𝑛 𝑘) + 0
But this is clearly the Euclidean Algorithm applied to the integers 𝑎𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑘, so that their
greatest common divisor is the last nonzero remainder 𝑟𝑛 𝑘 that is,
𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑘𝑎 , 𝑘𝑏) = 𝑟𝑛 𝑘 = 𝑘 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏)
as stated in the theorem.
Corollary : For any integer 𝑘 ≠ 0, 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑘𝑎 , 𝑘𝑏) = |𝑘| 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏).
Proof : It suffices to consider the case in which 𝑘 < 0. Then — 𝑘 = |𝑘| > 0 and, by
Theorem 1.3.3.1
𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎𝑘, 𝑏𝑘) = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(— 𝑎𝑘, — 𝑏𝑘)
= 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎|𝑘|, 𝑏|𝑘|)
= | 𝑘 | 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏)
An alternate proof of Theorem 1.3.3.1 runs very quickly as follows: 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎𝑘, 𝑏𝑘) is the
smallest positive integer of the form (𝑎𝑘)𝑥 + (𝑏𝑘)𝑦, which, in turn, is equal to 𝑘 times
the smallest positive integer of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦; the latter value is equal to 𝑘 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎, 𝑏).
By way of illustrating Theorem 1.3.3.1, we see that
gcd(12, 30) = 3 gcd(4, 10) = 3 ∙ 2 gcd(2, 5) = 6 ∙ 1 = 6
Before moving on to other matters, let us observe that the notion of greatest common
divisor can be extended to more than two integers in an obvious way. In the case of three
integers, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, not all zero, 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏, 𝑐) is defined to be the positive integer 𝑑 having the
following properties:
𝑑 is a divisor of each of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐.

If 𝑒 divides the integers 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, then 𝑒 ≤ 𝑑.
We cite two examples:
gcd(39, 42, 54) = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 gcd(49, 210, 350) = 7
Remark : It is possible for three integers to be relatively prime as a triple (in other words,
𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏, 𝑐) = 1), yet not relatively prime in pairs; this is brought out by the integers
6, 10, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 15. that is
gcd(6, 10, 15) = 1 𝑏𝑢𝑡 gcd(6, 10) = 2, gcd(6, 15) = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 gcd(10, 15) = 5
The Least Common Multiple
There is a concept parallel to that of the greatest common divisor of two integers, known as
their least common multiple; but we shall not have much occasion to make use of it. An
integer 𝑐 is said to be a common multiple of two nonzero integers 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 whenever 𝑎 | 𝑐
and 𝑏 | 𝑐. Evidently, zero is a common multiple of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏. To see there exist common
multiples that are not trivial, just note that the products 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 — (𝑎𝑏) are both common
multiples of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, and one of these is positive. By the Well-Ordering Axiom, the set of
positive common multiples of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 must contain a smallest integer; we call it the least
common multiple of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏. For the record, here is the official definition.
Definition The least common multiple of two nonzero integers 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, denoted
by 𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑎 , 𝑏), is the positive integer 𝑚 satisfying the following:
𝑎 | 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 | 𝑚.
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 | 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 |𝑐, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑐 > 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑚 ≤ 𝑐.
As an example, the positive common multiples of the integers —12 and 30 are 60, 120,
180,...; hence, 𝑙𝑐𝑚(−12, 30) = 60.
The following remark is clear from our discussion: Given nonzero integers 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ,
𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑎 , 𝑏) always exists and 𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑎 , 𝑏) ≤ | 𝑎𝑏 |.
We lack a relationship between the ideas of greatest common divisor and least common
multiple. This gap is filled by Theorem 1.3.4.1
Theorem For positive integers 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 , 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏)𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑎𝑏
Proof : To begin, put 𝑑 = 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) and write 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑟, 𝑏 = 𝑑𝑠 for integers 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠. If
𝑚 = 𝑎𝑏/𝑑, then 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑠 = 𝑟𝑏, the effect of which is to make 𝑚 a (positive) common
multiple of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏.

Now let 𝑐 be any positive integer that is a common multiple of 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏; say,
for definiteness, 𝑐 = 𝑎𝑢 = 𝑏𝑣 . As we know, there exist integers 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 satisfying
𝑑 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦. In consequence,
𝑐 𝑐𝑑 𝑐(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦) 𝑐 𝑐
= = = ( ) 𝑥 + ( ) 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑢𝑦
𝑚 𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 𝑎
This equation states that 𝑚 | 𝑐, allowing us to conclude that 𝑚 ≤ 𝑐. Thus, in accordance
with Definition 1.3.4.1, 𝑚 = 𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑎 , 𝑏); that is,
𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏
𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑎 , 𝑏) = =
𝑑 gcd(𝑎, 𝑏)
which is what we started out to prove.
Theorem 1.3.4.1 has a corollary that is worth a separate statement.
Corollary : For any choice of positive integers 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, 𝑙𝑐𝑚(𝑎 , 𝑏) = 𝑎𝑏 if and only if
𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑎 , 𝑏) = 1.
Perhaps the chief virtue of Theorem 1.3.4.1 is that it makes the calculation of the least
common multiple of two integers dependent on the value of their greatest common
divisor—which, in turn, can be calculated from the Euclidean Algorithm. When
considering the positive integers 3054 and 12378, for instance, we found that
𝑔𝑐𝑑(3054, 12378) = 6; whence,
3054 ∙ 12378
𝑙𝑐𝑚(3054 , 12378) = = 6300402
6
The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic
Essential to everything discussed herein—in fact, essential to every aspect of number
theory—is the notion of a prime number. We have previously observed that any integer
𝑎 > 1 is divisible by ±1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ± 𝑎 ; if these exhaust the divisors of 𝑎, then it is said to be
a prime number. In Definition 1.3.5.1 we state this somewhat differently.
Definition 1.3.5.1 An integer 𝑝 > 1 is called a prime number, or simply a prime, if its
only positive divisors are 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝. An integer greater than 1 that is not a prime is termed
composite.
Among the first ten positive integers, 2, 3, 5, 7 are primes and 4, 6, 8, 9, 10 are composite
numbers. Note that the integer 2 is the only even prime, and according to our definition the
integer 1 plays a special role, being neither prime nor composite.

In the rest of this book, the letters 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 will be reserved, so far as is possible, for
primes.
Proposition 14 of Book IX of Euclid's Elements embodies the result that later became
known as the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic, namely, that every integer greater than
1 can, except for the order of the factors, be represented as a product of primes in one and
only one way. To quote the proposition itself: "If a number be the least that is measured by
prime numbers, it will not be measured by any other prime except those originally
measuring it." Because every number 𝑎 > 1 is either a prime or, by the Fundamental
Theorem, can be broken down into unique prime factors and no further, the primes serve as
the building blocks from which all other integers can be made. Accordingly, the prime
numbers have intrigued mathematicians through the ages, and although a number of
remarkable theorems relating to their distribution in the sequence of positive integers have
been proved, even more remarkable is what remains unproved. The open questions can be
counted among the outstanding unsolved problems in all of mathematics.
To begin on a simpler note, we observe that the prime 3 divides the integer 36, where 36
may be written as any one of the products
6 ∙ 6 = 9 ∙ 4 = 12 ∙ 3 = 18 ∙ 2
In each instance, 3 divides at least one of the factors involved in the product. This is
typical of the general situation, the precise result being Theorem 1.3.5.1 .
Theorem If 𝑝 is a prime and 𝑝 | 𝑎𝑏, then 𝑝 | 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 | 𝑏.
Proof : If 𝑝 | 𝑎, then we need go no further, so let us assume that 𝑝 ∤ 𝑎. Because the only
positive divisors of 𝑝 are 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝 itself, this implies that 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑝, 𝑎) = 1.
(𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙, 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑝 , 𝑎) = 𝑝 𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑐𝑑(𝑝 , 𝑎) = 1 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑠 𝑝 | 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 ∤ 𝑎. )
Hence, citing Euclid's lemma, we get 𝑝 | 𝑏.
This theorem easily extends to products of more than two terms.
Corollary : If 𝑝 is a prime and 𝑝 | 𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛 , then 𝑝 | 𝑎𝑘 for some 𝑘, where 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑛.
Proof: We proceed by induction on 𝑛, the number of factors. When 𝑛 = 1, the stated
conclusion obviously holds; whereas when 𝑛 = 2, the result is the content of Theorem
1.3.5.1 Suppose, as the induction hypothesis, that 𝑛 > 2 and that whenever 𝑝 divides a
product of less than 𝑛 factors, it divides at least one of the factors. Now let 𝑝 | 𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛 .
From Theorem 1.3.5.1, either 𝑝 | 𝑎𝑛 or 𝑝 | 𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛−1 . If 𝑝 | 𝑎𝑛 , then we are through.

As regards the case where 𝑝 | 𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛−1, the induction hypothesis ensures that 𝑝 | 𝑎𝑘
for some choice 𝑘, where 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑛 − 1.. In any event, 𝑝 divides one of the integers
𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛
Corollary : If 𝑝, 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , . . . , 𝑞𝑛 are all primes and 𝑝 | 𝑞1 𝑞2 … 𝑞𝑛 , then 𝑝 = 𝑞𝑘 for some 𝑘,
where 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑛.
Proof: By virtue of Corollary 1, we know that 𝑝 | 𝑎𝑘 for some 𝑘, with 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑛.. Being
a prime, 𝑞𝑘 is not divisible by any positive integer other than 1 or 𝑞𝑘 itself. Because
𝑝 > 1, we are forced to conclude that 𝑝 = 𝑞𝑘 .
With this preparation out of the way, we arrive at one of the cornerstones of our
development, the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. As indicated earlier, this theorem
asserts that every integer greater than 1 can be factored into primes in essentially one way;
the linguistic ambiguity essentially means that 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 2 is not considered as being a
different factorization of 12 from 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 3. We state this precisely in Theorem 1.3.5.2
Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) Every positive integer 𝑛 > 1 can be
expressed as a product of primes; this representation is unique, apart from the order in
which the factors occur.
Proof: Either 𝑛 is a prime or it is composite; in the former case, there is nothing more to
prove. If 𝑛 is composite, then there exists an integer 𝑑 satisfying 𝑑 | 𝑛 and 1 < 𝑑 < 𝑛.
Among all such integers 𝑑, choose 𝑝1 to be the smallest (this is possible by the Well-
Ordering Axiom). Then 𝑝1 must be a prime number. Otherwise it too would have a divisor
𝑞 with 1 < 𝑞 < 𝑝, but then 𝑞 | 𝑝1 and 𝑝1 | 𝑛 imply that 𝑞 | 𝑛, which contradicts the
choice of 𝑝1 as the smallest positive divisor, not equal to 1, of 𝑛.
We therefore may write 𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑛1, where 𝑝1 is prime and 1 < 𝑛 1 < 𝑛. If 𝑛 1 happens
to be a prime, then we have our representation. In the contrary case, the argument is
repeated to produce a second prime number 𝑝2 such that 𝑛1 = 𝑝2 𝑛2 , that is,
𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑛2 1 < 𝑛 2 < 𝑛1
If 𝑛 2 is a prime, then it is not necessary to go further. Otherwise, write
𝑛2 = 𝑝3 𝑛3 , with 𝑝3 a prime:
𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑛3 1 < 𝑛 3 < 𝑛2
The decreasing sequence
𝑛 > 𝑛1 > 𝑛2 > ⋯ > 1

cannot continue indefinitely, so that after a finite number of steps 𝑛 𝑘−1 is a prime, call it,
𝑝𝑘 . This leads to the prime factorization
𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑝2 … 𝑝𝑘
To establish the second part of the proof—the uniqueness of the prime factorization—let
us suppose that the integer n can be represented as a product of primes in two ways; say,
𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑝2 … 𝑝𝑟 = 𝑞1 𝑞2 … 𝑞𝑠 𝑟≤𝑠
where the 𝑝𝑖 and 𝑞𝑗 are all primes, written in increasing magnitude so that
𝑝1 ≤ 𝑝2 ≤ ⋯ ≤ 𝑝𝑟 𝑞1 ≤ 𝑞2 ≤ ⋯ ≤ 𝑞𝑠
Because 𝑝1 | 𝑞1 𝑞2 … 𝑞𝑠 , Corollary 2 of Theorem 1.3.5.1 𝑝1 = 𝑞𝑘 for some 𝑘 but then
𝑝1 ≥ 𝑞1 . Similar reasoning gives 𝑞1 ≥ 𝑝1 , whence 𝑝1 = 𝑞1 We may cancel this common
factor and obtain
𝑝2 𝑝3 … 𝑝𝑟 = 𝑞2 𝑞3 … 𝑞𝑠
Now repeat the process to get 𝑝2 = 𝑞2 and, in turn,
𝑝3 𝑝4 … 𝑝𝑟 = 𝑞3 𝑞4 … 𝑞𝑠
Continue in this fashion. If the inequality 𝑟 < 𝑠 were to hold, we would eventually arrive
at
1 = 𝑞𝑟+1 𝑞𝑟+2 … 𝑞𝑠
which is absurd, because each 𝑞𝑗 > 1. Hence, 𝑟 = 𝑠 and
𝑝1 = 𝑞1 𝑝2 = 𝑞2 , … , 𝑝𝑟 = 𝑞𝑠
making the two factorizations of n identical. The proof is now complete.
Of course, several of the primes that appear in the factorization of a given positive integer
may be repeated, as is the case with 360 = 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 3 ∙ 5. By collecting like primes
and replacing them by a single factor, we can rephrase Theorem 1.3.5.2 as a corollary.
Corollary : Any positive integer 𝑛 > 1 can be written uniquely in a canonical form
𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑘1 𝑝2 𝑘2 … 𝑝𝑟 𝑘𝑟
where, for 𝑖 = 1, 2, . . . , 𝑟, each 𝑘𝑖 is a positive integer and each 𝑝𝑖 is a prime, with
𝑝1 < 𝑝2 < ⋯ < 𝑝𝑟 .
To illustrate, the canonical form of the integer 360 is 360 = 23 ∙ 32 ∙ 5. As further
examples we cite
4725 = 33 ∙ 52 ∙ 7 𝑎𝑛𝑑 17460 = 23 ∙ 32 ∙ 5 ∙ 72

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic could be used to find the greatest common
divisor and the least common multiple of two or more integers.
Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … 𝑎𝑛 be natural numbers. Using the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic,
α α α
𝑎1 = p1 11 p2 12 … pk 1k
α α α
𝑎2 = p1 21 p2 22 … pk 2k
⋮
α α α
𝑎𝑛 = p1 n1 p2 n2 … pk nk
with positive primes 𝑝1 < 𝑝2 < ⋯ < 𝑝𝑘 and non-negative integers αij , 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛 and
1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑘. For each 𝑗 = 1,2, … , 𝑘 , put
𝛼𝑗 = min{αij ∶ i = 1,2, … , n} 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝛽𝑗 = max{αij ∶ i = 1,2, … , n} 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝐺𝐶𝐹(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … 𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑝1 𝛼1 𝑝2 𝛼2 … 𝑝𝑘 𝛼𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝐶𝑀(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … 𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑝1 𝛽1 𝑝2 𝛽2 … 𝑝𝑘 𝛽𝑘
For instance,
𝐺𝐶𝐹(1029,1911,9177) = 3 ∙ 7 = 21
𝐿𝐶𝑀(1029,1911,9177) = 3 ∙ 73 ∙ 13 ∙ 19 ∙ 23 = 5,845,749

Activity
1. For each pair of numbers, express m in the form 𝑚 = 𝑏𝑞 + 𝑟, with integers 𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟, 0 ≤ 𝑟 <
|𝑏|.
a) 𝑚 = 37, 𝑏 = 8 c) 𝑚 = 342, 𝑏 = −33
b) 𝑚 == 495, 𝑏 = 65 d) 𝑚 = −936, 𝑏 = −107
2. Show that the square of every odd integer is of the form 8𝑘 + 1.
3. Show that the product of any three consecutive integers is divisible by 6.
4. Show that if 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are integers and 𝑎  𝑏 , then 𝑎𝑘  𝑏 𝑘 for every positive integer 𝑘.
5. Show that if a and b are positive integers and 𝑎  𝑏 , 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏.
6. Prove each of the followings.
a) The sum of two odd integers is even.
b) The product of two integers is odd.
7. 𝐼𝑓 (𝑎, 12) = 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 = 12𝑞 + 𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑞, 𝑟 ∈ ℤ and 𝑟 = 1,5,7 𝑜𝑟 11.
8. Any two consecutive integers are relatively prime.
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
9. For any integer 𝑥, show that (𝑥, 𝑥 + 2) = {
2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
10. Show that 2𝑛2+11 is prime for all integers n with 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 10, but it is composite for n =11.
11. Show that 2𝑛2+29 is prime for all integers n with 0 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 29, but it is composite for n =29.
12. Show that 𝑥 2 − 𝑥+41 is prime for all integers x with 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 40, but it is composite for x
=41.
13. Show that if 𝑘 is an integer, then 3𝑘 + 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5𝑘 + 3 are relatively prime.
14. Show that 8𝑎 + 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5𝑎 + 2 are relatively prime for all integers 𝑎.
15. Show that that every positive integer greater than 6 is the sum of two relatively prime integers
greater than 1.
16. If a natural number n is composite, then show that it has a factor 𝑑 such that 1 < 𝑑 ≤ √𝑛.
17. Prove that every natural number greater than 1 has at least one prime factor.
18. Using the prime factorization of the integers, find the GCD and LCM of the given numbers.
𝑚 = 420, 𝑛 = 1540, 𝑞 = 6600
𝑚 = 840, 𝑛 = 1890, 𝑞 = 5250, 𝑡 = 14170
19. Use Euclidean algorithm to find GCD of the following pair of numbers and express the GCD
as a linear combination of the pairs with integer coefficients.
a) 1350 and 4500 c) 2450 and 11844
b) 7700 and 136125 d) 4851 and 33800

20. Use Euclidean algorithm to find integers 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 such that
1350𝑥 + 4500𝑦 = 900
72𝑥 − 40𝑦 = 32
115𝑥 + 203𝑦 = 1
21. Suppose m and n are natural numbers, show that 𝑛  𝑚 iff for every prime 𝑝 and non-negative
integer 𝜃, if 𝑝𝜃 is a factor of n, then 𝑝𝜃 𝑚 .
22. For non-zero integers 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 and positive integers 𝑚 , show that
(𝑚𝑎1 , 𝑚𝑎2 , … , 𝑚𝑎𝑛 ) = 𝑚(𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 )
[𝑚𝑎1 , 𝑚𝑎2 , … , 𝑚𝑎𝑛 ] = 𝑚[𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ]
𝑎 𝑎2 𝑎
23. If 𝑑 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) , then conclude that ( 𝑑1 , 𝑑
, … , 𝑑𝑛 ) = 1.
24. 𝐼𝑓 (𝑎, 4) = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑏, 4) = 2, 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 (𝑎 ± 𝑏, 4) = 4.

25. Using division algorithm, show that
a) For any odd integer 𝑛, 𝑛2 − 1 is a multiple of 8.
b) For any odd integer 𝑛, 𝑛2 ± 2 is not a multiple of 4.
c) If (𝑛, 3) = 1 , then 𝑛2 − 1 is a multiple of 3.
26. For positive integers 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛, show that [𝑚, 𝑛](𝑚, 𝑛) = 𝑚𝑛.
27. If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are non-zero integers, show that [𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ] exists.
28. If 𝑚 is common multiple of 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 , show that [𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ] is a factor of 𝑚.
29. Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 be non-zero integers. Prove that
((𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛−1 ), 𝑎𝑛 ) = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 )
[[𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛−1 ], 𝑎𝑛 ] = [𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ]
Numbers with different bases
Division Algorithm is one of the most important theorems in elementary number theory. In the
previous section, it was essential in both showing the existence of GCD for integers 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 , not all
zero, and to find the GCD. Here we indicate how every integer can be expressed in any base b,
where b is a positive integer greater than 1.
Theorem (Bases Theorem) Given an integer b > 1, any positive integer N can be written uniquely
in terms of powers of b as
𝑁 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚−1 𝑏𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 𝑎1 𝑏 + 𝑎0
Where the coefficients 𝑎𝑘 can take on the b different values 0, 1, 2, . . . , 𝑏 − 1.
Proof: For the Division Algorithm yields integers 𝑞1 and 𝑎0 satisfying
𝑁 = 𝑞1 𝑏 + 𝑎0 0 ≤ 𝑎0 < 𝑏
If 𝑞1 > 𝑏, we can divide once more, obtaining

𝑞1 = 𝑞2 𝑏 + 𝑎1 0 ≤ 𝑎1 < 𝑏
Now substitute for 𝑞1 in the earlier equation to get
𝑁 = (𝑞2 𝑏 + 𝑎1 )𝑏 + 𝑎0 = 𝑞2 𝑏2 + 𝑎1 𝑏 + 𝑎0
As long as 𝑞2 ≥ 𝑏, we can continue in the same fashion. Going one more step:
𝑞2 = 𝑞3 𝑏 + 𝑎2 0 ≤ 𝑎2 < 𝑏 ; hence
𝑁 = 𝑞3 𝑏3 + 𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 𝑎1 𝑏 + 𝑎0
Because 𝑁 > 𝑞1 > 𝑞2 > • • • ≥ 0 is a strictly decreasing sequence of integers, this process must
eventually terminate, say, at the (𝑚 — 𝑙)𝑡ℎ stage, where
𝑞𝑚−1 = 𝑞𝑚 𝑏 + 𝑎𝑚−1 0 ≤ 𝑎𝑚−1 < 𝑏
and 0 ≤ 𝑞𝑚 < 𝑏. Setting 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑞𝑚 , we reach the representation
𝑁 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚−1 𝑏𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 𝑎1 𝑏 + 𝑎0
This is our aim.
To show uniqueness, let us suppose that 𝑁 has two distinct representations, say,
𝑁 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚−1 𝑏𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑏 + 𝑎0 = 𝑐𝑚 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑐𝑚−1 𝑏𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑐1 𝑏 + 𝑐0
with 0 ≤ 𝑎𝑖 < 𝑏 for each 𝑖 and 0 ≤ 𝑐𝑗 < 𝑏 for each 𝑗 (we can use the same 𝑚 by simply
adding terms with coefficients 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑖 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑗 = 0 , if necessary). Subtracting the second
representation from the first gives the equation.
0 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑑1 𝑏 + 𝑑0
where 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑚. Because the two representations for 𝑁 are assumed to be
different, we must have 𝑑𝑖 ≠ 0 for some value of 𝑖. Take 𝑘 to be the smallest subscript for which
𝑑𝑘 ≠ 0. Then
0 = 𝑑𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑘+1 𝑏𝑘+1 + 𝑑𝑘 𝑏 𝑘
and so, after dividing by 𝑏 𝑘 ,
𝑑𝑘 = −𝑏(𝑑𝑚 𝑏𝑚−𝑘−1 + ⋯ 𝑑𝑘+1 )
This tells us that 𝑏 | 𝑑𝑘 . Now the inequalities 0 ≤ 𝑎𝑘 < 𝑏 and 0 ≤ 𝑐𝑘 < 𝑏 lead us to. −𝑏 <
𝑎𝑘 − 𝑐𝑘 < 𝑏 , or |𝑑𝑘 | < 𝑏. The only way of reconciling the conditions 𝑏 | 𝑑𝑘 and |𝑑𝑘 | < 𝑏 is to
have 𝑑𝑘 = 0, which is impossible. From this contradiction, we conclude that the representation of
N is unique.
The essential feature in all of this is that the integer 𝑁 is completely determined by the ordered
array 𝑎𝑚 , 𝑎𝑚−1 , … 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 of coefficients, with the plus signs and the powers of 𝑏 being
superfluous. Thus, the number
𝑁 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚−1 𝑏𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑏 2 + 𝑎1 𝑏 + 𝑎0
may be replaced by the simpler symbol

𝑁 = (𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑚−1 … 𝑎2 𝑎1 𝑎0 )𝑏
(the right-hand side is not to be interpreted as a product, but only as an abbreviation for 𝑁). We call
this 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑏 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑁.
If 𝑏 is ten, then the representation (𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑚−1 … 𝑎2 𝑎1 𝑎0 )10 is called the decimal
representation of 𝑁 and is simply written as
𝑁 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑚−1 … 𝑎2 𝑎1 𝑎0
Small values of 𝑏 give rise to lengthy representation of numbers, but have the advantage of
requiring fewer choices for coefficients. The simplest case occurs when the base 𝑏 = 2, and the
resulting system of enumeration is called the binary number system (from the Latin binarius, two).
The fact that when a number is written in the binary system only the integers 0 and 1 can appear as
coefficients means that every positive integer is expressible in exactly one way as a sum of distinct
powers of 2. For example, the integer 105 can be written as
105 = 1 ∙ 26 + 1 ∙ 25 + 0 ∙ 24 + 1 ∙ 23 + 0 ∙ 22 + 0 ∙ 2 + 1
= 26 + 25 + 23 + 1
or, in abbreviated form,
105 = (101001)2
In the other direction, (1001111)2 translates into
1 ∙ 26 + 0 ∙ 25 + 0 ∙ 24 + 1 ∙ 23 + 1 ∙ 22 + 1 ∙ 2 + 1 = 79
The binary system is most convenient for use in modern electronic computing machines, because
binary numbers are represented by strings of zeros and ones; 0 and 1 can be expressed in the
machine by a switch (or a similar electronic device) being either on or off.
If 𝑏 is ten, then the representation (𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑚−1 … 𝑎2 𝑎1 𝑎0 )10 is called the decimal
representation of m and is simply written as
𝑁 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑚−1 … 𝑎2 𝑎1 𝑎0

Activity
1. Obtain the representation of each of the following numbers in the scale of 𝑏 given
a) 𝑚 = 24567 , 𝑏 = 𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 d) 𝑚 = 68392 , 𝑏 = 𝑓𝑖𝑣𝑒
b) 𝑚 = 3896 , 𝑏 = 𝑡𝑤𝑜 e) 𝑚 = 698392 , 𝑏 = 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
c) 𝑚 = −884325 , 𝑏 = 𝑠𝑖𝑥
2. Find the decimal representation of the following numbers.
a) (342532)six c) (103405)eleven
b) (23410)eight d) (103405)seven

Review Exercise
1. Show that for each 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑤 ∈ ℤ the following holds.
𝑥 >𝑦 ⟺𝑥+𝑧 >𝑦+𝑧
𝑥 > 𝑦 ⋀ 𝑦 > 𝑧 ⟹𝑥 > 𝑧
𝑥 > 𝑦 ⋀ 𝑧 > 0 ⟹ 𝑥𝑧 > 𝑦𝑧
𝑥 > 𝑦 ⋀ 𝑧 < 0 ⟹ 𝑥𝑧 < 𝑦𝑧
𝑥 > 𝑦 ⋀ 𝑧 > 𝑤 ⟹𝑥 + 𝑧 > 𝑦 + 𝑤
2. Construct an ordered integral domain where 1is the least positive element.
3. If R is an ordered integral domain and 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, is it true that there is no element of R
between a and a+1?Why?
4. Show that every non-empty subset of ℤ that is bounded below has a least element.
5. Prove that non-empty subset of ℤ that is bounded above has largest element.
6. Prove that the cube of any integer can be written as the difference of two squares.
[𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕 ∶ 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑛3 = (13 + 23 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 ) − (13 + 23 + ⋯ + (𝑛 − 1)3 ]
7. Prove that 𝑛! > 𝑛2 for every integer 𝑛 ≥ 4, whereas 𝑛! > 𝑛3 for every integer 𝑛 ≥ 6.
8. Establish Bernoulli inequality: 𝐼𝑓 1 + 𝑎 > 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (1 + 𝑎)𝑛 ≥ 1 + 𝑛𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛 ≥ 1.
1
9. Show that the number of diagonals in a convex polygon of 𝑛 sides is 𝑛(𝑛 − 3).
2
[𝑯𝒊𝒏𝒕 ∶ 𝐵𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 4]

10. Show that the sum of the interior angles of a convex polygon of 𝑛 sides equals (𝑛 − 2) ∙
180°
11. Show that the formula 2 + 4 + 6 + ⋯ + 2𝑛 = 𝑛2 + 𝑛 + 2 obeys Condition (b) of the
Principle of Mathematical Induction but is false for any choice of 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.What do you
Conclude ?
12. If the numbers 𝑎𝑛 are defined by 𝑎1= 11, 𝑎2 = 21, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑎𝑛−1 − 2𝑎𝑛−2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 3,
𝑎𝑛 = 5 ∙ 2𝑛 + 1 𝑛 ≥ 1.
13. Let 𝑚 = 𝑝1 𝜃1 , 𝑝2 𝜃2 , … , 𝑝𝑘 𝜃𝑘 and 𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝛼1 , 𝑝2 𝛼2 , … , 𝑝𝑘 𝛼𝑘 be the prime factorization of
𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 . Show that 𝑚𝑛 iff 𝜃𝑖 ≤ 𝛼𝑖 for every 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑘.
14. Determine the truth value of each of the following assertions for integers 𝑚, 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞.
𝐼𝑓 (𝑚, 𝑛) = (𝑚, 𝑞), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 [𝑚, 𝑛] = [𝑚, 𝑞]
𝐼𝑓 (𝑚, 𝑛) = (𝑚, 𝑞), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑚2 , 𝑛2 ) = (𝑚2 , 𝑞 2 ).
𝐼𝑓 𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝(𝑚2 + 𝑛2 ), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑛 .

15. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑓𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 (198,288,512) = 198𝑥 + 288𝑦 + 512𝑧
16. Assuming that (𝑎, 𝑏) = 1, Prove the following
(𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑎 − 𝑏) = 1 𝑜𝑟 2
(𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ) = 1 𝑜𝑟 2
17. Calculate the following in the given bases.
a) (3425)seven +(353356)seven +(12456)seven
b) (3542)six - (2345)six
c) (3842)nine - (3648)nine
d) (16225)seven  (1012)seven

Summary
The integers are a system (ℤ, +, . ) which consists of a set ℤ equipped with two operations
(+) and (. ) that map ℤ × ℤ.
Let (𝑅, +, . ) be a commutative ring with identity 1 = 1𝑅 . This system is said to be an
ordered ring if there exists a subset 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑅 ⊆ 𝑅 with the following properties.
R is a disjoint union 𝑅 = −𝑃 ∪ {0} ∪ 𝑃 of the sets 𝑃, −𝑃 = {−𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑃}.
𝑃 + 𝑃 = {𝑥 + 𝑦: 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑃} ⊆ 𝑃 (“positive +positive=positive”)
𝑃. 𝑃{𝑥. 𝑦: 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑃} ⊆ 𝑃 (“positive . positive = positive”)
(Well Ordering Axiom) Every non-empty subset of P has a least element.
(First Principle of mathematical Induction) Let S be a set of positive integers with the
Whenever the integer 𝑘 is in S, the next integer 𝑘 + 1 must also be in S.
(Second Principle of mathematical Induction) Let S be a set of positive integers with the
If 𝑘 is a positive integer such that 1, 2, . . . , 𝑘 belong to S, then 𝑘 + 1 must also be in S.

References
 Andrew Adler, John E. Coury (1995), The Theory of Numbers: a text and source book of
problems. Jenes and Bertlett publishers, Singapore.
 George E. Andrews (1971) NUMBER THEORY. W. B. Saunders Company, London, WC1A
1DB.
 Tom M. Apostol(1976), Introduction to Analytic Number Theory. New York ,Heidelberg
Berlin.
 ALAN BAKER (1984), A concise introduction to the theory of numbers. Cambridge
University Press, London.
 ALAN BAKER (1975), TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBER THEORY. Cambridge University
Press, London.
 Yismaw Alemu (1995), Introduction to elementary Theory of Numbers. Department of
mathematics, AAU.

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Fundamental concepts of Algebra

Haile G/her (M.Sc.) & Solomon Shiferaw (B.Sc.) 1 AKU

1.1 Review of propositional logic , connectives, compound proposition, equivalent

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1.2. Argument and Validity of statements

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As we see from the table (𝑃 → 𝑄) 𝒆𝒒  𝑃 ⋁ 𝑄 and 𝑃 𝒆𝒒 𝑃 ⋀ (𝑄⋁  𝑄).

Haile G/her (M.Sc.) & Solomon Shiferaw (B.Sc.) 15 AKU

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(a) 𝑃 → (𝑃 → 𝑅). (c) (P → Q) ↔  P⋁Q.

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Observe that A−B and B are disjoint, i.e. (A−B)  B=∅

𝐴′ 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝐴⋂𝐵 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝐴⋃𝐵 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑

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(A⋂ B⋂C) ⋃ (𝐴̅⋂B⋂C) ⋃ 𝐵̅ ⋃ C = [(A ⋃ 𝐴̅) ⋂(B⋂C)] ⋃ ( 𝐵̅ ⋃ C )

Haile G/her (M.Sc.) & Solomon Shiferaw (B.Sc.) 41 AKU

Definition 2.2.3: A relation R from X to Y is a subset of 𝑋 × 𝑌.

and its range is the set of second coordinates, denoted by 𝑅ℛ ,i.e.,

Example: consider the relation

in X={1,2,3}. Then the domain of R={1,2},the range of R={2,3},and

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Example: let X ={1,2,3} and Y ={a,b}.Then

{(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ × ℝ| 𝑦 = 𝑥} , {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ × ℝ| 𝑦 ≥ 𝑥} , {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ × ℝ│0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2

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Definition2.2.6 : A relation 𝑓 said to be a function iff 𝑦 = 𝑧, ∀(𝑥, 𝑦), (𝑥, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑓.

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2.3 Classification of sets

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