1

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASE

Health
 Health is not just the absence of disease. It is a state of physical, mental and
psychological and social well- being.
 Health is affected by genetic disorders, infections and life style etc.
 Health is maintained by balanced diet , personal hygine, regular exercise and some
times yoga.
Disease
 The term disease is used to indicate the malfunction of the body or body parts
 The malfunctions are characterized by the signs and symptoms.
 Diseases can be broadly classified into infectious and non-infectious diseases.
Infectious diseases
 Diseases which are easily transmitted from one person to another are called
infectious diseases. Some of the infectious disease like AIDS is fatal.
Non-infectious diseases
 Diseases which are not transmitted from one person to another are called non-
infectious diseases. Among these, cancer is more fatal and is the major cause of
death.
COMMON DISEASES IN HUMANS
Pathogens
 The disease causing organisms are called pathogens.
 The pathogens which cause diseases in man are bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoans,
helminthes etc.
 The pathogens can enter the body and multiply and interfere with vital activities.
 Most of the pathogens have adaptations to live in the host body.
 Ascaris lumbricoids commonly known as round worms live in the intestine of
humans; have some parasitic adaptation such as thick cuticle to prevent the
enzymatic activity of the host.
BACTERIAL DISEASES
Include Typhoid, Pneumonia, Dysentery, Plague, Diphtheria etc.
Typhoid fever
 It is a disease of alimentary canal caused by the bacterium called Salmonella typhi.
 The bacterium enters the body through contaminated food and water and
immigrates to other organs through blood.
 Common symptoms of typhoid include sustained fever (39-40 0C), weakness,
stomach pain, constipation, headache, loss of appetite etc.
 In severe case death may occur due to intestinal perforations.
Widal test
 It is an antigen- antibody reaction test used for the diagnosis of typhoid fever.
Pneumonia
 It is a lung disease caused by bacteria called Streptococcus pneumoniae and
Haemophilus influenzae.
 In this infection, the alveoli get filled with fluid leading to serious respiratory
problems.
 2
 Fever, chills, cough and headache are the symptoms. In extreme cases, the lips and
finger nails turn blue.
(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal)
 Transmission occurs through the droplets of infected persons. It may also get
transmitted by sharing of utensils with an infected person.
VIRAL DISEASES
Include common cold, chicken pox, measles etc.
Common cold
 It is a common viral disease of nose and respiratory passage, caused by Rhino
viruses.
 Nasal congestion and discharge, sore throat, cough, headache, tiredness etc. which
usually last for 3-7 days are the symptoms.
 Transmission occurs through the droplets resulting from cough or sneeze of infected
person or through the contaminated objects like pens, books, cups, keyboards etc.
PROTOZOAN DISEASES
Include malaria, amoebiasis etc.
Malaria
 It is a protozoan disease caused by different species of plasmodium such as
Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium
falciparum. Of these malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum is the most
dangerous and even fatal.
 3
Life cycle of plasmodium vivax

(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal)

Life cycle
 Plasmodium is a digenetic parasite which requires two hosts for the completion of
its life.
 Man is the primary host and Anopheles mosquito is the secondary host or vector.
 Plasmodium enters the body as sporozoites (infectious form) through the bite of
infected anopheles mosquito.
 Sporozoites undergo multiplication in the liver cells and then attack the RBC
resulting in their rupture.
 The rupture of RBC is associated with the release of toxic substance known as
haemozoin, which is responsible for chill and recurrent fever every 3-4 days.
 When an infected mosquito bites an infected person, these parasites enter the body
of mosquito for further development.
 The parasites undergo multiplication within the body of mosquito and form
sporozoites that are stored in the salivary glands.
 When these mosquitoes bite a healthy person, the sporozoites are introduced into
his body and the above cycle is repeated.
AMOEBIASIS
 4
 It is a protozoan disease of large intestine caused by Entamoeba histolytica
 It is also known as amoebic dysentery.
 It is transmitted through contaminated food and water by faecal matters or it is
associated with unhygienic condition.
 House flies play a vital role in the transmission of amoebiasis.
 Symptoms include abdominal pain and cramps, stools with excess mucous and
blood coats.
HELMINTH DISEASES
Include ascariasis, filariasis etc.
Ascariasis
 It is also called worm trouble caused by helminth parasite known as Ascaris
lumbricoides.
 Transmission of this occurs through contaminated food and water.
 Symptoms include internal bleeding, muscular pain, fever, anaemia and blockage of
intestinal passage.
 Ascaris is a monogenetic parasite. The eggs of the parasite reach along with the
faeces of infected person.
Elephantiasis
 It is also called filariasis caused by a helminth known as Wucheraria bancrofti.
 Usually it affects the lymphatic vessels and causes their inflammation.
 The affected parts are limbs, genital organs, mammary glands etc.
 When it affects the lymphatic vessels or lower limbs, resulting in the enlargement of
limb and is called elephantiasis.
 Wucheraria is a digenetic parasite. Man is the primary host and female mosquito
belonging to Culex is the vector.
 Transmission occurs when an infected mosquito bites a healthy person.

Diseases caused by fungi

 Many fungi belong to the genera Microsporam, Trichophyton and
Epidermophyton are responsible for ring worm.
 The main symptoms include dry scaly lesions on the skin, nails and scalp
 Usually scaly lesions are associated with itching.
 Heat and moister in the skin folds such as those in the groin, between toes etc. help
the fungi to grow.
 Transmission mainly occurs by using the clothes, comb etc. of infected persons.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES

1. For water-borne disease like typhoid, amoebiasis etc.
Practice personal hygienic measures such as,
a. Keeping the body clean
b. Consumption of clean drinking water
c. Eating fresh food and
Public hygienic measures such as
a. Proper disposal of waste and excreta
b. Periodic cleaning and disinfection of water reservoirs, pool, tank etc.
2.For air-borne diseases like common cold, pneumonia
a) Avoid close contact with infected persons
 5
b) Avoid the use of belongings of the infected persons.
3. For vectors –borne diseases like malaria

a) Control and eliminate the vectors and their breeding places.

b) Introducing larvivorous fishes like Gambusia in ponds that feed on
the larva of mosquito.
c) Avoid stagnation of water around the residential area.
d) Spraying of insecticides in ditches, drainage areas etc.
e) Protection from mosquito bite. Use mosquito nets in the doors and
windows to prevent the entry of mosquito. It is very important in the
light of recently wide spread diseases like dengue fever, chikungunya
etc.
IMMUNITY
Immunity is the ability of the host to fight the disease causing organisms.
Immunity is of two types. They are innate immunity and acquired
immunity.
1.Innate immunity
 The resistance to certain infections from birth is called innate immunity or inborn
immunity.
 It is a non-specific type of defense. This is accomplished by providing four types of
barriers. They are,

(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal)

2. Acquired immunity
 The resistance that an individual acquires during his life is known as acquired
immunity or adaptive immunity.
 It is a specific immune response because the antibodies are produced in response to
a specific antigen.
 It is characterized by memory. I.e., our body when it encounters a pathogen for the
first time produces a response called primary response with a low intensity.
 When the same pathogen enters the body for the second, the immune response is
very fast and highly intensified. This is called secondary response or anamnestic
response.
 6
 The primary and secondary immune responses are effected with the help of two
cells namely B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.
 The B-lymphocytes produce an army of proteins in the blood known as antibodies in
response to pathogens.
 The T-lymphocytes do not produce antibodies but help the B-cells to produce them.
ANTIBODY
 The molecules which are produced in response to antigen are called antibodies
 All antibodies belong to a class of plasmaglobulins called immunoglobulins (Ig).
 There are five classes of antibodies. They are IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD and IgE.
 IgG is the most abundant immunoglobulin in man.
 The antibodies are produced by specialized cells known as lymphocytes and plasma
cells.
 Antibodies are specific to antigens. I.e., a particular antibody binds only with a
particular antigen. This explains a lock and key mechanism.
 Antigen-antibody reaction makes the antigen inactive.
Structure of immunoglobulin
 Each immunoglobulin is formed of four polypeptide chains.
 Of the 4 chains, two are long chains called heavy chains or H chains and the other
two are short chains called light chains or L chains.
 The 4 chains are held together by disulphide bonds to form a ‘Y’ shaped structure.
 Each antibody has two portions; - a stem and two prongs.
 The two tips of the prongs bind to the specific antigens in a lock and key fashion,
forming an antigen-antibody complex.
 The amino acid sequence of stem portion is similar in all antibody molecules
belonging to the same class, while the prongs show great specificity-
(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal)

(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal)

 The antibody molecules may be bound to cell membrane or they remain free.
 The free antibody molecules perform three functions such as agglutination (binding
with bacteria or virus), opsonisation (form a coat on bacteria to facilitate their
subsequent phagocytosis by cells) and neutralization (to neutralize the toxins
released by bacteria, e.g. Tetanus toxin).
 7
Structure of an antibody molecule

Types of immune response

There are two types of immune response. They are humoral immunity
and cell mediated immunity.
1. Humoral immunity
 Immunity mediated by antibodies produced in the body fluids (humors) such as
plasma or lymph is known as humoral immunity.
 It is also called antibody mediated immune system. In this immunity, specific
antibodies are produced in response to specific antigen stimulus.
 The antibodies (gamma globulins) bind and inactivate particular antigen.
 The antigen – antibody complex is then phagocytosed.
2. Cell mediated immunity
 The immunity produced by the sensitized (activated) lymphocytes is called cell
mediated immunity.
 In this immunity, the T-cells directly attack the pathogens that have entered the
body.
 This system also reacts against transplants and is important in producing the body
from its own cells if they become cancerous.
 Very often, when some human organs like heart, eye, liver and kidney fail to
function satisfactorily, transplantation is the only remedy to enable the patient to
live a normal life.
 Tissue matching, blood group matching are essential before undertaking any
graft/transplant and even after this the patient has to take immuno-suppressants
all his /her life.
 The body is able to differentiate ‘self’ and ‘nonself’ and the cell mediated immune
response is responsible for the graft rejection
(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal)
(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal)
The main difference between humoral and cell mediated
immunity is that, the humoral immunity can be transferred from one individual to
another through serum; while cell mediated immunity requires a transfer of
lymphocytes.
 8

ACTIVE IMMUNITY
 The antibodies produced in an animal’s own body following its exposure to an
antigen are called active immunity.
 This can be induced by vaccination. It involves the introduction of vaccines into the
body.
 Vaccines are preparations which contain weakened or attenuated pathogens.
 In order to produce adequate immunity against a disease, booster doses of the
vaccine may be required.
 A dose of antigen (secondary) given after the primary dose to stimulate accelerated
production of large amounts of antibodies is called booster dose. The first dose is
called trigger dose.
 The active immunity is also developed by diseases such as mumps, measles,
chicken pox etc. In this case the first attack will produce life long immunity.
PASSIVE IMMUNITY
 When ready made antibodies are given to protect the body against foreign antigens
is called passive immunity.
 Passive immunity is less efficient and inferior than active immunity.
 It is short lived and lasts only for 3 months.
 The main advantage of passive immunization is that it is immediate in its action of
producing immunity
Why mother’s milk is considered very essential for the new born infant?
 The yellowish fluid colostrum secreted by mother during the initial days of
lactation has abundant antibodies (IgA) to protect the infant.
 The foetus also receives some antibodies from their mother, through the placenta
during pregnancy.
 This is an example for passive immunity.
VACCINATION AND IMMUNISATION
 The principle of immunization or vaccination is based on the property of ‘memory’
of the immune system
 In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogen or
inactivated/weakened pathogen (vaccine) is introduced into the body.
 The antibodies produced in the body against these antigens would neutralize the
pathogenic agents during actual infection.
 The vaccines also generate memory-B and T-cells that recognize the pathogen
quickly on subsequent exposure and overwhelm the invaders with a massive
production of antibodies.
Passive immunization
 If a person is infected with some deadly microbes (e.g. tetanus) to which quick
immune response is required, we need to directly inject the preformed antibodies or
antitoxins (a preparation containing antibodies to the toxin).
 Similar process is also done during snake bite. This type of immunization is called
passive immunization.
(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal)
(Dept. of Zoology GHSS Mylachal)
 Recombinant DNA technology is now employed in the production of vaccines in
bacteria or yeast. E.g. Hepatitis B vaccine produced from yeast.
 9

ALLERGIES
 The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the
environment is called allergy.
 The antibodies produced in allergies are IgE type.
 Allergy is due to the release of chemicals like histamine and serotonin from the mast
cells.
Allergens
 The substances to which immune response is produced are called allergens.
 The common examples of allergens are dust, pollens, animal dander etc.
Symptoms
 Symptoms of allergic reactions include sneezing, watery eyes, running nose and
difficulty in breathing.
Treatment
 For determining the cause of allergy, the patient is exposed to or injected with very
small doses of possible antigens, and the reaction is studied.
 The use of drugs like anti-histamine, adrenalin and steroids quickly reduce the
symptoms of allergy.
AUTO IMMUNITY
 The humoral or cell mediated immune response against the body’s own tissues is
called auto immunity.
 It is produced when the immune system recognizes an antigen of its own body as
non-self.
 The diseases associated with autoimmunity are called auto immune diseases.
 In man, rheumatoid arthritis is a common auto immune disease.
IMMUNE SYSTEM IN THE BODY
 The human immune system consists of lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and soluble
molecules like antibodies.
 The immune system also plays an important role in allergic reactions, auto-immune
diseases and organ transplantation.
Lymphoid organs
These are organs where origin, maturation and proliferation of lymphocytes occur.
There are two types of lymphoid organs such as primary lymphoid
organs and secondary lymphoid organs
Primary lymphoid organs
 The organs where T and B lymphocytes mature and acquire their antigen-specific
receptors are known as primary lymphoid organs.
 Bone marrow and thymus are the primary lymphoid organs.
Secondary lymphoid organs
 The organs where proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes takes place in
response to specific antigen, are called secondary lymphoid organs.
 Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, Peyer’s patches of small intestine and appendix
etc.are the secondary lymphoid organs.
 10
Bone marrow
 Bone marrow is the main lymphoid organ where all blood cells including
lymphocytes are produced.
Thymus
 Thymus is a lobed organ located near the heart and beneath the breast bone,
 Thymus is quite large at the time of birth but keeps reducing in size with age and by
the time of puberty it reduces to a very small size.
Spleen
 Spleen is a large bean shaped organ.
 It mainly contains lymphocytes and phagocytes.
 It acts as a filter of the blood by trapping blood-borne micro-organisms.
 Spleen also has a large reservoir of erythrocytes.
Lymph nodes
 Lymph nodes are small solid structures located at different points along the
lymphatic system.
 Lymph nodes serve to trap the micro-organisms or other antigens, which happen to
get into the lymph and tissue fluid.
 Antigens trapped into the lymph nodes are responsible for the activation of
lymphocytes present there and cause the immune response
Mucosal Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT)
 These are lymphoid tissue located within the lining of the major tracts like
respiratory, digestive and urinogenital tracts.
 It constitutes about 50% of the lymphoid tissue.

AIDS (AQUIRED IMMUNO DEFICIECY SYNDROME)

 It is a disease in which the body lost its acquired immunity.
 AIDS is caused by the Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV), a member of a
group of viruses called retroviruses.
 Retroviruses have an envelope enclosing the RNA genome
Transmission
Transmission of HIV – infection generally occurs by
a) Sexual contact with infected person
b) By transfusion of contaminated blood and blood products.
c) By sharing infected needles as in the case of intravenous drug abusers
d) From infected mother to her child through placenta
 HIV/AIDS is not spread by mere touch or physical contact.
 It spread only through body fluids. So it is not reasonable to isolate the AIDS patients
from family and society.
 There is always a time lag between infection and appearance of symptoms. The
period may vary from a few months to many years (usually 5-10 years)

ELISA -Test
 A widely used diagnostic test for AIDS is Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay
(ELISA). The confirmatory test for AIDS is Western blot test.
 11

Replication of Retrovirus
 After getting into the body, the virus enters into the macrophages and converts its
RNA genome into DNA with the help of reverse transcriptase enzyme.
 The viral DNA gets incorporated into host cell’s DNA and directs the infected cells to
produce more virus particles. i.e, the infected macrophages act like a HIV factory.
 Simultaneously, HIV enters into helper T-lymphocytes (TH), replicate and produces
more viruses.
 Then these viruses are released into the blood and attack other T-lymphocytes.
 This will lead to the decrease in number of T-lymphocytes and the patient begins to
show the symptoms such as fever, diarrhoea, weight loss etc.
 Subsequently, the immune system weakens and becomes more prone to infections of
bacteria like Mycobacterium, viruses, fungi and even parasites like Toxoplasma.
Finally he is unable to protect himself.
 12

Treatment
 Treatment of AIDS with anti-retroviral drugs is only partially effective.
 They can only prolong the life of the patient but cannot prevent death, which is
inevitable
Prevention of AIDS
 No treatment is available for AIDS. Prevention is the best option.
 It is due to conscious behaviour. Infection through blood transfusion may take
place due to poor monitoring.
 The only excuse may be ignorance and it has been rightly said “don’t die of
ignorance”
 Safe sex, only one sexual partner, avoid intercourse with unknown partner, use of
disposable needles and syringes, provide free condoms etc. are steps taken up for
preventing HIV infection.
 India started a national organization (NACO-National AIDS Control Organisation)
to educate the people about the ill-effects of this disease.
 A number of non-governmental agencies are also engaged in this regard.
 The most important thing about AIDS is that the infected person should need help
and sympathy instead of being shunned by society.

CANCER
 It is a disease characterized by the uncontrolled growth of cells resulting in the
formation of tumour.
 Tumour is a tissue mass formed by abnormal cell growth and proliferation.
 All tumours are not cancerous. The study of cancer is known as onchology.
 Normal cells show a property called contact inhibition by virtue of which contact
with other cells inhibit their uncontrolled growth. Cancer cells appear to have lost
this property and give rise to tumours.
Types of tumour
Tumour may be of two types
1) Benign tumour
The tumours which is confined to the place of its origin is called benign
tumour. These tumours do not migrate but grow in size.
2) Malignant tumour
These tumour cells grow very rapidly, invading and damaging the
surrounding normal cells. The cells from this tumours are carried to other parts of
the body through blood and lymph and where they form secondary growth.
Metastasis
The spread of cancerous cells to other parts of the body is called metastasis.
Causes of cancer
 The agents which cause cancer are called carcinogens.
 Ionizing radiations like X-rays and gamma rays and non-ionizing radiations like
UV radiations can damage DNA leading to cancer.
 The chemical carcinogens present in tobacco smoke have been identified as a major
cause of lung cancer.
 13
 Cancer causing viruses are called oncogenic viruses and which have genes called
viral oncogenes.
 Several genes called cellular oncogenes (c-onc) or proto oncogenes have been
identified in normal cells which when activated lead to cancer.
CANCER DETECTION AND DIAGNOSIS
1. Biopsy
In biopsy, a piece of the suspected tissue cut into thin sections and is stained and
examined for cancer cells
2. Computed tomography (CT), X-rays and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) are
very useful to detect cancers of the internal organs.
3. Antibodies against cancer-specific antigens are also used for detection of certain
cancers.
4. Techniques of molecular biology can be applied to detect genes in individuals with
inherited susceptibility to certain cancers and such individuals can be advised to
avoid exposure to particular carcinogens to which they are susceptible (e.g. tobacco
smoke in the case of lung cancer).
Treatment of cancer
1) Surgery
Surgical removal of tumour mass is one of the easiest approaches in the
treatment of cancer. But it is not applicable in all types of cancer.
2) Radiation therapy
Treatment of cancer with radiations like X-rays, gamma rays or electron beams is
called radiation therapy. In this method tumour cells are irradiated lethally, taking
proper care of the normal tissues surrounding the tumour mass.
3) Chemotherapy
Treatment of cancer with anticancer drugs to kill cancer cells is known as
chemotherapy. Majority of drugs have side effects like hair loss, anaemia etc.
Most cancers are treated by combination of surgery, radiotherapy
and chemotherapy. Tumour cells are not detected and destroyed by immune system. So
the patients are given substances called alpha interferon which activates their immune
system and help in destroying the tumour.

DRUGS AND ALCOHOL ABUSE

Now a day the use of drugs and alcohol has been on the rise especially among the
youth. Proper awareness and education will help them to get rid of this evil and to lead
a healthy and happy life.
The drugs which are commonly abused are opioids,
cannabinoids and coca alkaloids. Majority of these are obtained from flowering plants.
Some are obtained from fungi.
Opioids
 These are drugs, which bind to specific opioid receptors present in our central
nervous system and gastrointestinal tract.
 Heroine, commonly called smack is chemically diacetyl morphine, is a white,
colourless, bitter crystalline compound obtained by the acetylation of morphine.
 Morphine is extracted from the latex of poppy plant Papaver somniferum.
 Heroine is a depressant and slows down body functions.
Cannabinoids
 These are group of chemicals which interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain.
 14
 Natural cannabinoids are obtained from the inflorescence of the plant Cannabis
sativa.
The flower tops, leaves
and the resin of the Cannabis plant are used in various combinations to produce
marijuana, hashish, charas, and ganja.
 These are known for their effects on cardiovascular system of the body

Chemical structure of morphine structure of cannabinoids molecule

 Coca alkaloid or cocaine is obtained from the coca plant Erythroxylum coca.
 It has a potent stimulating action on central nervous system. Excessive dosage of
cocaine causes hallucinations.
 Plants like Atropa belladona and Datura are examples of plants with
hallucinogenic properties.
 Drugs like barbiturates, amphetamines, benzodiazepines, lysergic acid diethyl
amides (LSD) which are normally used as medicines against mental diseases are
often abused.
 Morphine, which is a very effective sedative and pain killer, is often misused.
SMOKING
 Smoking or use of tobacco in any forms is an injurious habit.
 Tobacco contains the chemical nicotine.
 Nicotine stimulates adrenal gland to release adrenalin and nor-adrenalin, both of
which raise blood pressure and increase heart rate.
 Smoking is associated with increased incidents of cancers of lung, urinary bladder
and throat, bronchitis, emphysema, coronary heart disease, gastric ulcer, etc.
 Smoking increase carbon monoxide content in the blood and reduces the
concentration of haembound oxygen. This causes oxygen deficiency in the body.

ADOLESCENCE AND DRUG/ALCOHOL ABUSE

 Adolescence is a bridge linking childhood and adulthood.
 The period between 12-18 years of age may be thought of as adolescence period.
 Adolescence is accompanied by several biological and behavioral changes.
 Curiosity, need for adventure and excitement, and experimentation, are the reasons
which motivate youngsters towards drug and alcohol use.
 Other factors associated with drug and alcohol abuse among youngsters are
unstable or unsupportive family structures and peer pressure.
Addiction and Dependence
 Dependence of the body on drugs due to prolonged use is known as drug addiction.
 With repeated use of drugs, the tolerance level of the receptors present in our body
increases.
 15
 Consequently, the receptors respond only to higher doses of drugs or alcohol
leading to greater intake and addiction.

 If regular use of drugs/alcohol is stopped by a person suddenly, his body shows

certain symptoms known as withdrawal syndrome.
 It is characterized by anxiety, shakiness, nausea and sweating and withdrawal
symptoms can be severe in some cases which may need medical supervision.
 Dependence also leads the person to ignore social commitments and adjustments.

Effects of Drug or Alcohol abuse

 Excessive doses of drugs may lead to coma and death due to respiratory failure,
heart failure or cerebral hemorrhage.
 A combination of drugs or their intake along with alcohol generally results in
overdosing and even deaths.
 The most common warning signs of drug and alcohol abuse among youth include
drop in academic performance, unexplained absence from school/college, lack of
interest in personal hygine, withdrawal, isolation, depression, fatigue, aggressive
and rebellious behaviour, deteriorating relationship with family and friends, loss of
interest in hobbies, change in eating and sleeping habits, fluctuations in weight,
appetite, etc.
 Sometimes abuser may turn to stealing for getting money to buy drugs/alcohol.
 Those who take drugs intravenously, likely to acquire infections like AIDS and
hepatitis B.
 The chronic use of alcohol and drugs damage nervous system and liver (cirrhosis).
 The use of drugs/alcohol during pregnancy adversely affects the foetus.

Misuse of drugs by sports persons.

 16

Prevention and control

 Generally the teenagers and youngsters fall in the habits of smoking, drinking or
taking drug.
 One of the most effective measures to save them is to identify the situations that
may push an adolescent towards the use of drugs, alcohol etc.
Following are some of the measures useful for prevention and control of
alcohol and drug abuse.
17