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Holistic Tourism: Journeys of the Self?

a
Melanie Smith Senior Lecturer in Cultural Tourism Management & Catherine Kelly Senior Lecturer in
b
Cultural Heritage Management
a
University of Greenwich, Business School, Old Royal Naval College, Greenwich, SE10 9LS, UK. e-
mail:
b
same University, e-mail:
Published online: 12 Jan 2015.

To cite this article: Melanie Smith Senior Lecturer in Cultural Tourism Management & Catherine Kelly Senior Lecturer in
Cultural Heritage Management (2006) Holistic Tourism: Journeys of the Self?, Tourism Recreation Research, 31:1, 15-24, DOI:
10.1080/02508281.2006.11081243

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 TOURISM RECREATION RESEARCH VOL. 31(1), 2006: 15-24

Holistic Tourism: Journeys of the Self?

MELANIE SMITH and CATHERINE KELLY
Escapism has arguably always been an important element of tourism, but the visitor gaze has usually been externally
rather than internally directed. However, the growth of the holistic tourism sector suggests that there is an increasing
desire to focus on the self rather than the 'Other', and 'existential' rather than 'objective 'authenticity (Wang 1999).
This represents escapism of a different kind - a paradoxical desire to escape but in order to 'find' oneself! Numerous
factors have precipitated this growth, not least the apparent anomie of postmodern society. This paper will discuss
the way in which holistic products are being developed to meet the changing needs of tourists, considering some of the
factors that have apparently engendered this development. This will include an analysis of typologies of activities,
profiles of consumers and typical motivations. Holistic retreats tend to offer combinations of therapies and counselling,
pathways to spiritual development, creative enhancement, and many other routes to the reconciliation of body, mind
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and spirit. The latter part of the paper will focus on some examples of this phenomenon, illustrating the diversity of
needs that are being catered for within this emergent sector.

Keywords: holistic tourism, typologies, profiles, motivation, escapism, self, spirituality.

Introduction while Edensor (2001: 61) questions whether we are truly

The aim of this paper is to analyze the burgeoning
holistic holiday market, focusing on product development
and the industry response to the growing consumer desire
to partake of alternative therapies and counselling. Emphasis
will be placed on the factors, which have apparently fuelled
this need. The diversity of activities offered by operators
within the holistic sector suggests that the profiles of
consumers are diverse and wide-ranging. The nature of these
profiles will be discussed in more detail within the context
of debates about the changing sociology of tourism.
Many theorists (e.g., Feifer 1985; Rojek 1993; Urry 1990;
Walsh 1992) have argued that post-tourists are essentially
uninterested in issues of authenticity, preferring instead to
travel in 'hyperreality' (Eco 1986). In a world where it is
becoming more difficult to distinguish between reality and
fiction, authenticity becomes an almost redundant concept.
However, Wang's (1999) notion of 'existential authenticity'
whereby tourists achieve an activated existential sense of
being is worthy of further exploration within this sector of
tourism. Holistic tourists are arguably less interested in
objective or even constructed authenticity, focused as they
are on a sense of self rather than 'Other'. In this context, as
stated by Seaton (2002: 162) 'Tourism is at least as much a
quest to be as a quest to see'.
De Botton (2002) cynically suggests that we are largely
unable to escape from ourselves and our persistent worries,
able to 'transcend the mundane'. Holistic tourism perhaps
affords opportunities to do just that, but it is arguably more
than a mere escape route. Holistic tourists appear to crave
the enhancement rather than the avoidance of self, and many
go away to confront the very problems that other tourists are
only too happy to leave behind. Holistic tourists are often
more interested in 'finding' their true selves, rather than
emulating others in role play (e.g., Seaton's (2002) notion of
'metensomatosis'), or engaging in the liminal, hedonistic
behaviour typical of mass tourists. Given the apparent de-
differentiation of tourism and everyday life (McCabe 2002),
it is not surprising that tourists are increasingly using
tourism as a means of improving their home life, rather than
merely escaping from it.
Holistic tourists' inner journey will be equally, if not
more, important than the outer one. Eliade (1971) sees the
internal and external quest as homologous, and Graburn
(2002: 31) suggests that 'the relationship between an inner
and outer metaphor may be the key to understanding
tourists' motivations, expectations and satisfactions'. The
importance of the outer journey (i.e., the chosen destination
or landscape) as a location in which to conduct the inner
journey is an issue worthy of further discussion. Although
the focus of holistic tourism is largely the self, it can be no
coincidence that many retreats are located in aesthetically
pleasing, environmentally lush and culturally rich
surroundings.

MELANIE SMITH is Senior Lecturer in Cultural Tourism Management at the University of Greenwich, Business School, Old Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, SElO 9LS, UK. e-mail: M.K.Smith@greenwich.ac.uk
CATHERINE KELLY is Senior Lecturer in Cultural Heritage Management at the same University. e-mail: C.Kelly@gre.ac.uk

©2006 Tourism Recreation Research

 Holistic Tourism: M. Smith & C. Kelly
Factors and Motivations Influencing the Growth of Holistic
Tourism
Dann and Cohen (1996) describe how anomie tends to
be prevalent in tourism generating societies, reflecting a
general normlessness or meaninglessness, which acts as a
major 'push' factor in travel motivation (Dann 1977).
Sharpley (2002) describes how alienation (e.g., from work,
community and nature) has become an extrinsic motivating
factor in tourism. The growth of the holistic sector as a whole
can arguably be attributed to a number of common factors.
The post-modern era of global capitalism has led to an
increasing fragmentation of communities, especially in urban
environments. Western societies have created a form of
materialism that does not always nurture the soul
adequately. Sandercock (1998) suggeststhatthepost-modern
city or 'Cosmopolis' deprives inhabitants of sacred and
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spiritual spaces, and places of contemplation and reflection.
Soja (2000) describes the 'Post-metropolis' as a city of
expanding boundaries, which is increasingly difficult to
escape from. It is frequently polarized and segregated, and
is often a place of insecurity and fear. The 'hyperreality' and
cultural diversity of such cities can be exciting, but it can
also be overwhelming. Escapism to more peaceful, natural
surroundings is a common revery, often realized through
tourism.
Communities are becoming increasingly dislocated and
fragmented in modern society. Bauman (2001) describes how
this engenders nostalgia for an idyll of community as a kind
of 'paradise lost', which might explain the tendency in
holistic retreats and ashrams to create communities around
collective, karmic activities. For example, Dina Glouberman
(2002) describes how her desire to establish the well-known
holistic holiday centre Skyros was partly based on her own
yearning for community.
It is clear that many inhabitants of the global city are
not overly happy with the environment that they have been
complicit in creating. Ironically, opulent, self-indulgent
lifestyles overwhelmed by choice and opportunities are the
very thing driving many western tourists towards simpler,
natural environments, often in countries where deprivation
and poverty are rife. Those tourists who enter ashrams or
retreats for any length of time inevitably end up practising
abstinence and asceticism in a kind of self-flagellatory
apology for their past lives and behaviours. Such visits might
also incorporate spiritual practices to compensate for the
alienation engendered by secularization.
Many western capitalist societies have moved towards
increasing secularization, its citizens either disillusioned
with, or alienated from the faith that they were brought up
16
with. At the same time, mass immigration has led to the
embracing of multi-faith communities and their cultures,
highlighting even further the gap between traditional and
(post)modern societies. Coupled with this parallel, and
somewhat contradictory phenomenon, is the notion of
religious 'fundamentalism', which has, in recent times,
pervaded the lives of western societies. Mutual
misunderstandings abound in the aftermath of global
terrorism, with religion often being cited as the root cause of
international crises and Western fear.
Relationships between religion and spirituality are
notoriously difficult to define. The latter, however, appears
to have gained strength in recent times (albeit in new and
sometimes unconventional formats) at the expense of the
former. As people struggle to make sense of their stressful,
debt-ridden lives, they often turn inward for explanation,
rather than outwards to organized religion. In this context,
the growth of alternative and holistic therapies and
treatments has flourished - encouraging greater levels of
self-awareness, understanding and sometimes, healing, than
many other practices that have gone before. Secular
spirituality will perhaps, be the new mantra of the
millennium masses? Mind-spirit connections have been
thoroughly explored in the fields of psychotherapy and
psychiatry. Sigmund Freud, the pioneer of psychotherapy,
felt however, that religion was detrimental to the emotional
health of the individual. He saw religion as promoting
infantile dependency on a being that would 'make things
better'. In contrast, other eminent therapists, such as Carl
Jung, believed that the spiritual aspect of the human person
was the essence of what it meant to be human. However, this
spiritual aspect is not the same as one's religion, which might
or might not be helpful in one's spiritual life (Fosarelli 2002).
New explorations of the relationship between western
psychology and Eastern spiritualism are gaining increased
interest among researchers and practitioners (e.g., Kowalski
200 1). Blurred boundaries between faith, religion, psychology
and spirituality continue to be dynamically re-negotiated in
contemporary Western society.
Tourism has clearly always been seen as a process of
self-regeneration as well as relaxation, education or
indulgence (Ryan 1997). However, the psychological as well
as the physical benefits of tourism appear to have gained
increasing importance. As stated by Seaton and Bennett
(1996: 69) 'in modern days the emphasis is more likely to be
put on mental rather than physical improvement'. Fosarelli
(2002: 207) describes how 'in addition to taking better care
of their bodies, many people are searching for new ways to
make themselves healthier by paying more attention to their
emotional and spiritual lives'. Cohen (1996) describes how
Tourism Recreation Research Vol. 31, No. 1, 2006

the quest for a 'spiritual centre' is an integral part of tourism,
especially when people feel socially alienated. Many aspire
towards finding their spiritual centre within another society
and culture. As stated by Coelho (in Arias 2001: 20) 'more
spiritual adventurers exist today than most people think'.
Brown (1998) explores the various engagements that a so-
called 'spiritual tourist' may be involved in (e.g., visiting
retreats, ashrams, gurus ... ). His conclusions are mixed,
sometimes cynical, but understanding of the motivations
underpinning the individual 'quest'.
Cohen (1996) differentiates between different tourist
motivations and experiences, categorizing them as
recreational, diversionary, experiential, experimental, and
existential. While the first three categories of tourist are
largely 'escaping' routine, boredom or alienation, they are
not necessarily expecting to find meaning elsewhere. In
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contrast, experimental tourists seek spiritual centres in
different, alternative directions, often sampling and
contrasting 'authentic' life or rituals in an attempt to find
themselves. In many cases, they tend to be younger, 'post-
modern travellers' hanging out in ashrams or Kibbutzes for
some length of time, but can also include ageing hippies
from the 1960s and 70s who never left the destination, or
increasingly, thirty-something, burnt-out recuperating
professionals. Cohen (1996) is slightly cynical about this
type of tourist (the eternal 'drifter') for whom the search itself
can become a way oflife. Existential travellers, on the other
hand, tend to commit to one spiritual centre, residing there
permanently or visiting periodically on a kind of personal
pilgrimage. Mundt (1994) refers also to 'egotourists' in the
context of younger, often environmental tourists who are
dabbling in alternative lifestyles and who seek peer
accreditation for 'right on' behaviour. Holistic tourists are
arguably both experimental and existential in that they are
most certainly on a quest for a spiritual place (internal or
external), even if they have to visit multiple centres before
they find 'enlightenment'. The choice is certainly expanding!
Typologies of Holistic Tourism
The purveyance of existential experiences has become
big business. In some cases, there seems to have been a
revival of interest in certain 'spiritual' activities:
Yoga has returned to the limelight, coinciding nicely with
modem man's feeling of spiritual emptiness and physical
exhaustion, arriving just in time to rescue us from darkness
in our higher 'chakras' and rigidity in our lower backs. The
image of lumpy leotards and boiled cabbage community
centre classes is gone, replaced by a lean new version. Yoga
has been repackaged as a mental and physical survival kit
for the new millennium. (Hardy 2002)
The growth of holistic tourism is difficult to quantify,
Tourism Recreation Research Vol. 31, No. 1, 2006
Holistic Tourism: M. Smith & C. Kelly
not least because many of the operators engaging in this
form of tourism are small-scale entrepreneurs who rely
almost solely on the internet to promote their products. A
work-in-progress database collated by the authors as part of
this research project contains over 450 operators offering
holistic, spiritual and yoga holidays worldwide. The terms
of reference and definitions used to search for such operators
had to be clearly set, not least because the health, spa and
beauty market is increasingly overlapping with the holistic
sector. The following table provides a series of definitions
that were used in the research to differentiate between
operators, activities and consumers. They are by no means
definitive, butthey provide a useful framework for the holistic-
focused perspective of this tourism research project.
Table 1. Definitions of Holistic Tourism
Holistic Tourism
Tourism that provides the visitor with a range of activities
and/ or treatments which are aimed at developing, maintaining
and improving the body-mind-spirit. Holistic tourism covers the
broadest scope of engagement: ranging from weekend hotel-spa
breaks that include massage treatments, to intensive month-long
yoga retreats in basic conditions in South and South-east Asia.
Spiritual Tourism
Tourism, which focuses on the spiritual quest of the individual.
This may or may not have areligious affiliation, but it is often
likely to include rituals, ceremonies, and traditions that are
derived from Eastern religions (e.g., Buddhism, Hinduism).
Yoga Tourism
Tourism which focuses on the union of body, mind and spirit,
but which is essentially areligious. Techniques include the
practising of physical asanas, meditation and breathing
techniques to strengthen the body, calm the mind, and
eventually lead to spiritual enlightenment.
Spa Tourism
Tourism, which focuses on the relaxation or healing of the body
using water-based treatments, such as pools, steam rooms and
saunas. Emphasis tends to be focused on relaxation and health
and beauty treatments rather than the spiritual aspects of certain
exercises such as yoga. Surroundings are usually sumptuous
with pricing schemes to match.
Religious Tourism
Tourism, which has as its primary aim the furthering of religious
understanding and enlightenment. Most tourists will be closely
affiliated to one religion and will actively seek out collective
religious experiences, usually centred around meaningful
locations, sites or monuments.
The boundaries between the various facets of holistic
tourism overlap and in many cases, blur. Representations
of some of the commonalities are displayed in Figure 1
below.
17
 Holistic Tourism: M. Smith & C. Kelly

activities that reduce barriers to communication and realizing

individual potential.

These include:
Table 2. Alternative and Complementary Therapies

Acupuncture
Alexander Technique
Aroma therapy*
Astrology
Autogenic Training
Ayurvedic Medicine
Chiropractic
Chinese Medicine
Colour Therapy
Figure 1. Holistic Tourism Interrelationships Crystal Healing
Dance and Music Therapy
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Massage*
Osteopathy
Personal Development*
(counselling, life coaching, NLP:
neuro-linguistic programming, EFf:
emotional-freedom-techniques, plus
countless others)
Pilates*
Polarity Therapy
Reflexology*
Reiki*

Spa tourism has largely been excluded from the
research, except in cases where it is offered as part of a holistic
package. The reasons for this is that it is more likely to focus
on physical aspects of healing or enhancement, rather than
combining these with the development of mind and spirit. It
is also a huge growth market, but an even more difficult one
to quantify given that spa packages are now offered by most
major hotels. The luxury hotel/spa sector represents a rather
different market segment to that which is of core interest to
this research. Religious tourism has also been excluded from
this research due to an existing body of work on the subject
and because of postmodern secular society's engagement
with the spiritual rather than the religious. Spiritual tourism
according to the above definitions is unlikely to have a
specific religious affiliation. The spiritual quest is seen as a
more abstract one in which tourists seek meaning,
engagement and peace through a variety of different activities,
such as meditation, chanting and breathing. Although some
of these traditions may be derived from religious practices,
they are likely to be multi-faith and hybridized (e.g.,
combining Buddhist meditation with Hindu mantras or
Korean martial arts). Prayers, visits to religious sites, or
involvement in traditional religious rituals is less likely to
feature in the majority of holidays of this nature.
Typical Activities Offered on Holistic Holidays
The term 'Alternative' or 'Complementary Treatments'
refers to a wide range of therapies that promote well-being
through non-traditional methods. Some therapies are
thousands of years old and originated outside of the western
world. Many are acknowledged by modern doctors to be
effective treatments that are complementary to conventional
practice- relieving stress and promoting good health- while
some are complete methods in themselves, involving both
diagnosis and treatment. Other activities are more
contemporary developments that focus on 'life strategizing'
Herbal Remedies Shiatsu*
Homeopathy Tarot
Hydrotherapy Tai Chi*
Kinesiology Yoga*
(Hatha/ Sivanada/ Bikram/ Ashtanga)
(* denotes most offered treatments/activities on holistic holidays)
The above (Table 2) is not an exhaustive list due to the
dynamic nature of emerging treatments. A classification of
these activities is offered as follows (Table 3).
Table 3. Categorization of Holistic Therapies
• Therapeutic (e.g., spas, thalassotherapy, massage, shiatsu,
aromatherapy, acupuncture, osteopathy, chiropractic,
hydrotherapy, kinesiology)
• Healing (e.g., reiki, reflexology, crystal healing, astrology
and tarot)
• Contemplative (e.g., meditation, prayer, visualization)
• Active (e.g., yoga, pilates, tai chi, Alexander technique)
• Creative (e.g., painting, writing, drama, dance, music, colour
therapy)
• Enlightening (e.g., pilgrimage, sacred sites, mystical
landscapes)
• Interactive (e.g., volunteering, community engagement,
participation in rituals or festivals)
• Personal development (e.g., counselling, stress management,
life coaching, neurolinguistic programming (NLP),
emotional-freedom-techniques (EFr), Hoffman technique)
• Medicinal (e.g., ayurvedic treatments, herbalism,
homeopathy, Chinese medicine)
Profiles of Holistic Tourists
Whilst it is useful to establish typologies of holistic
tourism and tourists, as stated by Dann and Cohen (1996:
303) 'Typologies are still only heuristic rather than
explanatory devices'. Typologies often serve merely to

18 Tourism Recreation Research Vol. 31, No. 1, 2006

 Holistic Tourism: M. Smith & C. Kelly

indicate collective trends and do not take into consideration holistic tourism sector. These consumers are often at their
individual behaviour and proclivities (Sharpley 1994). As peak earning potential, have high education levels, enjoy
well as being rather general, many traditional tourism greater freedom from debt, have more time for travel and
typologies are at least a decade old, thus they fail to reflect greater desire for 'self-fulfilling' activities (Cleaver and
current lifestyle trends and values (Swarbrooke and Horner Muller 2002). Psychographic analysis of census and other
1999). Holistic tourists do not seem to fit neatly into data in Australia by the Roy Morgan Research Centre (1997)
traditional typologies of tourists, therefore the following table has resulted in the development of a 'lifestyle typology' for
suggests some typical profiles and motivations. the Baby Boomer population containing ten categories. In
terms of value segments, they appear to occupy a place
Table 4. Profiles of Holistic Tourists somewhere between 'visible achievers' and 'socially aware'.
Religious Spiritual Holistic Spa Dickman (1997) describes 'visible achievers' as those who
Tourist Tourist Tourist Tourist are generally over thirty and earn above average income.
• Affiliation to • Likely to • Mayhave • Not
specific have 'multi- affilation, but specifically
They are in control of their lives, but want personal
religion or faith' often on a spiritual recognition of success. They tend to have a strong focus on
religious empathy alienated quest themselves and their families. They are likely to be 'inner-
group from religion directed' (Middleton and Clarke 1998), educated, mature,
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• Interest in • Interest in • Interest in • Interest in self-confident, with strong cultural, aesthetic and creative
quest for personal personal, physical
religious spiritual professional, well-being,
aspirations, and a desire for self-realization. Interestingly,
enlightenment development or social healing or this may also be the group, which Glouberman (2002)
development enhancement identifies as most likely to experience burnout. The second
• Enjoys • Enjoys • Enjoys natural • Mostly group are 'socially aware', community-minded, and
visiting visiting environments engaged in environmentally friendly. They are likely to be progressive
specific spiritual or and seeks indoor,
religious sites mystical harmony with water-based
and open-minded, and take a global view of the world and
and landscapes nature activities political issues. They also tend to be early-adopters of new
landscapes products. However, perhaps a separate category of 'personally
• Empathizes • Seeks • Often • May travel in aware' could be added here, to best describe the holistic
with other interaction participates in groups, but tourist. This is one where self-enlightenment and the desire
religious with local 'forming' generally
tourists, and communities opts for
for better levels of physical and spiritual health are
pilgrims, and indigenous with like- individual paramount.
local communities minded treatments
communities people
A continuum of interest/ experience can be referred to
• Engages in • Mayengage • May join local • Unlikely to with regard to tourists/ participant travellers (Figure 2). At
ritualistic in rituals events and be interested one end are tourists who have little prior knowledge of yoga,
behaviour and festivals in the tai chi and so on, but who are willing to 'try it out' by way of
ceremonies locality a relaxing holiday. Further along, are those who perhaps
except as a
attend classes at their local gym sporadically or who may
backdrop
• Ultimately • Hoping for • Seeking inner • Seeking have attended a one-day workshop on reflexology, reiki, or
seeking reconciliatio harmony and relaxation, some other complementary therapy. These tourists may wish
religious n of body, peace of mind well-being or to participate in a holistic holiday to rejuvenate themselves
union or mind, spirit healing and/ or their interest and motivation in 'better living' when
salvation
they get home. At the extreme end of the visitor continuum
are those who are regular, committed advocates of yoga, tai
Swarbrooke and Horner (1999) suggest that academic chi (or whatever the chosen activity of their holiday is based
typologies should be combined with market segmentation upon). Such visitors often already incorporate healthy diet
to build up a clearer understanding of tourist profiles. This and exercise into their daily lifestyles and as such, are not
may combine geographical, socio-economic, demographic, looking for new skills but, rather to re-locate the activities
psychographic, behaviouristic, or life-style factors. Merging they enjoy, temporarily to different, warmer, more pleasant,
sociological research approaches with tourism studies will, surroundings.
it seems, allow for an important lifestyle-based understanding
of holistic tourists and their behaviours. Sociological research Analogies to eco-tourism are useful in this discussion
carried out by Cleaver and Muller (2002) into the tourism of the emerging holistic tourism sector. Swarbrooke and
behaviour of 'Baby Boomers' bears relevant findings for this Horner (1999) refer to the spectrum of ecotourist types in
research. The Baby Boomer market is a key target for the terms of 'shades of green', ranging from 'light green' to 'totally

Tourism Recreation Research Vol. 31, No. I, 2006 19

 Holistic Tourism: M. Smith & C. Kelly

green'. Purple is often used as a central colour in alternative Level of Sectoral Organization Example
therapies, therefore, an analogous tongue-in-cheek reference
could be posed in relation to holistic tourists. • Ad Hoc India Ad Hoc
• Individual driven

• Little prior knowledge/practice of holistic Lilac • Rooted in traditional

practice/native cultural
activities (Experiment
context
• New experience ers)
• Low profit motive
• Self-contained/ One-off holiday
• Low Cost (operator and
• Unlikely/may lead to integrative 'better visitor)
living' upon return home
• Emerging tourism sector
• Seeks comfortable surroundings, guided
• Some purpose-built
instruction, scheduled programme centres/ retreats
• Sporadic/Occasional practitioner of • Some adaptation of existing
holistic activities accommodation base
• Renewed/Lapsed/Motivational • Developing profit motive
Downloaded by [Kainan University] at 05:05 04 March 2015

Experience • Low-mid cost (operator)

• May become regular holiday type
• Likely to renew better living upon return
home
• Seeks a range of surroundings/
accommodation types
• Requires some guidance and a choice of
activity programming
• Regular practitioner of holistic activities
• Continued/Re-located Experience
• Typical holiday choice
• Reinforces and consolidates home-based
lifestyle/behaviour
• Seeks simple surroundings (less relevant
than the quality of activity) Deep
• Requires advanced instruction and space Purple
for self-directed practice (Purists)
Figure 2. Visitor Typologies: Continuum of Holistic
Tourists
Location and Sectoral Organization
Destinations vary in their level of prioritization of
holistic/retreat/spa activity. This research focuses mainly
on the 'retreat' aspect of holistic tourism. A retreat may be
defined as a purpose-built centre which accommodates its
guests for the purpose oflearning/improving a body-mind
activity (e.g., yoga, pilates) and/or learning-receiving
complementary therapies or treatments whilst there. Group
programming of classes is the norm. A retreat will usually
have no other type of tourism/ visitor activity besides that of
a holistic nature. A continuum could be said to exist in terms
of 'level of organization' and 'structure' for this sector (Figure
3).
~
• Small but increasingly
expanding and well-defined
sector
• Well organized
• Mainly purpose-built retreat
centres Greece
• High profit motive (though Highly
some 'lifestyler operators'* Organized
in this category also)
• Mid-high cost (operator and
visitor)
Figure 3. Operational Typologies: Continuum of Holistic
Sector Organisation
* Lifestyler-operators' are typically migrants to a country (e.g., British
to Spain or Greece) who choose to establish their own retreat centre
abroad in an effort to downsize and/ or merge personal interest with a
business opportunity. Levels of entrepreneurial competitiveness vary.
It is worth noting here that cultural context can be just
as important an influencing factor as profit maximization.
India, for example, is home to many 'holistic practitioners',
yogis and swamis who hold little regard for mass-
participation in organized, quick-fix holiday activities. For
them, participation in activities such as yoga and ayurvedic
methods form part of a lifelong practice that is integral to
everyday existence. Spain and Greece, in contrast, host many
centres where owner-practitioner centres offer comfortable
packaged deals that mix accommodation, meals, activities
and complementary treatments in organized, well balanced
programmes to the burnt-out urban professional market. The
question of authenticity, in terms of practice and origin versus
hybridization and displaced application of holistic practices
prompts a very interesting debate for the sector to grapple
with.

20 Tourism Recreation Research Vol. 31, No. 1, 2006

 Holistic Tourism: M. Smith & C. Kelly

Quantifying the Sector: International Research Database women here. (Hawaiian Retreats for Women)

A comprehensive collation of data on holistic tourism
operators was undertaken as part of this research. Over 450
operators were identified using various search terms related
to the sector. The database is organized alphabetically by
country and each operator is categorized according to setting
(e.g., coastal, mountain), activities offered, facilities, capacity
and pricing structures.
An example of typical cells from the database is shown
below (Figure 4):
I've actually forgotten what date it is. Actually I have lost
all track of time. Thank you for the most amazing and well
spent three days of my life. (Little House of Avalon,
Ireland)
Few dreams are so well conceived, fewer so impeccably
executed. (Serrania Retreats, Spain)
Magical gardens and stunning landscapes, with such a sense
of freedom to roam. (Oxon Hoath, UK)
A perfect balance between rusticity and comfort. It's easy to
see the hand of the artist at work - the vibrant colours in the

Sample 1
Name Country Setting Activities Facilities Capacity Price

Casperia Italy Mountain Yoga classes, one-to-one Thermal baths, 15 All treatments are
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village yoga lessons, holistic sauna individually

therapy, Asana, Pranayama, priced from £5- 45 per
Meditation and Relaxation session. Accommodation
with a range of holistic can start from
therapies. £295-345 in low season and
from £340- 440 in high
season.

Sample 2
Name Country Setting Activities Facilities Capacity Price
Yoga Plus Crete Coastline Ashtanga Vinyasa Meals Provided, 20 Prices range from
Yoga, Pilates, Terrace or balcony £445- £675
Shiatsu, Thai rooms depending
Massage, Holistic on room size and
Massage, Art, Line length of stay and
Dancing session

Figure 4. Sample Cells from Holistic Tourism Database

This is the first major attempt at providing in-depth
quantitative and qualitative data on this emerging tourism
sector. The preliminary results yield some very interesting
findings (see Table 5).
Although the visitor-perspective aspect of this research
is still ongoing, pilot survey work has been undertaken in
Spain and Greece (interviews/ questionnaires), and visitor
testimonies/feedback commentaries on retreat centre
websites have been content-analyzed. The following
quotations give a flavour of tourist experiences on holistic
retreat holidays:
Now here I am back home and I still carry all the blessings
of those two weeks around with me. I look forward to the
next time. (Sacred Journeys, UK)
I feel more present in my moment-to-moment experiences,
and I feel enriched by the lives and stories of the other
furnishings and rugs, the beautiful hand painted soap dishes,
the stained glass in the bathroom - all the little touches that
make a difference. You have perfectly enhanced the magic of
this beautiful valley. (Huzur Vadasi, Turkey)
Pulled, pushed, stretched - a great way to make room for the
delicious food. (Burren Yoga Retreat, Ireland)
So good to find a retreat with a bar! (Oxon Hoath, UK)
Sandra, you are a true inspiration giving time to everyone.
(Sacred Journeys, UK)
Dave, you're an inspiration and you've created a wonderful
retreat space. (Burren Yoga Retreat, Ireland)
These comments give some indication of the visitor
experience within different holistic centres. Some of them
focus on self-development, escapism, and life-enhancement;
others emphasize the beauty of the location or setting, clearly
an important motivational factor for many visitors. Within
the database, there was also a recurrence of locational

Tourism Recreation Research Vol. 31, No. 1, 2006 21

 Holistic Tourism: M. Smith & C. Kelly
Table 5. Sample of Preliminary Findings
• Total number of holistic tourism centres
(database is being added to on an on-going basis) 450+
[no. of centres located to date using definitions
described earlier]
• Greece 11
• Spain 13
• Turkey 6
• United Kingdom 30
• Average price of one-week holiday (per £520
person - varies with season)
• Average Capacity per Centre 16
• Typical Participant-Yoga (hatha, ashtanga), tai chi,
Activities pilates, shiatsu, outdoor pursuits (e.g.,
Offered (see walking, biking, horse riding) dance,
Table 3) music, art, meditation
Recipient- Massage (Thai, Swedish,
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Indian Head) reflexology, reiki, healing
therpaies, life coaching, shiatsu,
aroma therapy
• Typical Standard- gardens, shared rooms, some
Facilities self-catering or help with meal
preparation, reading/lounge room,
indoor or outdoor exercise space (often
outdoor scenic terrace)
Variable- swimming pools, ensuite
rooms, balconies, full-board, relaxation
space, organic produce, laundry service,
free bike rental
descriptors such as 'relaxing', 'beautiful', 'peaceful',
'inspiring' or 'stunning'. Some commentaries reflect the
views ofless 'purist' holistic tourists on our continuum, such
as the 'pale lilac' visitors, who are interested in good food,
socializing and drinking. Many participants are particularly
inspired by holistic instructors, facilitators or group leaders.
This is a sector of tourism where guru status is often achieved
by individuals, even within an ad hoc context. Some
participants even plan the timing or location of their trips
around specific instructors.
A qualitative, in-depth survey has been conducted with
holistic tourism operators, sampled from the research
database globally. Key findings to date show mixed
motivational drivers for establishing enterprises, personally-
satisfying experiential entrepreneurship, varied experiences
with local government tourism engagement, and a dualistic
divergence related to future business aspirations displaying
'maintainer' or 'expander' behaviours. These findings are
currently being worked on and will be released for
publication in the near future.
Case Studies
The researchers also undertook an analysis of two
22
different case studies at opposite ends of the operational
continuum (using participant observation and interview
strategies): Goa, in India, which represents an ad hoc
destination for holistic tourism, and Skyros, in Greek islands,
one of the longest established and best organized holistic
centres in the world. Data in both locations was collected
through a series of semi-structured interviews and
participant observation.
Skyros
The two Skyros Centres in Greece were set up in 1979,
and they are home to various 'symbolic communities' who
stay for two weeks at a time and undertake a number of self-
selected activities that are designed to enhance and heal body,
mind and spirit. Participants can take a range of cultural,
creative, active or therapeutic courses (e.g., massage, yoga,
writing, painting, dancing, singing). The experience is tightly
structured so that the participants take not only two or three
courses per day, they also engage in morning Demos- a
community meeting led by a different participant each day,
Oekos - an open group discussion I listening forum, co-
listening with one other participant, work groups based on
different collective tasks, and evening and weekend social
activities. The aim of this structure is to create strong bonds
between the community members, and to encourage an
atmosphere of support, trust and openness. None of the
activities are compulsory, however, and participants have
the freedom to plan their own time. In this way, the centre
and its community function as a kind of microcosm of
everyday life, whereby participants have to negotiate their
own space and personal and collective relationships.
Skyros attracts a wide range of people. The majority
are professionals (e.g., teachers, lecturers, doctors, nurses,
business and media people). Approximately 70 per cent of
participants are in their thirties or forties. Many of them
appear to correspond to Dickman's (1997) 'visible achievers'
and 'socially aware' categories. Many also have 'life issues'
to resolve or may be on the brink of burnout. For example,
out of twenty participants at the session attended by the
researcher, at least two thirds had experienced a personal
relationship, work or health crisis shortly before attending.
The same is often true of the facilitators and instructors! It is
worth noting that the majority of employees are non-local
(although the co-founder is Greek). Many instructors have
holistic or disciplinary 'celebrity' status (e.g., well-known
writers, musicians, psychologists), but they integrate into
the community along with visitors.
Glouberman (2004) describes the intention of Skyros to
create a world that heals and to create a healthy culture.
'This culture must be one that encourages us to come home
Tourism Recreation Research Vol. 31, No. 1, 2006

to ourselves, to honour our true selves in relation to others,
and to commit ourselves to the most universal values we can
find'. Thus, the ethos behind Skyros is to create more than
just a holiday, which explains why many participants claim
to find it so life-changing, and repeat visitation is more than
30 per cent. Skyros 'aftercare' is excellent, including a letter
to all participants, invitations to reunions and social events,
and website chat rooms and notice boards.
Goa
The holistic holiday experience in Goa (India) is
radically different to that of Skyros. Unlike Skyros
participants (who engage in a tightly structured, well
supported holistic experience), Goa affords its holistic
tourists an eclectic array of activities in a range of locations
throughout the State. There is no apparent guidance,
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regulation or 'aftercare'.
Tourists can choose from a range of ad hoc activities
(e.g., yoga, meditation, massage), which take place in so-
called 'centres' (often little more than a room in a
practitioner's house). Courses are generally advertized on
billboards, lam posts or trees in public spaces (e.g., markets,
beach bars, shops), although many practitioners now have
websites. Apart from some Ayurvedic practices, there
appears to be no regulation of these practices, and the
Government Tourist Office in Goa expresses little formal
interest in this sector. Indeed, interviews with some
practitioners/teachers suggested distaste at any notion of
external intervention in the freedom to practice according to
one's own style and belief system. Again, this raises
interesting questions about holistic/wellness tourism sector
management and development. Other Indian states, such as
Kerala, are developing core tourism products around
Ayurvedic and holistic treatments, yet little research has been
conducted on the commodification of such practices by an
increasingly enthusiastic tourism 'industry'.
The majority of holistic tourists in Goa appear to
correspond to Cohen's 'drifter' (1972) or 'experimental'
(1996) category. In many cases, they have become eternal
drifters, habitual seekers who have never found themselves
(and probably never will). The market consists predominantly
of ex-hippies, Israeli backpackers on post-military service
chill-out trips, a few independent travellers of all ages, and
geographically concentrated mass package tourists. The
target market for holistic tourism appears to be anyone who
is interested, although the package tourists are the least likely
to partake of anything other than massage. Many of the
holistic courses span several days or weeks, so only long-
term backpackers or semi-permanent residents can
realistically sign up. The majority of practitioners are not
Tourism Recreation Research Vol. 31, No. 1, 2006
Holistic Tourism: M. Smith & C. Kelly
permanent residents in Goa, nor are they Goan or even
Indian. The majority (apart from Ayurvedic masseurs from
Kerala) appear to be Western travellers who are often semi-
permanent residents. Some of them are well-qualified
instructors (e.g., British Wheel of Yoga accredited teachers),
but many appear to be merely experimenting with a new-
found personal interest. However, practitioners and
participants alike seemed to share the view that regulation
would serve only to curb the spontaneity, diversity and
freedom of self-expression that gives Goa its main appeal as
a holistic centre.
Cost-differentials between Skyros and Goa are
enormous: the former representing the most expensive end
of the continuum while the latter is amongst the cheapest
global locations to partake in holistic activities.
Accommodation in Skyros is inclusive of price and of high
standard, whilst there are few accommodation-based centres
in Goa. Skyros is an established brand within the tourism
market (Skyros Thailand is now a successful holistic venture,
for example), while Goan practitioners have a low cost,
relatively ineffective marketing strategy. Both case study
examples serve to illustrate the wide gaps that exist along
the continuum in operator I visitor practice and expectations.
Further research contained in the operator survey work will
examine this issue in more detail.
Conclusion
This research attempts to position holistic tourism as
an important, emerging sector within the industry.
Conceptual contexts have been offered in terms of the growth
of the sector and emerging tourist and operator types. A
comprehensive database of holistic retreat centre operators
has been established as part of this work. The relative infancy
of the sector engenders many definitional problems and
categorizational challenges but this paper has begun to
address some of these. Further research is underway to
explore in more detail issues related to visitor motivations,
wider operational issues for the sector in Europe and the
UK, as well as more conceptual aspects of the changing role
of space, place and location for holistic tourism. Like other
specialist tourism interests, holistic tourism faces challenges
related to authenticity, practice, regulation and management.
Finding a balance between provision of care, economic
development, and meeting the needs of a diverse set of
consumers in an erratic world will prove to be an enormous
challenge for this fledgling sector. What is clear is that whilst
holistic tourism offers an increasingly diverse array of
activities linked to escapism from postmodern anomie, many
holistic tourists appear to be wholeheartedly embracing
'journeys of the self' ...
23
 Holistic Tourism: M. Smith & C. Kelly

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Submitted: April 18, 2005

Accepted: September 18, 2005

24 Tourism Recreation Research Vol. 31, No. 1, 2006