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ENGINEERING MATERIALS
MAK - 224E

Prof. Dr. Ersan Üstündağ

MAK-224E ENGINEERING MATERIALS

(CRN # 11266)
2021/2022 FALL Term

Week Date Day Period Room Text Reference HW Subject

1 05.10.2021 Tuesday 11:30 – 13:30 D353 Notes Failure of materials

2 12.10.2021 Tuesday 11:30 – 13:30 D353 Notes HW1 Tensile behavior of materials

3 19.10.2021 Tuesday 11:30 – 13:30 D353 Notes Non-destructive testing

4 26.10.2021 Tuesday 11:30 – 13:30 D353 Notes Fracture of materials

5 02.11.2021 Tuesday 11:30 – 13:30 D353 Notes Fatigue of materials

6 09.11.2021 Tuesday 11:30 – 13:30 D353 Notes Creep of materials

7 16.11.2021 Tuesday 11:30 – 13:30 D353 Notes Corrosion in materials

8 23.11.2021 Tuesday NO CLASS (Fall Break)

9 07.12.2021 Tuesday 11:30 – 13:30 D353 MIDTERM

10 14.12.2021 Tuesday 11:30 – 13:30 D353 Notes HW2 Wear of materials

11 21.12.2021 Tuesday 11:30 – 13:30 D353 Notes Steels and coding, cast irons

12 28.12.2021 Tuesday 11:30 – 13:30 D353 Notes Nonferrous metals and alloys

13 04.01.2022 Tuesday 11:30 – 13:30 D353 Notes Ceramics

14 11.01.2022 Tuesday 11:30 – 13:30 D353 Notes Polymers, Composites

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Textbook
• Prerequisite: MAK 213
• Textbooks:
– Donald R. ASKELAND, “The Science and Engineering of Materials”, 3rd ed.,
PWS Pub. Co., 1994.
– Course Handout Materials.

• Other References:
– W.F. Smith, “Principles of Materials Science and Engineering”, 2nd ed.,
McGraw Hill, New York, 1990.
– J.F. Shackelford, “Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers”, 3rd ed.,
McMillan Pub. Co., 1992.
– W.D. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering-An Introduction, John
Wiley & Sons, 2000.

How to Survive This Course?

Grading System: Midterm Exam: 45 %

Final Exam: 55 %
Attendance: Regular and punctual class attendance is expected.

Requirements to take
the Final Exam: - A minimum attendance of 70% for lectures, and
- A minimum score of 40/100 in the midterm exams.

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Materials Science and Engineering

• Materials Science:
– Basic knowledge of materials
• Materials Engineering:
– Applied knowledge of materials which can be
converted into products.
• Materials Science and Engineering:
– Considers both basic and applied knowledge of
materials and ties them.

Engineering
Materials

Materials Science

© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

 Composition means the chemical make-up of a material.

 Structure means a description of the arrangements of atoms or ions in a material.
 Synthesis is the process by which materials are made from naturally occurring or
other chemicals.
 Processing means different ways for shaping materials into useful components or
changing their properties. 6

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© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™
© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™
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© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Application of the tetrahedron of materials science and engineering to
semiconducting polymers for microelectronics

Classification of Materials

 Metals and Alloys

 Ceramics, Glasses, and Glass-Ceramics
 Polymers (Plastics), Thermoplastics and
Thermosets
 Semiconductors
 Composite Materials

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Polymeric Materials
• Most of them consist of organic long molecules.
• Carbon (C) is essential in all molecules.
• Structure is non-crystalline but some of them contain mixtures of
crystalline and non-crystalline regions.
• Strength and ductility vary due to structure of molecular chains.
• Poor conduction of heat and electricity (good insulation).
• Low densities.
• Low softening or decomposition temperatures.

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Polymeric Materials
• Thermoplastics
– ABS
– Nylon
– PVC

• Thermosets
– Epoxy
– Polyester

• Elastomers
– Rubber

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Ceramic Materials
• Inorganic materials.
• Consist of metallic and nonmetallic elements.
• Ionic and/or covalent bonding.
• Crystalline / glassy / both structures.
• High hardness.
• High elevated temperature strength.
• Low ductility and toughness.

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Ceramic Materials
• Chemical stability against the effects of environment
• Poor conduction of heat and electricity
• Good wear and heat resistance

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Ceramic Materials

• Main classes:
– Traditional: silica, porcelain
– Refractories: silica brick
– Glasses
– Abrasives: alumina, silicon carbide
– Advanced engineering ceramics: partially stabilized
zirconia

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Composite Materials

• Mixture of 2 or more different types of materials.

• Contain matrix and reinforcing components.
• Matrix generally soft and ductile, reinforcing
component hard and brittle.

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Composite Materials
• Reinforcement types:
– Fiber
– Particle
– Lamellar
• Matrix types:
– Polymeric
– Metallic
• Important composites:
– Glass fiber reinforced
plastics
– Carbon fiber reinforced
aluminum
– Thoria dispersed Nickel

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© 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning™

Representative strengths of various categories of materials

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MECHANICAL FAILURE

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MECHANICAL FAILURE

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MECHANICAL FAILURE
• The usual causes for failure are:
– Improper materials selection and processing
– Inadequate design
– Misuse

• Cost of failure
– 1000 Billions of $ or YTL annually
– Loss of human life!

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MECHANICAL FAILURE
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
• How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different
material classes compare?
• How do flaws in a material initiate failure?
• How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure stress?

Ship-cyclic loading Computer chip-cyclic Hip implant-cyclic

from waves. thermal loading. loading from walking.

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Safety Factor, WHY?

Variation in
loading condition / material property

(Character of variation)
Standard Deviation
Low High

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Ideal vs Real Materials

• Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
s
E/10 perfect material-no flaws TSengineering << TS perfect
materials materials
carefully produced glass fiber

E/100 typical ceramic typical strengthened metal

typical polymer
0.1
e
• DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed... Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
-- The longer the wire, the Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
smaller the load for failure. Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials",
• Reasons: (4th ed.) Fig. 7.4. John
Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
-- Flaws cause premature failure. 1996.
-- Larger samples contain more flaws!

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Engineering Fracture Design

• Avoid sharp corners!
so s
max
Stress Conc. Factor, K t = s
w o
smax
2.5
r, h
fillet 2.0 increasing w/h
radius

1.5

1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius
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Failure of Materials

Failure: losing the ability of functional

performance of a component or a system.

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Failure of Materials
Failure: losing the ability of functional performance of a
component or a system.

Types of Failure
Excessive elastic Elastic Modulus determines the limit
Geometrical deformation displacement
failure of
- size changing
component
(shape, size and Plastic Yield Strength, Creep Strength determines the shape
tolerance deformation and size changing
change)
Wear Hardness İs related with tolerance
Corrosion Chemical potential (Surface Attacks)
Erosion Hardness
Rupture Ultimate Strength, Creep Strength determines the
Breaking of Fast Fracture Fracture Toughness maximum loading limit
components in design
Fatigue Fatigue Strength

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How do materials break?

 Tensile Rupture: Breaking of body due to the excessive plastic
deformation under static loading.
 Creep Rupture: Breaking of body due to the plastic elongation
under static loading at high temperature.

 Sudden Fracture: Breaking of body due to the fast propagation

of existent crack under static loading.
 Fatigue Fracture: Breaking of body due to the propagation of
existent crack under dynamic loading.

 Wear: Removes material from surface by mechanical attacks.

 Erosion: Removes material from surface by fluid attacks.
 Corrosion: Removes material from surface by chemical attacks.

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Fracture of Materials

1. In metals and alloys

2. In non-metallic materials

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Fracture in Metals and Alloys

– Ductile fracture
– Brittle fracture
– Fatigue fracture
– Creep and stress rupture fracture
– Stress corrosion fracture

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TOUGHNESS & RESILIENCE

• Energy to break a unit volume of material.
• Approximated by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)

tensile larger toughness
stress, s (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, e

RESILIENCE is energy stored in the material w/o plastic deformation !

Ur = σy2 / 2 E

TOUGHNESS is total energy stored in the material upon fracture !

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Fracture Mechanisms
• Brittle fracture
• Ductile fracture
– Little or no
– Occurs with
plastic plastic
deformation deformation
– Catastrophic

cup-and-cone fracture 40
brittle fracture
Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister 7e.

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DUCTILE vs. BRITTLE FAILURE

• Classification:
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile
Substantial plastic deformation
Absorb high amounts of energy
before fracture
What is the reduction in x-sectional
area ?
Adapted from Fig. 8.1,
Callister 6e.

%AR or %EL: Large Moderate Small

• Ductile Ductile: Brittle:
fracture is warning before No warning
desirable! fracture Failure is
catastrophic
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Example: Failure of a Pipe

• Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation

Observe the variation in the

amount of plastic deformation

• Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation
Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.
Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.

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Failure Mechanism for Overloading

Rupture of Ductile Metals
Occurs at the end of a plastic deformation due to overloading above the
strength of material.

 Seen in materials with good ductility and toughness. (Strength

may be either high or low).
 Necking produces triaxial stress state that increases the formation
tendency of micro voids.
 Micro voids occur at grain boundaries or around inclusion
interfaces.

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Failure Mechanism for Overloading

Rupture of Ductile Metals

 In TRANSGRANULAR form (crack progress through the grains).

 Fracture surface contains dimples.
 Shear stresses causes 450 shear lips at the outer portion.

 For thick samples, cup/cone appearance.

 Sequence of failure: (a) Nucleation, (b) growth and (c) coalescence of
micro voids.

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(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used

Plastic deformation-necking
herein under license.

When a ductile material is pulled in a tensile test, necking begins and voids form –
starting near the center of the bar – by nucleation at grain boundaries or inclusions. As
deformation continues a 45° shear lip may form, producing a final cup-and-cone
fracture.
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Moderately Ductile Failure

• Evolution to failure:
void void growth shearing
necking and linkage at surface fracture
nucleation
s

• Resulting 50
50mm
mm
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
100 mm
particles From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Fracture surface of tire cord wire
serve as void Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
nucleation Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P. OH. Used with permission.
sites. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp. 46
347-56.)

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Cup/Cone and dimples are evidence 1- EVIDENCE of DUCTILE FRACTURE

of the ductile fracture. Cup and
Cone form at an angle of 45o
parallel to max shear stress.

Shear lips 45o Cup and Cone

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson

Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Scanning electron micrographs of an

annealed 1018 steel exhibiting ductile
fracture in a tensile test. (a) Equiaxed
dimples at the flat center of the cup and
cone, (b) elongated dimples at the shear lip
(x 1250)

Dimples in ductile fracture

Dimples form due to plastic deformation around hard particles. 47

Failure Mechanism for Overload Rupture of

Brittle Metals

- Occurs in highly brittle metals (metals with low toughness and

ductility).
- Some ductile metals may also fail in brittle manner under following
conditions (NOT due to OVERLOADING):
- If the component is thick and has preexisting flaws (stress risers such
as notches, corners, holes, etc.), local plane strain condition develops
and no or very little plastic deformation near stress risers.
- High strain rate loading (impact) and/or low temperatures cause
brittle behavior.

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2 - EVIDENCE of BRITTLE FRACTURE

Generally occurs in high strength metals or metals with low toughness and
ductility. BUT, some ductile metals may fail in brittle manner in the presence
of preexisting flaws (stress risers: notches, etc.).

No or very little plastic deformation.

May be TRANSGRANULAR or INTERGRANULAR.
Transgranular brittle fracture is a result of cleavage of certain planes
instead of slip mechanism (not due to slip mechanisms).
Fracture surface is flat, chevron (showing the direction of crack
propagation through the grain), but no dimple or void formation.
Crack propagation rate reaches the velocity of sound in the material.

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BRITTLE FRACTURE SURFACES

No plastic
Intergranular
deformation

Cleavage planes in
brittle fracture:
Transgranular

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BRITTLE FRACTURE SURFACES

• INTERgranular (between grains) • TRANSgranular (within grains)
304 S. Steel (metal) 316 S. Steel
(metal)
Transgranular fracture: Cracks move in and
through grains. Fracture surface have faceted
texture because of different orientation of
cleavage planes.

Intergranular fracture: Crack propagation is

along grain boundaries (grain boundaries are
weak or embrittled due to impurity segregation, 160mm
etc.)
4 mm

Polypropylene (polymer) Al oxide (ceramic)

• No appreciable plastic deformation

• Fast moving crack
• Propagation direction is nearly 90º to
applied stress
• Crack often propagates by cleavage,
breaking of bonds along specific
crystallographic planes, aka cleavage
planes 3mm
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1 mm

Brittle Fracture and Loading Rate

• Increased loading rate...
-- increases sy and TS
-- decreases %EL • Why? An increased rate
gives less time for
s dislocations to move past
obstacles.
TS e
sy larger

e
TS
smaller
sy
e
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The Chevron pattern in a 0.5-in.-diameter quenched 4340 steel. The

steel failed in a brittle manner by an impact blow.
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Brittle Fracture and Temperature

• Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and Kc
• Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)

Impact Energy

BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914°C)

polymers

Brittle More Ductile

High strength materials (s y > E/150)

Adapted from Fig. 8.15,
Callister 7e.
Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
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Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic • WWII: Liberty ships

• Problem: Used a steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.

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Failure Mechanism for Fast Fracture of Metals

 If the component has preexisting cracks, stress rises at crack tips and
causes crack propagation.
 Crack propagation rate reaches the velocity of sound in the material.
• Much lower fracture strength is explained by the effect of stress
concentration at microscopic flaws. The applied stress is amplified at the
tips of micro cracks, voids, notches, surface scratches, corners, etc. that
are called stress concentrators raisers.
• The magnitude of this amplification depends on micro crack
orientations, geometry and dimensions.

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FLAWS ARE STRESS CONCENTRATORS!

• Elliptical hole in • Stress distrib. in front of a hole:
a plate:
so  
smax  so 2 a
 rt 
s

2a
rt

• Stress concentration factor: Kt  s max / so

• Large Kt promotes failure: Sharper cracks amplify stress!
More important for brittle materials
as in ductile material plastic
NOT deformation takes place and stress
SO K t=2 BAD! Kt>>3 is distributed more uniformly
BAD around a crack!
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Failure Mechanism for Fatigue Fracture of Metals

Fatigue Fracture
Occurs when alternating stress is higher than fatigue strength (endurance
limit).
Progress of fatigue failure covers three stages:
 Nucleation of fatigue crack
 Slow and stable crack growth
 Unstable and fast catastrophic failure of materials.
Nucleation is generally at or near the surface of material (scratches, pits,
notches, inclusions etc.) or other discontinues such as intrusions or
extrusions where the stress is maximum due to stress rising effect.
Final fracture (results from overloading due to insufficient remaining
cross section to carry the applied load) generally in ductile mode.

causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.

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Failure Analysis for Fatigue Fracture of Metals

How can we understand if fatigue damage occurred in a machine component?

EVIDENCE of FRACTURE
Crack propagation perpendicular to the direction of applied stress, during
each cycle.
Macro evidence: Beach marks (can be seen by naked eye)
Micro evidence: Striations (requires electron microscopes such as SEM)
Final fracture (results from overloading due to insufficient remaining cross
section to carry the applied load) generally in ductile mode.

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EVIDENCE of FRACTURE
Surface intrusions and extrusions:
Fatigue crack nucleation sites

Beach marks can be seen by eye, but as

striations under electron microscope.
Final suddenly cracked area

Beach Marks

Crack
Propagation
Lines

Striations
Crack nucleation site
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Failure Mechanism for Creep Rupture Metals

Occurs at elevated (high) temperatures (Th = 0.5) even if applied
stress is lower than yield point.
Th (homologous temperature) = T/Tm (in K)

Originated by:
 1. Thermally induced plastic deformation = Grain
boundary sliding
 2. Void formation: at medium stresses, void formation in
grains or grain boundaries.
 3. Coalescence of voids that cause failure.

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Void Formation Sites

At the interface of hard inclusions and
matrix

Many internal voids and porosities

At grain boundaries: triple points
occur with creep mechanisms in a
material working under elevated
temperatures,
Finally a brittle and sudden failure may
occur.

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Corrosion Effects on Breaking of Metals

Stress Corrosion Fracture:
 Occurs at stresses well below yield point (aggressive chemical attack +
applied stress).
 Fracture surface: intergranular, branched cracks on the surface.
 Stresses may be residual or external but in tension—compression is not
dangerous, even good!!
 Corrosion products at the grain boundaries.

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Fracture in Non-Metallic
Materials

a. Ceramics
b. Polymers
c. Composites

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FRACTURE IN POLYMERS:

 Ductile fracture:
 Thermoplastics working above Tg temperature.

 Brittle fracture:
 Thermoplastics working below Tg temperature.
 Thermosets

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FRACTURE IN CERAMICS:
 Ceramics – brittle materials, no plastic deformation
since no movable dislocations, only a few slip
planes and the necessity for charge balance.
 Fracture always brittle in cleavage type cracks.

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FRACTURE in Composites:
 Elastic deformation on fibers but maybe plastic deformation in matrix.
 Weak bonding between matrix and fibers or between layers.
 Sometimes, week bonding desirable in ceramic matrix composites for
bridging or pulling out.

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SUMMARY
• Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
• Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
• Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.

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SUMMARY
Failure type depends on T and stress:
- For non-cyclic s and T < 0.4Tm, failure stress decreases with:
• increased maximum flaw size,
• decreased T,
• increased rate of loading.

- For cyclic s:
• cycles to fail decreases as Ds increases.

- For higher T (T > 0.4Tm):

• time to failure decreases as s or T increases.

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SUMMARY

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