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    pyre Fundamentals of Physical Metallurgy JOHN D. VERHOEVEN Departinent of Metallurgy Towa State University Ames, Iowa, John Wiley & Sons, New York - London « Sydney - Toronto Copysigh © 1973 by Jon Wiley & Sons, fs. Alright reserved, Published simaltaneouly in Canada, [No part ofthis book may be ceproduced by any means, ‘or transmitted, nor translated into 8 machine langvage ‘without the weten permision of the publishes. Library of Congress Catalogig in Peblication Dat Verhoeven, Johe D 1934- Fundamentals of physical metalurgy. Inches bibographical telerences and inde. 1 Physical metalargy. 1 Tit, TN69O.Y46 669:9 75-4600 ISBN 0-471490616-6 987654524 To Liz PREFACE ‘This book has evolved from a junior level course on physical metallurgy that I have taught for several years. The purpose of the book is to present a sound introduction to the fundamentals of physical metallurgy to students ; who have had an introductory course in metallurgy or materials science using such books as Van Viack’s or the series by Wullf etal. (see reference list for Chapter 1), It has been our experience at Iowa State, and I believe it is quite common in the United States, that a large number of students centering graduate study in metallurgy come from the fields of physics, chemistry, mechanical engineering, or chemical engineering. It is hoped that this book will prove useful to these students in an introductory course or for self-study, as well as being useful in undergraduate metallurgy curricula, to present students with-a sound understanding of the fundamen- tals of physical metallurgy at the junior or senior level ‘The major goal of the book is to provide a theoretical base for understanding how structure is controlied; also, the way structure in turn ‘controls the mechanical properties of metals is explained, Consequently, the book will serve as a basis for a more theoretical than applied approach to physical metallurgy. However, the theoretical treatments have been ‘aimed at presenting simple first-order treatments as clearly and simply as possible; applications of the ideas developed to the control of mechanical properties have been included in the later chapters. ‘The book attempts to present the subject of physical metallurgy in a more structured manner than previous physical metallurgical textbooks, It is my experience that such an approach serves as a very useful pedagogical ‘id. The first half of the book (Chapters 1-8) is devoted to the basic ideas ‘of physics and chemistry upon which physical metallurgy builds. The first chapter presents some atom packing concepts that are used in later chapters, The stereographie projection fs also included in order to be able i Preface to use this important tool later ancl to give the student some experience in its use. Most students do not learn this subject until they study x-ray diffraction, which is often at @ later time, The chapter on. structure determination emphasizes the Laue technique by illustrating ideas con- ceming crystal orientation, a subject that is often important in physical metallurgy applications. An introduction to transmission and scanning election microscopes is also included because of their growing importance in evaluating the structure of metals. The chapter on dislocations has been preceded by a chapter on single-crystal plasticity because Ihave found that 4 study of dislocations is more meaningful to the student if he can first see a macroscopic phenomenon that these defects control. For similar reasons the chapter on diffusion proceeds from the phenomenological to the atomistic picture. A chapter on interfaces has been included in order to ‘emphasize the importance of this topic. The ideas of this chapter are usually dispersed throughout most physical metallurgy textbooks. [feel that treating them as a distinct topic helps the student see theit wide applicability to all phase transformations. The last ha f the book (the last six chapters) is devoted to phase transformations, with emphasis off how they may be used to control the mechanical properties of metals ‘The very important subjects of crystal structure description and phase iagrams have not been covered in the early chapters because these subjects ate generally a major topic of the introductory books upon which this book builds. However, I have found that students generally have not mastered these subjects after an introductory course, but ate quickly able to do so by working problems. A number of problems involving use of ditection numbers, Miller indices, planes, and directions of a form are included in the first four chapters, and several problems involving phase iagram use are included in Chapters 6, 9, 11, and 12. I strongly recommend that students without a previous introduction to these twe subjects study them in introductory books, such as Refs. 1 and 2 of Chapter 1 Several problems are included at the end of each chapter because I have found problem working by the student tobe essential toa sound mastery of this subject. In several chapters (e.g, Chapter 6) Ihave used the problems to present practical applications of the ideas preseated in the chapter. To reduce publication costs the number of problems presented in the book was halved, but the additional problems will be supplied upon request. Publication costs also required the number of photographs used in the book to be minimized. Therefore, schematic Tepresentations ate used where they are adequate, and the student is referred to one or more references for actual photographs. ‘A chapter on the physics of metals has not been included as is often the Preface ix case in physical metallurgy textbooks because I feel that itis impossible to SCijadee to this comeler subject fn 9 single chapter” Rather than discourage the probing student by presenting this material too beietty for him to achieve ¢ sound understanding, i is omitted in favor of encouraging him to take an introductory solid-state physics course, In connection with this point it willbe noted that Ihave emphasized the application of physical metallurgy tothe control of mechanical properties with very little emphasis fon control of electromagnetic properties. This limitation is pointed out in th ntedueon(p2) and pari jusied there. Is ao te eso me personal bias on my part in believing that the major contributions to the development ofthe contol of mechanical properties by those educated in the United States has been made by men trained in traditional setallurgy curricula, whereas the major developments in the control ofthe electromagnetic properties of metals have been made by men trained in Physics. 4 paar a Tt now appears evident thatthe scientific and technological communities will achieve the adoption of a standardized system of units. These are the Intemational System of Units (Systeme International d"Unites) which are commonly referred to as SI units. A brief discussion of the SI units commonly encountered in physical metallurgy is presented in Appendix A. Tam particularly indebted to Lowa State University and its Department of Metallurgy for having provided me the opportunity to teach physical metaurgy to undergraduate students for several years, an opportunity that led to the development of this book. I would also like co acknowledge several of my colleagues who have reviewed different chapters for me, Dr. Tom Scott, Dr. Rohit Trivedi, Dr. Ken Kinsman, Dr. Frank Kayser, Dr. Monroe Wechsler, and Dr. John Patterson. In addition, T would lke to acknowledge three of my former professors at the University of Michigan who kindled my interest in physical metallurgy, Dr. Edward E. Hucke, Dr. David V. Ragone, ané Dr. Maurice J. Sinnott. Finally, { am most grateful to my excellent secretary, Miss Verna Thompson for. preparation end editing of the typed manuscript, and to Mr, Harlan Baker for preparation of several of the photomicrographs thet appear in the book. Ames, Iowa Jou D. VERHoeven October 1974 INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1 DESCRIPTION OF CRYSTALS. s 1 Atom Packing in foe and hep Crystals___________.5 1.2. The Stereographic Projection. 5 CHAPTER 2 STRUCTURE DETERMINATION. 2A X-ray Diffraction. SeraEereeeeee 2.2 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)—— - 2:3 Seenning Electron Microscope (SEM)__— AT CHAPTER 3 THE PLASTIC DEFORMATION OF METAL CRYSTALS ———__________55 3.1 Slip Systems_ 57 3.2 Resolved Shear Stress (Schmidt Factor)________60 3.3 Single-Crystal Tensile Tests (feo) 65 344 Relationship to Polycrystalline Deformation. 67 3.5 Theoretical Strength of Metals as: CHAPTER 4 DISLOCATIONS. —n 4.1 The Edge Dislocation — 77 42. ‘The Screw Dislocation ——__________84 43 Mixed Dislocations —______________-88 4:4 Terminology of “Crooked” Dislocations —______89 45 Dislocation Loops. See 9g 4.6 Mobile Dislocations in Real Crystals. 93 4.7 Observation of Dislocations ———___________94 4.8 Elastic Strain Energy —————________-5 49 Energy of Dislocations. See. 4.10 Forces upon Dislocations. -98, 4.11 The Stress Field Produced by Dislocations —______102 42 Line Tension ——_______________105 4.13 Extended Dislocations ——___________—106 4.14 Dislocations in fec Metals. 112, it Contents 4.18 Frank-Read Generator. 118 4.16 Interpretation of Plastic Flow in Terms of Dislocation Motion _____ 120 CHAPTER 5 VACANCIES. 27 SL Vacaney Formation 129 CHAPTER 6 DIFFUSION eee easg G1 Phenomenological Approach 138 6.2 Atomistic Approach. 155 CHAPTER 7 _ INTERFACES_ 169 TA Classification, Geometry, and Energy of Interfaces 169 7.2 Surface Tension and Surface Free Energy of Interfaces 180 7.3. The Shape of Grains in Two and Three Dimensions 198 7.4 Grain-Boundary Segregation 199 7.8 Motion of Grain Boundaries 201 CHAPTER 8 NUCLEATION 207 8.1 Homogeneous Nucleation 20 8.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation 207 CHAPTER 9 — SOLIDIFICATION 9.1 Nucleation 9.2 Solidfication of Pure Metals 9.3 Solidification of Alloys 9.4 Solidification of Eutectic Alloys 9.8 Cast Metals CHAPTER 10 RECOVERY AND RECRYSTAL- LIZATION, 10.1 Stored Energy. ay, 10.2 Release of Stored Energy during Annealing 329. 32s 410.3 Kinetics of Recovery 53g 10.4 Nucleation Mechanisms for Reerystallization 337 10.5 Kinetics of Recrystallization 339 10.6 Control of Recrystallization Temperature and Grain Size 3/8 10.7 Related Topics 352 CHAPTER 11 PRECIPITATION FROM SOLID ~ SOLUTIONS. 303 ALL Review of Free-Enetgy Composition Diagrams 363, 11.2. The Precipitation Transformation. 313 Contents xi 11.3. Nucleation in the Solid State. 382 AL4 Kinetics of Precipitation Reactions oe JAS Precipitation Hardening 4 CHAPTER 12 DIFFUSION-CONTROLLED GROWTH OF EQUILIBRIUM PRECIPITATES. 424 421 Single-Phase Precipitates ——_____421 12.2. Eutectoid Transformations. 8 12.3. Discontinuous Precipitation CHAPTER 13 MARTENSITIC TRANSFORMATIONS 457 459 13.1 Twinning 43.2. Crystallography of Martensitic Transformations 469 13.3. Some Characteristics of Martensitic Transformations..__478 43.4 Thermodynamics. 41 135 Thermoelastic Martensites 90 13.6 Additional Characteristics of Martensitic Transformations 493, 13.7 Nucleation of Martensite ____ 47 13.8 Summary and Comparison with Massive Transformations — 499 439 Bainite 00 CHAPTER 14 SOME APPLICATIONS OF PHYSICAL METALLURGY 14.41 Strengthening Mechanisms. 142. Strength and Ductility, 143 The Physical Metallurgy of Some High-Strength Steels 523 APPENDIX A Sil UNITS. 587 INDEX 561 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYS{CAL METALLURGY Metals have always played a very dominant role in the development of ‘mankind, as i well illustrated by the fact that archeologists refer to a bronze age and an iron age in their classification of the stages in. man's ‘ development. This dominant role is particularly true for the industrializa- tion of the past 120 years that has so drastically changed our daily lives from those of our great grandfathers and grandmothers. To illustrate this fact consider our vehicles of transportation. For example, how would you manufacture any of the following without the use of metals: cars, trains, airplanes, tractors, ships, bicycles, skate boards, and so on. Itis clear that metals play a oritical role in these vehicles, particularly in the engines that power them. This critical dependence upon metals is also quite obvious when one walks through any industrial plant, be it chemical, mechanical, electronic, nuclear, or whatever. However, unless one reflects abit itis not nearly as obvious that metals have played a key role in the changes that have occurred right in our homes. Consider the following items that we take for granted, which were unknown in the homes of our great grandparents of the nineteenth century: Plumbing systems Wiring and electric lights Electric stoves Refrigerators Washers and driers Dishwashers and garbage disposals, Furnace and ducts (or pipes) Radio and TV Aluminum window frames ‘Air conditioners 2 Introduction At some point in all of these items, metals full a critical role so that it ‘would be very difficult and frequently impossible to produce them without the use of metals. Of course, other materials besides metals play a key role in the manufacture of many items in our modern technology. Consider in ‘automobiles, for instance, the role of rubber in the tires and glass for transparent windows, ‘The design engineer selects those materials that have the desired physical properties and are the most economical. There are essentially three ‘main physical properties possessed by metals that account for their key role in man’s development. These are’ 1. Formability. Notice that practically all of the metal objects that you use have been mechanically shaped. Only about 20% are used directly in their as-cast form, 2. Strength without brittleness. Many materials, such as glass, are very strong but also extremely brittle. Hence, one would never dream of esigning an airplane wing out of glass even though its yield strength is over 7 times higher than our best aluminum alloys, 3. Electrical and magnetic properties. The relatively low electrical resistivity of metals and the magnetization of the ferrous metals are the key properties here. Physical metallurgy is concemed primarily with the effect of the atomic arrangement and the microstructure of the metal upon its physieal proper- ties. One may broadly summarize theso relationships as in the following table, Influence of ‘Atomic Arrangement _Tafluence of Physical Property and Detects Microstructure Mechanical [Strength Very strong Very strong Ductilty Blectrical [Resistivity ‘and [Magnetization Sight Slight + strong thermal] Thermal con- {ductivity (Conosive Chemical resistance Sight Slight > moderate \Catalytic potential Itcan be seen from the table that by control ofthe atomic arrangement and the microstructure one may exercise some control over all of the physical Properties of a metal, but particularly its mechanical properties. Conse~ ‘quently, we will emphasize the control of the mechanical properties of Introduction 3 atsin the tater chapters of thisbook, The metalugiatis able to exercise ‘Bol over atm aangement and mieonrtire tough such prose esS aang, working, and heat eaient, A ajor goal ofthis Book to provide theoreti bse ht alors oe titan how snd wy Thee process consol the atomic arangement and microstructure in he way they do. CHAPTER 1 DESCRIPTION OF CRYSTALS If you examine most ail of the nonmetallic solid materials with which you come into daily contact, you find that they have no characteristic difference, in outward shape from most metal objects. Hence, itis quite surprising for ‘most people to learn that metals have a crystalline structure while such materials as wood, plastics, paper, glass, and so on, do not. Since this ‘ystalline structure of metals exerts a very strong influence upon their properties, itis essential to have a good grasp of some of the elementary concepts of crystals. “To say that metals are crystals means that their atoms are arranged in a petiodically repeating geometric array. Asis shown in introductory materi- als textbooks," erystal structures are described by reference to their Bravais lattice. Metals have particularly simple crystal structures. Of the 14 Bravais latices, all except four metals form in one of the following very simple structures: (1) face-centered cubic—fec, (2) body-centered cubic— ‘bee, (3) hexagonal close packed, hep, and (4) tetragonal. Many metals exist in more than one erystal structure depending on temperature, but, in most ‘eases, the transitions are between these four simple crystal structures. Tt is assumed here that you are already familiar with the geometry of these erystal structures. It i also assumed that you are familiar with the rotational symmetry of these structures, the use of direction numbers [xyz] and Miller indices (hk) to describe directions and planes in the crystals, ‘and directions of the form (xyz) and planes of the form {hkl} (see, for ‘example, Ref. 1, pp. 74-89, or Ref. 2, pp. 45-50 and 208-214). The first seven problems are presented to provide you with a review of these. concepts. 11 ATOM PACKING IN FCC AND HCP CRYSTALS Inthe above approach the atomic structure of metal crystals is described by referencing the atom array to a space lattice. One may also describe the 6 Description of Crystals atomie structure of crystals from a different approach that is quite useful for simple crystal strictures such as those possessed by metals, We will consider the atoms of the crystal to be spheres ofthe same size, Consider- ing the atoms to be spheres is, of course, an approximation, but it does Provide us with a good first-order approximation that in some cases s quite useful The metalic bonds that hold metal atoms together have very Hite preferred directionality. Therefore, you might expect this attractive force {hat pulls the atoms together to cause them to pack together equaly in al Figure 2.2 Diftraction, 36. Structure of Determination Name of Technique Wavelength, A 8 Laue Variable Fixed Powder Fixed Variable Diftactorneter Fed Variable Ifthe radiation has only one wavelength itis termed monochromatic; if itis variable it is called white radiation. A. LAUE METHOD In this technique white radiation is used and the diffracted beams are ‘measured as spots on a photographie plate. When the plate is on the same side of the sample as the source of the beam, the radiation first passes through the plate and the diffracted beams travel back to the plate, This is called a back-reflection picture, and when the plate is on the opposite side from the source it is called a transmission picture. To illustrate this technique consider the transmission arrangement shown in Fig. 2.3. The white radiation is directed parallel to the [010] direction of the fee cubic crystal as shown. We now ask: What is the geometric pattern that will appear on the plate due to diffraction from (i11} planes? First we must determine whether or not diffraction occurs from the four {111} planes. Since A is a variable here, itis apparent that the Bragg equation will be satisfied for all values of 8. Reference to Table 2.1 shows that the {111} planes produce reflections in fec crystals, and so we expect a spot fromeach of the four sets of {11) planes. It should be apparent from examination of Fig. 2.2 that the incident and diffracted beams lie in a plane perpendicular Figure 23. Transmission Laue arrangement. 2A X-Ray Diffraction 37 ‘Table 2.1 Indices of the Reflecting Planes for Cubic Structures Body-Centered __Face-Contored Cubic Cubic {100} 7 7 {130} (110) = 4112) _ uy 200) {200} {200} 219} = aa gi) (24) = (220) 220) (220) (223) a i {300} = 7 G10} {310} - 613} — ut} 222} (222) 222} (320) - ea 21} (p20) = (200) {400} {400} (322) 7 7 (410) = a (330) {330} 7 (aut) au} 7 (331) — 31} (420) {#20} {920} (a2) - a 332} 1333} 7 to the diffracting planes. This fact i very useful in visualizing diffraction: ‘The incident and diffracted beams must be coplanar with the normal of the diffracting planes. ‘We now ask: What plane contains the incideat beam and the normal to the (111) plane? This plane would be dened by the [010] and [111] ‘rections, and it can be seen from Fig. 2.3 that these two lines define the (G01) plane, Hence, the diffracted beam must lie somewhere in the (101) plane. If we extend this (101) plane out so that it intersects the photo- ‘graphic film, it makes a straight-line trace on the plate at an angle 45° up from the horizontal as showa in Fig. 2.3. Now in order to locate the position on this trace where the diffracted beam appears, we must determine the angle at which it eaves the crystal. Figure 2.4(a) locates the (111) and (G01) planes on the unt cel; ther intersection is marked by the

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