College of Applied Sciences- Algiers

Department of Electrical Engineering

Technical English
for Electrical Engineering

Edited by Abdelhakim Deboucha2018

Table of contents
1
Overview
1. MATHEMATICS (ARITHMETIC)
1.1 Integers
1.2 Fractions
1.3 Exponents and Roots
1.4 Decimals
1.5 Real Numbers
1.6 Mathematical Signs
2. Overview on Electrical Engineering
2.1 Electrical Engineer
2.2 Brief History on Electrical Engineering
2.3 SYSTEM OF UNITS
2.4 Terms and Definitions
2.5 Reading and Comprehension
2.6 History of Power Plants and Systems
3. Actuators
3.1 Alternating Current Motors (AC motors)
3.1.1 Three-Phase AC Motor Connection
3.1.2 AC motor Nameplate (Rating Plate)
3.2 DC current Motors
3.2.1 Permanent Magnet Motors
3.2.2 Wound Field Motors
3.2.2.1 Series Motors
3.2.2.2 Shunt Motors
3.2.2.3 Compounds Motors
3.2.3 Brush Less DC motor
4. Control Panels
4.1 Main switches and signaling Units
4.2 Circuit Breakers
4.3 Contactors and overload Relays
4.4 Programmable Logic Controller
4.5 Speed Drive Unit
5. Power Transmission
5.1 Transformers
5.2 Poles & Pylons
6. Electrical Engineering Tools
7. Certification Marks
8. Glossary
9. References

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1. OVERVIEW

This document is intended for the 3rd year students in Electrical Engineering Department,
ESSA-Alger) to help them in their Technical and Scientific English Subject. It should
familiarize them with some basic English mathematical concepts along with other important
measurements and text comprehension content. Note, however, that this is not aimed to assess
any mathematical skills or the ability to solve problems, nor it is devised to test English
grammar or reading skills. Its main purpose is to introduce the English language that is widely
used in such technical settings. Although this handbook is meant to be as comprehensive as
possible, it contains less material than might be expected in technical English book. The
material in this course can be taught in one semester and it covers only general understanding
of technical English that is usually needed in electrical engineering. You will find a glossary at
the end of this booklet to assist you with some technical vocabulary.

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 1. MATHEMATICS (ARITHMETIC)

The review of arithmetic begins with integers, fractions, and decimals and progresses to the set of real
numbers. The basic arithmetic operations of exponents and roots are also discussed. The section ends
with some commonly used signs and symbols in mathematics.

1.1. Integers

The integers are the numbers 1, 2, 3, … and so on, together with their negatives, -1, -2, -3,…,
and 0. Thus, the set of integers is {…,-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ….}.
The positive integers are greater than 0, the negative integers are less than 0, and 0 is neither
positive nor negative. When integers are multiplied, each of the multiplied integers is called a
factor or divisor of the resulting product. For example, (2)(3)(10) = 60, so 2, 3, and 10 are factors
of 60. The integers 4, -4, 15, -15, 5, -5, 12, and -12 are also factors of 60. We say that 60 is a
multiple of each of these factors and that 60 is divisible by each of its divisors.

If an integer is divisible by 2, it is called an even integer; otherwise it is an odd integer. Note that
when a positive odd integer is divided by 2, the remainder is always 1. The set of even integers is
{…,-6, -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, 6, ….}, and the set of odd integers is {…,-5, -3, -1, 0, 1 ,3, 5, ….}.

A prime number is an integer greater than 1 that has only two positive divisors: 1 and itself. The
first ten prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, and 29. The integer 1 is not a prime
number, and the integer 2 is the only prime number that is even.

An integer greater than 1 that is not a prime number is called a composite number. The first ten
composite numbers are 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, and 18.

An ordinal number is a number such as 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, …,nth that is used to show the position of
someone or something in a series.

1.2. Fractions
𝑎
A fraction is a number of the form 𝑏 where a and bare integers and b≠ 0. The integer a is called the
numerator of the fraction (above the fraction bar), and b is called the denominator (below the
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fraction bar).For example, 7 is a fraction in which 3 is the numerator and 7 is the denominator.

1.3. Exponents and Roots

Exponents are used to denote the repeated multiplication of a number by itself; for example, 34
=(3)(3)(3)(3) = 81. In the expression 34, 3 is called the base, 4 is called the exponent, and we read the
expression as “3 to the fourth power.” So 5 to the third power is 125. When the exponent is 2,we call
the process squaring. Thus, 6 squared is 36, and 7 squared is 49. Similarly, when the exponent is 3, we
call the process cubing. Thus, 2 cubed is 8, and 5 cubed is 125.

A square root of a nonnegative number n is a number r such that r2 = n. For example, 4 is a square root
of 16 because 42 = 16 (pronounced four squared equals sixteen). All positive numbers have two square
roots, one positive and one negative. The only square root of 0 is 0. The symbol √n used to denote the
nonnegative square root of the nonnegative number n. Square roots of negative numbers are not defined
in the real number system. Roots are also called radicals.

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square root is a root of order 2. Higher-order roots of a positive number n are defined similarly. For
orders 3 and 4, the cube root 3√nandfourth root 4√n represent numbers such that when they are raised
to the powers 3 and 4, respectively, the result is n.

1.4. Decimals

The decimal number system is based on representing numbers using powers of 10. The place value of
each digit corresponds to a power of 10. For example, the digits of the number 7,532.418 have the
following place values (note that the period “.” denotes the decimal point whereas comma “,”is used to
separate groups of three digits to the left of the decimal point):

1 1
That is,7,532.41 = 7(1,000) + 5(100) + 3(10) + 2(1) + 4(10) + 1(100)

1.5. Real Numbers

The set of real numbers consists of all rational numbers and all irrational numbers. The real
numbers include all integers, fractions, and decimals. The set of real numbers can be represented by a
number line called the real number line.

Every real number corresponds to a point on the number line. To say that a real number x is between 2
and 3 on the number line means that x > 2 and x < 3, which can also be written as the
double inequality2 <x < 3.The set of all real numbers that are between 2 and 3 is called an
interval, and the double inequality 2 >x > 3 is often used to represent that interval. Note that the end
points of the interval, 2 and 3, are not included in the interval. Sometimes one or both of the endpoints
are to be included in an interval. The following inequalities represent four types of intervals, depending
on whether the endpoints are included

2 <x <3
2 ≤x <3
2 <x ≤3
2≤x≤3

The distance between a number x and 0 on the number line is called the absolute value of x, written as
│x│. Therefore, │3│= 3 and│-3│= 3 (pronounced the absolute value of three equals three and the
absolute value of minus three equals three).

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1.6.Mathematical Signs

There is a series of mathematical signs and symbols that you will encounter as you use
technical English. Below you will find some of the most common signs that are good to learn.

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2. Overview on Electrical Engineering
Electrical engineering (sometimes referred to as electrical and electronic engineering) is a
professional engineering discipline that deals with the study and application of electricity,
electronics and electromagnetism. The field first became an identifiable occupation in the late
nineteenth century with the commercialization of the electric telegraph and electrical power
supply. The field now covers a range of sub-disciplines including those that deal with power,
optoelectronics, digital electronics, analog electronics, computer science, artificial
intelligence, control systems, electronics, signal processing and telecommunications.
The term electrical engineering may or may not encompass electronic engineering. Electrical
engineering is considered to deal with the problems associated with large-scale electrical
systems such as power transmission and motor control, whereas electronic engineering deals
with the study of small-scale electronic systems including computers and integrated
circuits. Another way of looking at the distinction is that electrical engineers are usually
concerned with using electricity to transmit energy, while electronics engineers are
concerned with using electricity to transmit information.

2.1 Electrical Engineers

Electrical engineers are concerned with every step in the process of generation, transmission,
distribution, and utilization of electrical energy. The electrical engineer who works in the
electric utility industry will encounter challenging problems in designing future power systems
to deliver increasing amounts of electrical energy in a safe, clean, and economical manner.

2.2Brief History of Electrical Engineering

The historical evolution of electrical engineering can be attributed, in part, to the work and
discoveries of the people in the following list:
 William Gilbert(1540–1603), English physician, founder of magnetic science, which
was published, in 1600.
 Charles A. Coulomb(1736–1806), French engineer and physicist, published the laws
of electrostatics in seven memoirs to the French Academy of Science between 1785
and 1791. His name is associated with the unit of charge.
 James Watt(1736–1819), English inventor, developed the steam engine. His name is
used to represent the unit of power.
 Alessandro Volta(1745–1827), Italian physicist, discovered the electric pile. The unit
of electric potential and the alternate name of this quantity (voltage) are named after
him.
 Hans Christian Ørsted (1777–1851) was a Danish physicist and chemist who
discovered that electric currents create magnetic fields, which was the first connection
found between electricity and magnetism.
 Andre Marie Ampere (1775–1836), French mathematician, chemist, and physicist,
experimentally quantified the relationship between electric current and the magnetic
field. His works were summarized in a treatise published in 1827. The unit of electric
current is named after him.
 Georg Simon Ohm (1789–1854), German mathematician, investigated the relationship
between voltage and current and quantified the phenomenon of resistance. His first
results were published in 1827. His name is used to represent the unit of resistance.

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  Michael Faraday(1791–1867), English experimenter, demonstrated electromagnetic
induction in 1831. His electrical transformer and electromagnetic generator marked the
beginning of the age of electric power. His name is associated with the unit of a
capacitance.
 Joseph Henry (1797–1878), American physicist, discovered self-induction around
1831, and his name has been designated to represent the unit of inductance.
 Ernst Werner Siemens(1816–1892) and Wilhelm Siemens(1823–1883), German
inventors and engineers, contributed to the invention and development of electric
machines, as well as to perfecting electrical science. The modern unit of conductance
is named after them.
 Heinrich Rudolph Hertz(1857–1894), German scientist and experimenter, discovered
the nature of electromagnetic waves and published his findings in 1888. His name is
associated with the unit of frequency.
 Nikola Tesla(1856–1943), Croatian inventor, emigrated to the United States in 1884.
He invented poly phase electric power systems and the induction motor and pioneered
modern AC electric power systems. His name is used to represent the unit of magnetic
flux density.
2.3 SYSTEM OF UNITS

International System of Units (SI)units are commonly adhered to by virtually all engineering
professional societies.SI units are based on six fundamental quantities, listed in Table 2.1. All
other units may be derived in terms of the fundamental units. Since, in practice, one often needs
to describe quantities that occur in large multiples or small fractions of a unit, standard prefixes
are used to denote powers of 10 of SI (and derived) units. These prefixes are listed in Table
2.2.
Table 2.1: SI Units Table 2.2: Prefixes
Quantity Unit Symbol Prefix Symbol Power
Length Meter m atto a 10-18
Mass Kilogram kg femto f 10-15
Time Second s pico p 10-12
Electric current Ampere A nano n 10-9
Temperature Kelvin K micro µ 10-6
Luminous Intensity Candela ca milli m 10-3
centi c 10-2
deci d 10-1
deka da 10
kilo k 103
mega M 106
giga G 109
tera T 1012

Read the definitions and try to answer the following questions:

1. What is the difference between AC (alternating current) and DC (direct current)?

2. Define ‘electromagnetic induction’.
3. What’s a dynamo?
4. What is an electric motor?
5. What is the difference between an electric motor and a generator?
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2.4Terms Definitions:
1. AC (alternating current) = “an electric current that reverses its direction many times a
second at regular intervals, typically used in power supplies”.
2. DC (direct current) = “an electric current flowing in one direction only”.
3. Motor - electric motor = “a device that changes power into movement, used to make
machines work”; a device that changes electric power into movement.
4. Electric generator = “machine for producing electric energy / dynamo or similar machine
for converting mechanical energy into electricity”.
5. Electromagnetic = “having both electrical and magnetic properties / of or relating to the
interrelation of electric currents or fields and magnetic fields”.
6.Induction = the production of an electric or magnetic state by the proximity (with-out
contact) of an electrified or magnetized body/ “the production of an electric current in a
conductor by varying the magnetic field applied to the conductor”
7. excitation = “current in a coil that gives rise to a m.m.f.( Magneto Motive Force) in a
magnetic circuit, especially in a generator or motor.”
8. Magnetic field = “region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge within
which the force of magnetism acts.”

2.5 Reading and Comprehension

The 19th century witnessed a major scientific breakthrough: the discovery of the principles that
later on were to lay the foundation for electrical engineering, the branch of science and
technology concerned with the design, building and use of motors, machines and structures.
Two closely related physical phenomena are involved, magnetism and electricity, and the
principles are the principle of electromagnetic induction and the principle of reversibility of
electromagnetic movement and electromagnetic induction. The first was discovered by the
British physicist Michael Faraday in 1831; it states that ‘if a conductor is moved through a
magnetic field or if the strength of a stationary conducting loop is made to vary, a current is set
up or induced in the conductor; in other words, if a wire is passed so that it crosses the magnetic
lines of force, an electric current will flow along the wire. This is the basic principle of how
electricity is generated. The second had been discovered by the French physicist and
mathematician Andre Marie Ampere in 1820. He noticed that “if a current is passed through
a conductor located in a magnetic field, the field exerts a mechanical force on it”. Later on,
other scientists developed this theory and formulated the principle of reversibility of
electromagnetic movement and electromagnetic induction. This is the principle of reversibility
of electric motors. In the motor, the current that flows through a coil of wire called an
armature, which is mounted inside a magnetic field, will cause the coil to rotate. Thus,
electricity may be used to produce a magnetic field and a magnetic field can generate
electricity. A machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy is called a
generator, alternator, or dynamo. A machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy is called a motor. A brief analysis reveals the fact that electric generators and electric
motors are quite similar in construction; they both consist of two basic units: - the
electromagnet with its coils which generates the magnetic field; - the armature, which is the

9
structure that supports the conductors which cut the magnetic field and carry the induced
current (in a generator) or the exciting current (in a motor).
Exercise A.1.
Fill in the gaps with the right word(s) from the text:

1. Electric generators are also known as __________ (DC) or __________ (AC).

2. The basic principle of how electricity is generated is called __________.
3. The principle of electromagnetic __________ was discovered by the British physicist
Michael Faraday.
4. A machine that converts __________ energy into electrical energy is called a generator.
5. A machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy is called a __________.
6. In a generator, the conductors which cut the magnetic field carry the __________ current.
7. In a motor, the conductors that cut the electric field carry the __________ current.

Exercise A.2.
Match two halves (one from column A, one from column B) to form correct sentences:
A
1. A motor is a machine that
2. The principle of electromagnetic induction
3. Electrical engineering
4. Electricity may be used to
5. A machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

B
a – is the basic principle of how electricity is generated.
b – produce a magnetic field.
c – converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
d – an electric current will flow along it.
e – is a branch of science and technology.
f – is called a generator.

2.6 History of Electric Power Plants and Electrical Systems

In 1878, Thomas A. Edison began work on the electric light and formulated the concept of a
centrally located power station with distributed lighting serving a surrounding area. He
perfected his light by October 1879, and the opening of his historic Pearl Street Station in
New York City on September 4, 1882, marked the beginning of the electric utility industry.
At Pearl Street, dc generators (dynamos) were driven by steam engines to supply an initial
load of 30 kW for 110V incandescent lighting to 59 customers in a one-square-mile area.
From this beginning in 1882 through 1972, the electric utility industry grew at a remarkable
pace—a growth based on continuous reductions in the price of electricity due primarily to
technological accomplishment and creative engineering.
The introduction of the practical dc motor by Sprague Electric (company name), as well as
the growth of incandescent lighting, promoted the expansion of Edison’s dc systems. The
development of three-wire 220-V dc systems allowed the load to increase, but as transmission

10
distances and loads continued to increase, voltage problems were encountered. These
limitations of maximum distance and load were overcome in 1885 by William Stanley’s
development of a commercially practical transformer. Stanley installed an ac distribution
system in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, to supply 150 lamps. With the transformer, the
ability to transmit power at high voltage with corresponding lower current and lower line-
voltage drops made ac more attractive than dc. The first single-phase ac line in the United
States operated in 1889 in Oregon, between Oregon City and Portland for 21 km at 4 kV.
The growth of ac systems was further encouraged in 1888 when Nikola Tesla presented a
paper at a meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers describing two-phase
induction and synchronous motors, which made evident the advantages of poly-phase versus
single-phase systems. The first three-phase line in Germany became operational in 1891,
transmitting power for179 km at 12 kV. The first three-phase line in the United States
(California) became operational in 1893, transmitting power for12 km at 2.3 kV.
In the same year that Edison’s steam-driven generators were inaugurated, a waterwheel-
driven generator was installed in Appleton, Wisconsin. Since then, most electric energy has
been generated in steam-powered and in water-powered (called hydro) turbine plants. Today,
steam turbines account for more than 85% of U.S. electric energy generation, whereas hydro
turbines account for about 6%. Gas turbines are used in some cases to meet peak loads. Also,
the addition of wind turbines into the bulk power system is expected to grow considerably in
the near future.
Steam plants are fueled primarily by coal, gas, oil, and uranium. Of these, coal is the most
widely used fuel in the United States due to its abundance in the country. Although many of
these coal-fueled power plants were converted to oil during the early 1970s, that trend has been
reversed back to coal since the 1973–74 oil embargo, which caused an oil shortage and created
a national desire to reduce dependency on foreign oil. In 2008, approximately 48% of electricity
in the United States was generated from coal.
In 1957, nuclear units with 90-MW steam-turbine capacity, fueled by uranium, were installed,
and today nuclear units with 1312-MW steam-turbine capacity are in service. In 2008,
approximately 20% of electricity in the United States was generated from uranium from 104
nuclear power plants. However, the growth of nuclear capacity in the United States has been
halted by rising construction costs, licensing delays, and public opinion. Although there are no
emissions associated with nuclear power generation, there are safety issues and environmental
issues, such as the disposal of used nuclear fuel and the impact of heated cooling-tower water
on aquatic habitats. Future technologies for nuclear power are concentrated on safety and
environmental issues.
Starting in the 1990s, the choice of fuel for new power plants in the United States has been
natural gas due to its availability and low cost as well as the higher efficiency, lower emissions,
shorter construction-lead times, safety, and lack of controversy associated with power plants
that use natural gas.
In 2008, approximately 21% of electricity in the United States was generated from natural
gas. whereas, approximately 9% of electricity was generated by renewable sources and 1% by
oil. Renewable sources include conventional hydroelectric (water power), geothermal, wood,
wood waste, all municipal waste, landfill gas, other biomass, solar, and wind power.
Renewable sources of energy cannot be ignored, but they are not expected to supply a large
percentage of the world’s future energy needs. Substantial research efforts have shown nuclear
11
fusion energy to be a promising technology for producing safe, pollution-free, and economical
electric energy later in the 21st century and beyond.
The early AC systems operated at various frequencies including 25,50,60, and 133 Hz. In
1891, it was proposed that 60 Hz be the standard frequency in the United States. In 1893, 25-
Hz systems were introduced with the synchronous converter. However, these systems were
used primarily for railroad electrification (and many are now retired) because they had the
disadvantage of causing incandescent lights to flicker. In California, the Los Angeles
Department of Power and Water operated at 50 Hz, but converted to 60 Hz when power from
the Hoover Dam became operational in 1937. In 1949, Southern California Edison also
converted from 50 to 60 Hz. Today, the two standard frequencies for generation, transmission,
and distribution of electric power in the world are 60 Hz (in the United States, Canada, Japan,
Brazil) and 50 Hz (in Europe, the former Soviet republics, South America, Africa, …etc). The
advantage of 60-Hz systems is that generators, motors, and transformers in these systems are
generally smaller than 50-Hz equipment with the same ratings.

Figure 2.1: Example of hydroelectricity plant

Figure 2.2: Description of electric power from generation to end use

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3. Actuators
An indispensable component of the control system is the actuator. The actuator is the first system
component to actually move, converts electrical energy into mechanical motion. The most common
type of actuator is the electric motor.
Motors are classified as either DC or AC, depending on the type of power they use.
AC motors have some advantages over DC motors as they tend to be smaller, more reliable, and less
expensive. However, they generally run at a fixed speed that is determined by the line frequency. DC
motors have speed-control capability, which means that speed, torque, and even direction of rotation
can be changed at any time to meet new conditions. Also, smaller DC motors commonly operate at
lower voltages (for example, a 12-V disk drive motor), which makes them easier to interface with
control electronics.
3.1 Alternating Current Motor (AC)
AC motors are primarily used as a source of constant-speed mechanical power but are increasingly
being used in variable speed-control applications. They are popular as they can provide rotary power
with high efficiency and low maintenance. These desirable qualities are the result of two factors: (1)
AC motors can use the AC power “right off the lines.” DC motors require the added expense of a
rectifier circuit apart from those supplied directly with batteries; (2) most AC motors do not need
brushes as DC motors do. In most cases, the AC power is connected only to the motor’s stationary
field windings.
The rotor gets its power by electromagnetic induction, a process that does not require physical
electrical contact. Maintenance is reduced because AC motor has no brushes to be replaced. Also, the
motor tends to be more reliable and last longer because there are fewer parts to go wrong and there is
no “brush dust” to contaminate the bearings or windings.
The speed of a DC motor can be controlled by simply adjusting the applied voltage. Whereas for
complete speed control of an AC motor, both voltage and frequency must be adjusted, which requires
using special electronic speed-control circuitry, such as the volts-per-hertz (V/Hz) drive. Still, the
most common use of AC motors is for the many applications where speed control is not necessary.
Included here are fans, pumps, mixers, machine tools and household appliances.
Typically, larger motors use three-phase AC power with voltages from 240 to 600 Vac, and the smaller
motors use single-phase AC power, with either 120 Vac or 240 Vac.

Rating Plate (nameplate)

Output shaft

Terminal box

Speed Controller Assembled Motor

Figure 3.1: Induction Machine

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3.1.1 Three phase AC motor connection
Three phase motors typically have two type of connections, one is known as wye connection and the
other is the delta connection. The below figure illustrates the common connection.

Terminal box

Figure 3.2: Terminal connection box and the common connection

3.1.2AC Nameplate (Rating plate)

Before we get into how to read a nameplate of a motor, it is necessary to mention the two reference
standards for electric motors, which are the National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA motors) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC motors). NEMA is the
North American standard for electric motors.
Reading a motor nameplate can sometimes pose a unique challenge. Most manufacturers display
information differently, and nameplates often get dirty, damaged, and occasionally are removed. This
can make reading a motor nameplate a difficult or frustrating task.
You will need information from the motor nameplate throughout the life of the motor. If you ever
need to size a VFD, repair a motor, replace a motor, connect a motor, correct power factor, purchase
parts, or do just about anything with a motor you will need the information on the motor nameplate.

Suitable for use in

Built for VFD Manufacturer Name USA and Canada

Figure 3.3: nameplate of a three phase motor

HP (horsepower): the name was given by James Watt :75 is 1 HP=0.7kw

Inverter: 10:1 VT means it can take a 10 – 1 speed range on the variable torque
Duty: 4:1 CT at constant torque applicable in conveyors, lift and so on
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TEFC: Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled for heavy duties enables you to cool the motor
Code G: how many amps the motor draws when first energized (Inrush Current)
EFF: Efficiency
P.F: power factor
S.F Service factor: this motor can run at 25% above its rated current for temporary cycles
FLD Amps: Full Load Amperes
FLD Volts: Full Load Voltage
DESIN LetterThe design letter provides information about a motor’s starting torque. B (normal
starting torque), C (high starting torque), and D (very high starting torque) design letters are the most
common. A motor’s starting torque is different than torque during normal operations.
Code X: is an important parameter in which it indicates the inrush current
Table 3.1 shows the code letter with the corresponding factor
Table 3.1: The code letter in nameplate of a motor

Code Letter KVA/HP Approximate Mid-Range Value

A 0.00-3.14 1.6
B 3.15-3.54 3.3
C 3.55-3.99 3.8
D 4.00-4.49 4.3
E 4.50-4.99 4.7
F 5.00-5.59 5.3
G 5.60-6.29 5.9
H 6.30-7.09 6.70
J 7.10-7.99 7.5
K 8.00-8.99 8.5
L 9.00-9.99 9.5
M 10.00-11.19 10.6
N 11.20-12.49 11.8
P 12.50-13.99 13.2
R 14.00-15.99 15.0

*To find approximate inrush current for your motor match the code letter on your motor nameplate
with the corresponding approximate mid-range value on the chart; multiply the mid-range value and
the full load amp rating on your motor nameplate.

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3.2 Direct Current Motor (DC)
To generate a magnetic field, there are only two ways. One way is known as field winding and the
other is the use of a permanent magnet. Therefore, DC motors are categorized in two classes which are
wound field DC motors and Permanent magnet DC motors. Wound field motors can further be
classified into series wound, shunt wound and compound DC motors.

3.2.1 Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PM DC motor)

The permanent magnet motor uses a magnet to provide field flux. Permanent magnet DC motors have
excellent starting torque capability with good speed regulation. A disadvantage of permanent magnet
DC motors is they are limited to the amount of load they can drive. These motors can be found on low
horsepower applications.
The two brushes are held against the commutator by leaf springs which are electrically connected to
the external motor terminals. This commutator has three segments and there are coils between each
segment pair. The stator magnets are epoxied to the inside of the motor housing. The disassembled
Pittman motor has seven commutator segments. The two brushes are attached to the motor housing,
which has otherwise been removed. One of the two permanent magnets is visible inside the housing.

a b c

Armature

Figure 3.4:(a): cut-away diagram of a PM DC motor, (b): dissembled motor and (c): PM motor
symbol

3.2.2 Wound Field DC Motor

3.2.2.1 Series DC Motors

In a series DC motor the field is connected in series with the armature. The field is wound with a few
turns of large wire because it must carry the full armature current. A characteristic of series motors is
the motor develops a large amount of starting torque. However, speed varies widely between no load
and full load. Series motors cannot be used where a constant speed is required under varying loads.

16
 Figure 3.5:Series DC Motor symbol

3.2.2.2 Shunt DC Motors

In a shunt motor the field is connected in parallel (shunt) with the armature windings. The shunt-
connected motor offers good speed regulation. The field winding can be separately excited or
connected to the same source as the armature as shown in figure 3.5.

Figure 3.6:Shunt DC motor symbol

Exercise 3.1

From the nameplate illustrated in figure 3.7, list the most important factors and parameters that are
necessary to know and answer the following questions.
1- What is the type of this motor?
2- What is the full load current?
3- Does this motor has Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled?
4- What is the max full load armature current?
5- Convert the angular speed to radian per second (rad/s).
6- Does a P.F exist in a DC motor?
Exercise 3.2

Choose the right word(s) from among those given to fill in the following sentences
A…………….is a portion of a machine which remains fixed with respect torotating parts,
especially the collection of stationary parts in the magnetic circuits of a machine.
a) rotor
b) alternator
c) stator
d) turbine

17
 Figure 3.7: Nameplate for DC Motor

3.2.2.3 Compound Motors

Compound motors have a field connected in series with the armature and a separately excited shunt
field. The series field provides better starting torque and the shunt field provides better speed regulation.

Figure 3.8:Compound Motor symbol

3.2.3 Brush Less DC Motors

Electronically Commutator (EC) motors are DC brushless motors that are controlled by external
electronic circuit board. EC motor operate differently compared to the standard DC motor as it
includes an electronic circuit that monitor and energize the stator’s coils based on a feedback from a
Hall sensor. The hall sensor is used to detect the rotor position. Then the coil is energized with respect
to the rotor position.

Figure 3.9:EC Motor example.

18
 4. Industrial Control Panels
A control panel is a flat, often vertical, area where control or monitoring instruments are displayed
or it is an enclosed unit that is the part of a system that users can access, as the control panel of a security
system (also called control unit/cabinet). The control panel contains but not limited to the following:
- Locking handle
- Pilot lights (Signaling Unit)
- Digital display
- Meters (Amp-meter, Volt-meter, Watt-meter)
- Cooling Fan
- Power distributor
- Transformer & rectifier
- Circuit Breakers
- Contactors and Overload Relays
- Programmable Logic Controller
- Speed Drive Unit and more

The manual instruction pouch

Figure 4.1: Industrial Control Panel Example

4.1 Main switches and Signaling Units

Every main circuit should have a manual operated main switch. The main switch may fulfil an
emergency stop switch on certain panels. The below figure shows some of the main switches called
locking handles along with push buttons, signaling units, Joystick.

19
 Figure 4.2: Example of locking handles, Signaling Unit, Push Buttons, Joystick ..., etc
4.2 Circuit Breakers
Circuit breakers are mainly designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage. A circuit breaker
consists of an on/off lever, solenoid, spark suppressor and a housing (frame) with screws at two sides
to insert a wire in and a wire out. Circuit breaker differs from the casual switch as it automatically
breaks the circuit when a load current attained a certain level or a short circuit. this is done through the
help of the solenoid when energized by freeing a rod that pushes the lever internally in order to break
the circuit.
4. a. Exercise:
a) Give a list of what devices and equipment could be in industrial control panel.
b) Label the components of the below circuit breaker using the above passage.

1-
2-

3-
4-

5-

Figure 4.3: Circuit breaker. a) three poles circuit breaker, b) single pole circuit breaker

20
4.3 Contactors
Usually, three main devices are required to design a load circuit which are 1) short circuit protection
or circuit breaker, 2) contactor and 3) an overload relay as illustrated in figure 4.4.

Short circuit protection(CB)

Contactor

Overload relay

Motor

Figure 4.3: basic chart for

Contactor is an electrically controlled switch (relay) used for switching an electrical power circuit.A
contactor is typically controlled by a circuit which has a much lower power level than the switched
circuit.
A contactor has three components. The contacts are the current carrying part of the contactor. This
includes power contacts, auxiliary contacts, and contact springs. The electromagnet (or "coil") provides
the driving force to close the contacts. The enclosure is a frame housing the contacts and the
electromagnet. Unlike general-purpose relays, contactors are designed to be directly connected to high-
current load devices. Relays tend to be of lower capacity and are usually designed for both normally
closed and normally open applications. Devices switching more than 15 amperes or in circuits rated
more than a few kilowatts are usually called contactors. Apart from optional auxiliary low-current
contacts, contactors are almost exclusively fitted with normally open (NO) contacts.

lines
Auxiliary contact

Terminals

Figure 4.5: example of a Contactor Internal coil

Note: NO means Normally Opened

Lines are power Lines (Phase1, Phase2, Phase3)
Terminals are the leads where the power could be taken to the load
21
4.4 Relays
Relays are particular case from contactors as they consist of coil to be energized and blades of
contacts to be closed or opened. They are classified into two types, one is Normally Opened (NO) and
the other is Normally (NO) Closed relay. In the case of the NC relay, when the coil is energized, the
magnetic field pulls the contact X2 towards the coil making the contacts opens.

Figure 4.6: a) schematic circuit for a NC relay, b) schematic circuit for a NO relay and c) typical
relay
Task 4.1
1- Explain the operation of the Normally Opened relay in three lines paragraph.

22
4.4 Speed Drive Unit
There are few items of equipment that are as crucial to industrial processes and few that convert much
energy as the electric motor. In fact, about two-third of all the electrical energy produced in the world
is converted into mechanical energy by electric motors. The vast majority of these motors are used to
power fans, pumps and compressors. Most of these applications operate at constant speed, all the time,
even when not needed. Therefore, they waste huge amount of energy. With the variable speed drives
(VSDs), 30% of the power consumption of the motor is reduced, ABB (A SEA BROWN BOVERI)
claimed that in 2009 by installing a VSDs, an estimated of 220 terawatt-hours of electric power was
saved which is enough to meet the annual needs of 54 million European households.
VSDs, also known as adjustable speed drives or variable frequency drive (VFD) are used to control
the speed and the torque of an AC-three phase motors. Varying the voltage amplitude allows us to
control the torque of the motor while varying the frequency of the power line allows in controlling the
motor’s speed. This technique is achieved by adjusting the voltage amplitude and the frequency of the
power lines. There are three major VFD designs commonly used today: pulse width modulation (PWM),
current source inverter (CSI), and voltage source inverter (VSI). Recently, the flux vector drive also has
become popular.

Figure 4.6: schematic circuit diagram for the VFD

As shown in above Figure, an AC line supply voltage is brought into the input section. From here, the
AC voltage passes into a converter section that uses a diode bridge converter and large DC capacitors
to create and maintain a stable, fixed DC bus voltage. The DC voltage passes into the inverter section
usually furnished with insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), which regulate both voltage and
frequency to the motor to produce a near sine wave like output.
A typical industrial VFD from HITACHI is shown in the below figure

23
 Figure 4.7 A typical industrial VFD

Exercise:
1- What is the main function of the VFD?
2- How much energy can be saved when using VFD?
3- What are the techniques used in VFD?
4- Explain the PWM technique.

24
4.5 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
A programmable logic controller (PLC), or programmable controller is an industrial digital computer
which has been adapted for the control of manufacturing processes, such as assembly lines, or robotic
devices, or any activity that requires high reliability control and ease of programming and process. PLC
were first developed in automobile industry to replace hard wired relay and timer. The outputs of the
PLC should respond with accordance to the input conditions within a limited time.
All PLCs have four basic stages of operations that are repeated many times per second. Initially when
turned on the first time it will check its own hardware and software for faults. If there are no problems
it will copy all the input and copy their values into memory, this is called the input scan. Using only the
memory copy of the inputs the ladder logic program will be solved once, this is called the logic scan.
While solving the ladder logic the output values are only changed in temporary memory. When the
ladder scan is done the outputs will be updated using the temporary values in memory, this is called the
output scan. The PLC now restarts the process by starting a self-check for faults. This process typically
repeats 10 to 100 times per second.
Intelligence of an automated system depends largely on the ability of a PLC controller to read signals
from different types of sensors and input devices such as proximity sensors, marginal switches,
photoelectric sensors, level sensors, etc. Sensors are usually used as inputs for PLCs
PLC basically consists of input terminals, output terminals, programming cable (PC-PLC
communication protocol), Analog/Digital converter (ADC) and Digital/Analog converter (DAC).

Input terminals

Output terminals
RS232/ Programmer

Figure 5.1 A typical industrial PLC

25
5. Electrical Power Transmission
Electrical power transmission is the process of delivering the generated electric power usually over long
distances to the distribution grid located at populated areas. The most important part of this process is
the transformer which is used to boost up the voltage level in order to make long distances transmission
feasible without power losses. To transport the power from one place to another, power lines or
transmission lines, are used. Typically power lines span a distance of 500 kilometers or less. There are
3 types of lines:
1- Overhead lines are very high voltage, between 100 kV and 800 kV, and do the majority of
long distance transmission.
2- Underground lines are used to transport power through populated areas, underwater, or pretty
much anywhere that overhead lines can't be used. They are less common than overhead lines
due to heat-related losses and higher cost.
3- Sub-transmission lines carry lower voltages (26 kV - 69 kV) to distribution stations, and can
be overhead or underground.

5.1 Transformers
A transformer is a device that changes AC electric power at one voltage level to AC electric power at
another voltage level through the action of a magnetic field. It consists of two or more coils wrapped
around a common ferromagnetic core. The only connection between the coils is the common magnetic
flux presented within the core.

Figure 5.1:The first practical transformer built by William Stanley (1885)

5.1.1 Construction of transformers:

The principal purpose of a transformer is to convert ac power at one voltage level to ac power of the
same frequency at another voltage level. Transformers are also used for a variety of other purposes (e.g.,
voltage sampling, current sampling, and impedance transformation). Power transformers are
constructed on one of two types of cores. One type of construction consists of a simple rectangular
laminated piece of steel with the transformer windings wrapped around two sides of the rectangle. This
type of construction is known as core-form and is illustrated in Figure 5.2. The other type consists of a
three-legged laminated core with the windings wrapped around the center leg. this type of construction

26
is known as shell form and is illustrated in Figure 5.3. In either case, the core is constructed of thin
laminations electrically isolated from each other in order to minimize eddy currents.
The primary and secondary windings in a physical transformer are wrapped one on top of the
other with the low-voltage winding innermost. Such an arrangement serves two purposes:

Figure 5-2:core-form transformer construction

1. It simplifies the problem of insulating the high-voltage winding from the core.
2. It results in much less leakage flux than would be the case if the two windings
were separated by a distance on the core.

Power transformers are given in a variety of different names, depending on their use in power systems.
A transformer connected to the output of a generator and used to step its voltage up to transmission
levels (110+ kV) is sometimes called a unit transformer. The transformer at the other end of the
transmission line, which steps the voltage down from transmission levels to distribution levels (from2.3
to 34.5 kV), is called a substation transformer. Finally, the transformer that takes the distribution voltage
and steps it down to the final voltage at which the power is actually used (110, 208, 220 V, etc.) is called
a distribution transformer. All these devices are essentially the same- the only difference among them
is their intended use.

Figure 5.3: shell-form transformer construction

27
Figure 5.2: A typical industrial transformer

28
5.2 Pole and Pylons

As mentioned earlier, to transport electrical energy from one place to another, there is a need for
poles and pylons. Pylons are tall tower-like structure used for carrying high voltage electricity cables
high above the ground.

29
30
6. Electrical Engineering Tools

The below figure gives a brief on what an electrical engineer should handle while interfering in a
fixing a stuff.

Wrench Screw driver Wires Tweezers Wire stripper Wire cutter

Toolbox Mini Oscilloscope Allen keys

Screws Stripped wires

Drill Pliers Kapton tape Multi-meter Clamp-on Ammeter Shrink tube

Task

Give a brief description on the role for each of the above tools.

31
7. Certification Marks
Certification Mark
Underwriters Laboratories
Conformité Européene or
“European Conformity”
Edison Testing Laboratories
Canadian Standards
Association
Environmental Protection
Agency and the Department
of Energy
Federal Communications
Commission
Description Symbols
If a product carries this Mark, Underwriters
Laboratories found that samples of this
product met UL's safety requirements.
These requirements are primarily based on
UL's own published Standards for Safety.
This type of Mark is seen commonly on
appliances and computer equipment,
furnaces and heaters, fuses, electrical panel
boards, smoke and carbon monoxide
detectors, fire extinguishers and sprinkler
systems, personal flotation devices like life
jackets and life preservers, bullet resistant
glass, and thousands of other products.
The CE mark certifies that the products
have met EU health, safety and
environmental requirements that ensure
consumer and workplace safety.
The ETL, Edison Testing Laboratories,
Listed Mark is proof of product compliance
(electrical, gas and other safety standards)
to North American safety
standards. Authorities Having
Jurisdiction (AHJ’s) in 50 states
and Canada and retailers accept
the ETL Listed Mark as proof of product
safety.
CSA certification CSA Group has the
largest subject area recognition of the
SDOs accredited by the Standards
Council of Canada (SCC), an
organization that coordinates Canada’s
National Standards System. We
maintain our accreditation by
developing consensus standards that
adhere to the requirements established
by the SCC.
An international standard for energy
efficient consumer products originated
in the USA. It was created in 1992 by
the Environmental Protection Agency
and the Department of Energy. Devices
carrying the Energy Star service mark,
such as computer products and
peripherals, kitchen appliances,
buildings and other products, generally
use 20–30% less energy than required
by federal standards.
The FCC was established by the
Communications Act of 1934 and is
charged with regulating interstate and
international communications by radio,
television, wire, satellite, and cable.
All devices that operate at a clock rate
of 9 kHz are required to test their
product to the appropriate FCC Code.
32
8. Glossary

Although power and automation technologies impact our lives on a daily basis, many of the terms
used to describe these fields are not part of everyday vocabulary. The purpose of this glossary is to
provide simple explanations for some of the more commonly used terms.

Actuator: In electrical engineering, the term actuator refers to a mechanism that causes a device to
be turned on or off, adjusted or moved, usually in response to an electrical signal.

Algorithm: A set of (mathematical) instructions or procedures for carrying out a specific task such as
defining the steps taken by an automation system.

Alternating current (AC): Alternating current is a form of electricity in which the current alternates
in direction (and the voltage alternates in polarity) at a frequency defined by the generator (usually
between 50 and 60 times per second, ie, 50 - 60 hertz). AC was adopted for power transmission in the
early days of electricity supply because it had two major advantages over direct current (DC): its
voltage could be stepped up or down according to the need using transformers and it could be interrupted
more easily than DC. Neither advantage is as relevant today as it once was because power electronics
can solve both issues for DC.

Ampere: The standard unit of electrical current.

Arc flash: An arc flash is caused by current flowing between two conducting surfaces and most
commonly occurs in switchgear as a result of faulty equipment or poor work practices. Left unchecked,
arc flashes release a tremendous amount of energy in a high-pressure blast of heat and debris, which
can result in serious injuries to workers and damage to equipment.

Bandwidth: In computing, bandwidth is often a synonym for the rate of information transmitted by a
network connection or interface. For example, a modem’s bandwidth might be described as 56K, which
means it is capable of transmitting 56,000 “bits” of information per second. A bit is the smallest unit of
computerized data, comprising a single binary digit (ie, 1 or 0). 2. Bandwidth in electronic
communication is the difference between the highest- and the lowest-frequency signal in a given
transmission medium. It is measured in hertz (Hz).

Base-load power plant: To maintain power supplies as efficiently as possible, some power stations run
near to full capacity all the time, while others are brought online or increase production temporarily to
meet transient peaks in demand for electricity. The plants that maintain constant levels of production
tend to be those that rely on lower-cost fuels and are known as “base-load” power plants.

Blackout: A complete loss of power resulting from damage or equipment failure in a power station,
power lines or other parts of the power system. A blackout may also be referred to as a power outage
or power failure.

Brownout: A dip in the voltage level of a power system, which can damage electrical equipment or
cause it to under perform, eg, lights dim.

Bus-bar: An electrical conductor that makes a common connection between several circuits.
Sometimes, electrical wire cannot accommodate high-current applications, and electricity must be
33
conducted using a more substantial busbar a thick bar of solid metal (usually copper or aluminum).
Busbars are uninsulated, but are physically supported by insulators. They are used in electrical
substations to connect incoming and outgoing transmission lines and transformers; in a power plant to
connect the generator and the main transformers; in industry, to feed large amounts of electricity to
equipment used in the aluminum smelting process, for example, or to distribute electricity in large
buildings

Cable: is two or more insulated wires wrapped in one jacket

Capacitance: The ability of a device to store an electrical charge (electrical charge is what flows in
electric current). Capacitance is used in many different applications. (See Capacitor.) The unit of
capacitance is the Farad, though it can also be referred to in Coulombs per volt (Coulomb being the
standard unit of electrical charge). The Farad is a very large unit and capacitances are usually on the
order of microfarads, µF (1 µF = 10-6 F) and picofarads, pF (1 pF = 10-12 F).

Capacitor (also referred to as a condenser): A multipurpose device that can store electrical charge in
the form of an electric field. It is used, for example, for power factor correction in (inductive) AC
circuits. Capacitors are used to buffer electricity (smooth out peaks) and to guard against momentary
voltage losses in circuits (when changing batteries for example)

Capacitor bank: A number of capacitors connected in parallel. For example, they are used in the back
converter circuit.

Cascading power failure: A cascade happens when a part of the power grid fails, and shifts its power
load to other elements in the grid. Overloaded, these elements also begin to shut down and shift their
power load onto other elements, and so on. The resulting surge current can induce ongoing failures and
take down an entire power system in a very short time, “cascading” through parts and systems like a
ripple on a pond until the grid collapses.

Charging station: An installation at which an electric vehicle can be plugged into the grid to charge its
battery. There are several types of charging station, including low-voltage, lower current installations
that charge a battery over a period of several hours (for use in homes, for example), and higher-voltage,
higher current fast charging stations for a more rapid service in public places (car parks, public
buildings, etc.).

Circuit breaker: Devices that interrupt high currents to protect electrical equipment from damage
caused by current surges, eg, from a short circuit or a lightning strike. (On a much smaller scale, they
are used as an alternative to fuses in the home.)

Closed Control System (CCS): This is a system used to regulate a process using feedback control (as
opposed to an open control system, which relies on feed forward control). A closed system responds to
actual system conditions with a range of responses. It is slower to react to changes in process conditions
than an open system, but it is more specific in its responses and is able to deal with a broader range of
conditions. An example of closed loop control is a driver steering a car. If the car veers to the left, the
driver steers right to compensate.

Compression train: In the oil and gas industry, the compression train is the entire line of equipment
that contributes to process of compressing gas: It includes valves, scrubbers, coolers and recycling
loops.

34
Conductor: An electrical conductor is any substance through which electrical current can flow. Since
electrical current is a process involving the flow of electrons, how well a material conducts electricity
depends on its atomic structure and chemical consistency. Conductivity also depends on how strong the
bond is between electrons and the metallic ions with which they are associated. The weaker the bond,
the better the conductor. All metals are conductors (copper is a particularly good one). Plastics are not
good conductors, but make good insulators. Semi-conductors are materials whose ability to conduct
electricity can be controlled. Super-conductors, under special conditions, offer no electrical resistance,
so electricity can flow indefinitely. More generally, a conductor refers to a material that can transmit
electricity, heat or sound.

Converter: An electrical device, comprising a rectifier and inverter, used to alter the voltage and
frequency of incoming alternating current in an electrical system. The term may also refer to inverters,
rectifiers or frequency converters. (See also Converter station, Inverter, Rectifier, Frequency converter).

Converter station: Special equipment is needed to convert electricity from alternating current (AC) to
direct current (DC), or vice versa. High-voltage DC (HVDC) converter stations use power electronic
devices called thyristors to make these conversions

Coupling transformer: A coupling transformer is a device that permits two (usually) separate circuits
to influence one another. Such a setup can be desirable for control purposes. It can also be used, for
example, to inject high frequency signals into power lines for communications purposes.

Current: The rate at which electrons flow through a circuit is defined as the current. If an electric circuit
is likened to water flowing through a system of pipes, the current is analogous to the rate at which the
water is flowing. Electric current is measured in amps.

D
DC grid: Today’s electrical transmission systems are almost exclusively based on alternating current
(AC), but the development of high-voltage, direct current (DC) technology has made it possible to build
a DC grid (DC transmission network) that can handle bulk power flows over long distances. Power
from such DC grids can be fed into the AC networks as needed. Overlay DC grids would handle
fluctuations and instability in the network better than AC systems and are a part of the “smart grid”
concept.

Direct current (DC): This is electrical current that does not alternate (see Alternating current), the
electrons flow through the circuit in one direction. As a result, DC does not generate reactive power
(see Reactive Power). This means that, in a DC system, only real (or active) power is transmitted,
making better use of the system’s capacity. In order to transmit electrical power as DC, the alternating
current generated in the power plant must be converted into DC. At the other end of the process, the
DC power must be converted back into AC, and fed into the ACtransmission or distribution network.
The transmission of DC current has very low losses. In the conversion between the two forms of power,
known as rectification, incurs additional power losses and so it is worthwhile only when these losses
are less than would be incurred by AC transmission, ie, over very long distances (~1000 km for
overhead lines, ~100 km for underwater). The other situation in which DC transmission is advantageous
is when connecting asynchronous grids, ie, where adjoining electricity grids have different frequencies
(eg, 50 or 60 Hz, as happens in some parts of Brazil and the United States).
Drive: A drive is an electronic device used to regulate the performance of an electric motor. It works
by controlling the power, frequency and current the motor draws from the grid. Drives (also referred to
as a variable-speed motor drive) can lead to considerable energy savings as most motors are fixed-speed
devices that run at full speed, even when a lower speed would suffice. Many motors are controlled by
“throttling down,” which is equivalent to slowing a car by using the brake, rather than taking your foot
35
off the accelerator, and does not save energy. Reducing a motor’s speed by half using a drive can reduce
the energy it consumes to one-eighth of its consumption at full speed.

Dynamic shunt compensation: A technology used to stabilize voltage by introducing or absorbing

reactive power at specific points of a power transmission grid. The system helps to improve power
transmission capacity as well as the overall stability of the grid. Dynamic shunt compensation is one of
the three main FACTS (Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems) technologies, the others
being series compensation and dynamic energy storage.

E
Electric motor: A device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy that can be used to
drive mechanical equipment.

Electrical drivetrain: In the wind power industry, this term refers to the combination of a wind
turbine’s generator, converter and transformer.

Electricity storage: Electricity is difficult to store. The most effective way to store surplus electricity
in terms of cost and environmental impact is to use it to pump water uphill into the reservoirs of
hydropower plants, a process known as pumped storage. Alternatives include largescale batteries.

Electromagnetic fields: All stationary charged particles are surrounded by an electric field (measured
in volts/ meter). Charged particles in motion (eg, electrons in an electrical current) are also surrounded
by a magnetic field (measured in amps/meter). The combination of an electric field (around the charged
particles) and the magnetic field (generated when the charged particles flow) is known as an
electromagnetic field (sometimes abbreviated to EMF). Radio waves are a form of electromagnetic
radiation. Note: the terms “electric field” and “magnetic field” are not interchangeable.

Emissions: The release or discharge of substances, effluents or pollutants into the environment.

Energy cost effectiveness: This is a key performance indicator used to judge the productivity of a
proves in terms of financial gain per unit of energy consumed.

Energy efficiency: Defined as output energy divided by input energy, and, if necessary, averaged over
time. The electrical efficiency of an appliance is defined as the amount of that energy that is converted
into a useful form, divided by the total energy it draws. For example, an incandescent light bulb (one
with a filament inside the bulb) is said to be inefficient because much of the energy it uses (around 95
percent) is converted into heat rather than light. A fluorescent lamp that works on a different principle
is somewhat more efficient because more of the energy it uses is converted into light and less is lost as
heat (around 80 percent).

Fault-closing device: A system of circuit breakers that serves to contain a fault in a grid, preventing it
from spreading to other areas and causing widespread disruption.

Fault ride-through (FRT): Refers to the ability of an electrical device (such as a wind turbine
converter) to respond to a temporary fault or voltage change in the transmission and distribution grid,
including a zero-voltage dip, and to help the system return to normal operation. Fault ride-through
specifications are part of many grid code requirements.

36
Feeder: Overhead lines or cables that are used to distribute electrical power to consumers. Feeders
connect distribution substations and consumers.

Feedstock: A term that refers to crude oil, natural gas liquids, natural gas or other materials used as raw
ingredients for making gasoline, other refined products or chemicals.

Frequency converter (frequency changer): this term most commonly refers to a device used to adjust
the frequency of alternating current. Frequency converters are a central component in variable-speed
drives to control the speed, torque or power on the shaft of an electric motor by adjusting the frequency
and voltage of the electricity powering the machine. Frequency converters are used to control the
rotational speed of wind turbines to stabilize the frequency of the electricity they produce.

Generator: A device that converts rotating mechanical movement into electric power. The current
generated can be either alternating (AC) or direct (DC). ABB manufactures a range of generators,
including wind-turbine generators. In a simple AC generator, a loop of wire is placed between the poles
of a permanent magnet. The magnet is then rotated and the electromotive force produced by the
movement of the electric field causes a current to flow in the wire. This is the principle of the
synchronous motor and big generators in power plants. A DC generator operates on the same principle
as the AC generator, but includes a device (a commutator), which effectively prevents the current from
alternating.

Grid code: This term refers to the requirements developed by power utilities that power generators of
all kinds must meet to ensure the proper functioning and stability of the electrical transmission and
distribution grid. that define grid fault and other conditions that must be responded to by wind power
plants. These include regulations such as n-1 and fault ride-through capabilities (see n-1 and Fault ride-
through)

Harmonics: Generally, harmonics are oscillations in the base power frequency. In electrical AC
systems, the base frequency is typically 50 or 60 hertz (Hz) and harmonics occur in multiples of this,
for example 100 Hz, 150 Hz, 200 Hz, etc. where the base frequency is 50 Hz. Harmonics occur
whenever there is a disturbance of the voltage or current, eg, if the current is interrupted or if AC current
is synthesized in a converter. The problem with harmonics is that electrical devices may react differently
when exposed to a different frequency than the one they are designed for, which may cause damage.
Harmonics are an increasing problem in power systems as most power electronics solutions cause
harmonics. Harmonics can be reduced by the use of power filters.

High-current transients: Short spikes of high electrical current in a grid, caused by lightning strikes,
or rapid switching of electrical devices in the grid, especially capacitors. These transients, or surges,
cause cables to overheat, potentially damaging insulation and leading to short circuits. Equipment can
be protected from high current transients by using a surge protector.

High-voltage direct current (HVDC): A technology developed by ABB in the 1950s to move large
amounts of power over substantial distances - typically by overhead transmission lines, but also by way
of submarine cables. Transmitting DC power over long distances is more efficient than AC transmission
and is a cost-effective method of connecting two asynchronous grids (grids operating at different
frequencies). An HVDC system takes electrical power from an AC network, converts it to DC at a
converter station and transmits it to the receiving point by line or cable, where it is turned back into AC
by using another converter. The conversion is carried out with high-power, high-voltage electronic
37
semiconductor valves. These valves are controlled by a computer system, so the amount of transmitted
power and also the direction of transmitted power can be precisely controlled, a feature unique to HVDC
systems. Another important aspect of HVDC lines is that they can never be overloaded. Because HVDC
transmits only active (real) power, no line capacity is wasted on transmitting reactive power. This means
that the same power can be transmitted over fewer (or smaller) transmission lines than would be
required using AC, and less land is needed to accommodate the lines. HVDC induces minimal magnetic
fields, so the power lines may be built safely closer to human habitation.

HVSC: High-voltage shore connections enable ships to draw electricity from onshore power grids while
in port to operate onboard equipment such as lighting, cooling and heating systems, instead of burning
fuel oil to run onboard generators. For a large cruise ship on a 10-hour stay in port, a shore connection
can cut fuel consumption by up to 20 tons and reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 60 tons.

I/O(Input/output): A device that enables communication between electronic equipment and external
devices, including human operators. Examples of I/O devices include computer keyboards, printers,
sensors and all type of interface cards.

IEC 61850: The International Electrotechnical Commission IEC standard for substation automation
replaces a great many communication protocols that require the use of use protocol converters, which
are basically “translators” that help electronic devices using different machine languages transmit
information to each other. The problem is that protocol converters can cause messaging errors and
delays. A single communication standard for substation automation removes the need for “translators,”
helps customers lower maintenance and operating costs, and makes installations easier to expand or
modify.

Instrumentation: Electronic or electromechanical devices, often referred to as meters, used to measure

the flow, level, temperature and pressure of processes in different industrial applications. They monitor
processes in power generation, manufacturing and refining plants. Information collected by various
instruments is processed by analyzers and used to assess performance, sending alerts if readings are not
as expected.

Insulator: A material that does not conduct electric current, such as plastic, some kinds of silicon or
glass. The term can also refer to a material that does not conduct heat. For clarity, the terms thermal
insulator and electrical insulator may be used.

Integration of renewable energy: Feeding electricity from intermittent sources of energy such as wind
and solar into the power network without causing any disturbance to the power supply.

Inverter: An electrical device for converting direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC).

ISO 9000: International standards for quality assurance set by the International Standards Organization.
It includes some 20 elements of quality process performance, and is a prerequisite for delivering
predictable, quality products to customers.
ISO 14000: International standards for environmental management systems set by the International
Standards Organization.

Load: A load in electrical terms is the power consumed by a device or a circuit. Load is also used to
describe the total of all electricity consumers in a power system.
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Load management: Controlling loads in a utility system to limit peak demand, reduce costs, improve
load factor, or in some other way improve the stability and reliability of electrical power distribution.

Loop flow: Inadvertent transmission of power through an unnecessary diversion in the transmission
network. It is undesirable because it serves no purpose and incurs losses.

Machines, electric: Motors and generators are collectively referred to as “machines” or “electric
machines.” Motors are machines that convert electrical energy into mechanical work in the form of a
rotating shaft, while generators convert the mechanical work of a rotating shaft into electricity. The
speed of a “synchronous” machine, ie, the rate at which its shaft rotates, is dictated by the frequency of
electricity in the grid to which it is connected. The speed of a synchronous machine is accurately
predictable. This means that it maintains its speed irrespective of the load placed on it. Because
synchronous motors can maintain a particular speed with extreme accuracy, they are used in
performance-critical applications such as mechanical clocks and DVD drives. Synchronous generators
are commonly used in power plants, where their predictable, consistent performance helps to maintain
the quality and reliability of power supplies. Synchronous generators are also referred to as alternators.
The speed of an asynchronous machine is slightly slower than the frequency of the electricity it
consumes or generates. Asynchronous motors slow down as their load increases and asynchronous
generators change speed with the torque (rotational force) that is applied to their rotors. Asynchronous
machines are also referred to as induction motors/generators.

Megawatt (MW): One million watts. One megawatt would be needed to light 10,000 one-hundred-
watt light bulbs. If those bulbs were powered for 1 hour, 1 MWh of electrical power would be used.

Network control: Network control systems monitor and control the electricity network to keep power
flowing and to preserve the balance between power generation and consumption.

Network management: A system that uses network control and asset management to oversee all
aspects (operational and maintenance) of a network.

Ohm: Unit of electrical resistance. If a 1 volt source is connected to a wire with a resistance of 1 ohm,
then 1 ampere of electric current will flow.

Optimization: The process of making a system as near to perfect or as effective as possible.

Parallel: Electrical components that are connected in such a way that the flow of electricity can take
multiple, or parallel, paths through the circuit are said to be connected “in parallel” or “in shunt,” as
opposed to “in series.” If one of the components in a parallel circuit was to fail, the electricity would
continue to flow through an alternative path.

Power factor: Power factor is the ratio of real power to reactive power in an electric circuit and a
measure of whether the system’s voltage and current are “in phase.” When no reactive power is present,

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voltage and current are in phase and the power factor is 1. This is the ideal for power transmission, but
is practically impossible to attain. Variation in power factor is caused by different types of electrical
devices connected to the grid that consume or generate reactive power

Power factor correction (reactive power compensation): Depending on the type of equipment a
consumer connects to the electricity supply (whether there is a net consumption or generation of reactive
power), power factor varies. Unless this variation is corrected, higher currents are drawn from the grid,
leading to grid instability, higher costs and reduced transmission capacity. Most utilities impose
penalties on consumers who fail to correct errant power factors.

Process automation: The term process automation is used to refer to an automation system, the
principal purpose of which is to automate or support the operator of a manufacturing process. Such a
process can be the manufacturing or treatment of any goods made in a continuous or quasi-continuous
manner such as fuel, paper, cement, steel, chemicals, food.

Programmable logic controller (PLC, or programmable controller): These are electronic devices
used to control equipment, especially in automation. They are small, programmable units that can
receive information from output devices, such as sensors in a control system, and transmit signals to
input devices, such as actuators, that can effect changes in the control system.

Reactive power: It is a concept that describes the loss of power in a system resulting from the
production of electric and magnetic fields in it. Reactive loads in a power system drop voltage and draw
current, which creates the impression that they are using up power, when they are not. This “imaginary
power” or “phantom power” is called reactive power, and is measured in Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR).
Reactive power is significant because it must be provided and maintained to ensure continuous, steady
voltage on transmission networks. Reactive power is produced for maintenance of the system, and not
for end-use consumption. If elements of the power grid cannot get the reactive power they need from
nearby sources, they will pull it across transmission lines and destabilize the grid. In this way, poor
management of reactive power can cause major blackouts.

Real time: In business, a system is described as real-time if it will operate in a deterministic manner,
ie, it will respond to an input within a defined time limit. For example, safety-relevant systems must
always respond within pre-determined time limits. Many automation applications are also real-time, as
unpredictable response times and reaction delays would effectively destabilize the process. To ensure a
system is real-time, it must fulfill stringent demands with both hardware and software design.

Rectifier: An electrical device used to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC).

Relays: 1. A switch that can be operated remotely. 2. Control and protection relays are switches used
to signal and control the operation of electrical equipment and systems. They include electronic and
electromechanical relays and components; high-voltage protection, substation control and
communications; automated substation components; and distribution relays.

Resistance: Cables and electrical devices resist the movement of electrons that constitute the current
passing through them. This is known as electrical resistance and is measured in Ohms. If an electric
circuit is likened to water flowing through a system of pipes, the resistance in a wire is analogous to the
restriction of the water flow imposed by the diameter of the water pipe, or any obstacles within the pipe.

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Resistor: A resistor is any electrical component that resists the flow of electrical current. Resistors can
be used to control current and therefore protect a circuit from overload. Resistors are also an important
component in instrumentation and are used together with capacitors in power filters to eliminate
unwanted harmonics.

SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition): A SCADA system is a computer system that
gathers and analyses data on equipment and processes in industrial processing plants such as pulp and
paper mills, oil refineries and water treatment facilities. It may perform other functions in power
networks, such as load management, load curtailment and restoration, distribution automation, and
facilities management functions.

Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material whose electrical properties can be significantly

influenced by physical factors (mostly electrical conditions, but also pressure, temperature, light, etc).
This means that a semiconductor will behave either as an insulator or a conductor of electricity,
depending on the conditions to which it is exposed.

Series: Electrical components that are connected in an unbranched line are said to be “in series,” as
opposed to “in parallel” or “in shunt.” If any one of the components in a series circuit was to fail, the
circuit would be broken and no electricity would flow.

Short circuit: An electric contact between parts of an electric circuit, which causes a very high current,
increases in temperature and potentially fire, if the circuit is not properly protected. This can occur if
two live wires come into contact with each other, perhaps because of worn insulation. The term is also
used when defining the safe operating conditions for electrical devices. If a device is said to have a
short-circuit resilience of 400 amps (A), that means that it can be subjected to up to 400 A before it will
shut itself down.

Three-phase power: A form of electricity used to supply heavy loads (power-hungry electrical
equipment) such as industrial air conditioning units, grinding machines etc. Almost all power is
generated as three-phase and, with the exception of HVDC, most transmission lines are three-phase.
Three-phase is a more efficient way of delivering heavy loads and the three-phase motors it supplies
are more efficient, smaller and cheaper to build than their single-phase counterparts. Wiring is
simplified because no neutral return path is provided. Residential premises, however, are supplied with
single-phase power.

Thyristor: A thyristor is a semiconductor device used in electrical systems, such as HVDC

installations, as a high-speed, high-power switch, capable of turning power supplies of many megawatts
on within a split second. Thyristors are a component used in inverters and rectifiers.

Traction motor: A traction motor is typically used to power the driving wheels of a railroad
locomotive, a tram or an electric train, like a subway or light rail vehicle. There is usually one traction
motor on each driven axle. Traction motors differ from other motors in the scale of their design. They
must be extremely compact, because of the limited space available on the locomotives, and highly
reliable as there is no room for any backup systems.

Traction substation: A substation used to feed power into railway electrification systems.

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Traction transformer: This is a fundamental component of a rail locomotive’s traction chain. It adapts
the catenary (overhead) voltage to the various low voltage levels needed by the train, mainly for traction,
but also for lighting, heating and ventilation, passenger information and safety systems such as door
blocking, brakes, signaling and communication. The traction transformer is the unique energy transfer
point between high voltage (HV) and low voltage (LV) and therefore must achieve the highest
availability and reliability levels to guarantee uninterrupted train service.

Transformer: A transformer is a device used to transfer energy from one AC circuit to another and to
increase (step up) or reduce (step down) voltage as required. Transformers are an essential component
in an electrical grid. Electricity generated in a power station must be stepped up to the appropriate
voltage for transmission (between 100 and 800 kV) and then stepped down again to the distribution
voltage (110 - 230 V), which is delivered to homes. Note that the voltage of DC cannot be transformed
in the same way as it can for AC.

Volt: standard unit of electrical “pressure” in a circuit.

Voltage (potential difference): The voltage between two points in an electrical circuit is a measure of
the potential difference, or the force, that is pushing electrons between these two points. It is analogous
to water pressure in a water system. Voltage is measured in volts, and is directly proportional to the
current and resistance of a circuit: V=IR, where V = potential difference in volts, I = current in amperes
(amps) and R = resistance in ohms. This is Ohm’s law.

Voltage drop: A voltage drop is a reduction in the force that “pushes” current through a circuit. Under
these conditions, resistive loads, such as light bulbs, will give suboptimal performance- lights will
flicker or become dimmer because less current is flowing. Inductive loads, such as motors, respond to
voltage drops by working harder to obtain the same power, which can cause overheating, increased
operating costs and the risk of equipment failure. Devices such as computers often have sensors that
warn of suboptimal voltage or excess heating and will shut down automatically in response to a voltage
drop.

Voltage rating: The maximum voltage that can be applied to an electronic device.

Watt (W): Standard unit of electrical power (1 watt = 1 amp at 1 volt). The watt is also a general unit
of power. One watt = 1 joule per second.

Watt hour (Wh): 1 watt hour is the amount of electrical energy consumed by a 1 watt load over a
period of one hour. For example, a 100 watt light bulb (a 100 watt load) uses 100 watt-hours of energy
every hour. Rather confusingly, watt-hours are sometimes used to describe “power.” This is incorrect.
Watt-hours are a measure of energy transferred, ie, the product of power (kW) x time (hours). Confusion
can also arise when describing electricity generation. For example, a wind farm described as “150 MW”
has a peak power output of 150 MW. If the farm was 100 percent efficient, it would transfer 150 MW
x 24 hours = 3600 MWh to the electricity grid every day. Because of various inefficiencies and the fact
that wind blows erratically, wind turbines are actually only about 30 percent efficient. This means that
150 MW (theoretical maximum) x 24 h (number of hours in a day) x 30 percent (efficiency) = 1080
MWh will be produced each day. Cables can also be described as, for example, 350 MW. This is the
capacity of the cable, ie, the maximum amount of power it can carry. In an hour, a 350 MW cable could
(theoretically) deliver 350 MWh of electricity.

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Wire: a wire is a single conductor (material most commonly being copper or aluminum)

9. References
ABB Glossary: Glossary of technical terms

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