APPLICATIONS OF THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM

WILLIAM A. LAMPE

Definition 1. Let f be a function and S be a set of numbers. We say f is increasing on

S iff f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 and x1 , x2 are in S. We say f is decreasing on S iff
f (x1 ) > f (x2 ) whenever x1 < x2 and x1 , x2 are in S.
Definition 2. We define the interior I o of an interval I as follows, where a < b.
[a, b]o = (a, b) (a, b)o = (a, b)
(a, b]o = (a, b) [a, b)o = (a, b)
(−∞, b]o = (−∞, b) [a, ∞)o = (a, ∞)
(−∞, b)o = (−∞, b) (a, ∞)o = (a, ∞)
Theorem 1. Suppose the function f is continuous on the interval I and differentiable on
its interior I o .
(1) If f ′ (x) = 0 for all x in I o , then f is constant on I.
(2) If f ′ (x) > 0 for all x in I o , then f is increasing on I.
(3) If f ′ (x) < 0 for all x in I o , then f is decreasing on I.
The somewhat awkward statement of this Theorem produces stronger conclusions than the
more common version. For example, if f is continuous on [1, 2] and has a positive derivative
on (1, 2), then our Theorem says f is increasing on the closed interval [1, 2] while the usual
version would only conclude that f is increasing on the open interval (1, 2).

Proof. We suppose the function f is continuous on the interval I and differentiable on its
interior I o .
Case 1. Here we suppose f ′ (x) = 0 for all x in I o . Let x1 , x2 be in I with x1 < x2 . So
the closed interval [x1 , x2 ] is contained in I, and the open interval (x1 , x2 ) is contained in
I o . So f is continuous on [x1 , x2 ] and differentiable on (x1 , x2 ). So the Mean Value Theorem
applies. So there is c between x1 and x2 , with
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
= f ′ (c) = 0
x2 − x1
and we get the last equality since c is in I o since c is between x1 and x2 , and they are in the
interval I. So f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = 0 and f (x2 ) = f (x1 ). Since x1 and x2 were arbitrary members
of I with x1 < x2 , this means f is constant on I.
1
 APPLICATIONS OF THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 2

Case 2. Here we suppose f ′ (x) > 0 for all x in I o . Let x1 , x2 be in I with x1 < x2 . (We aim
to show f (x1 ) < f (x2 ).) So the closed interval [x1 , x2 ] is contained in I, and the open interval
(x1 , x2 ) is contained in I o . So f is continuous on [x1 , x2 ] and differentiable on (x1 , x2 ). So
the Mean Value Theorem applies. So there is c between x1 and x2 , with
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
= f ′ (c) > 0
x2 − x1
and we get the last inequality since c is in I o as above. Since x2 − x1 > 0, we multiply the
inequality by x2 − x1 , and we now have f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) > 0 and f (x2 ) > f (x1 ). Since x1 and
x2 were arbitrary members of I with x1 < x2 , this means f is increasing on I.
Case 3. Here we suppose f ′ (x) < 0 for all x in I o . Let x1 , x2 be in I with x1 < x2 . (We aim
to show f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).) So the closed interval [x1 , x2 ] is contained in I, and the open interval
(x1 , x2 ) is contained in I o . So f is continuous on [x1 , x2 ] and differentiable on (x1 , x2 ). So
the Mean Value Theorem applies. So there is c between x1 and x2 , with
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
= f ′ (c) < 0
x2 − x1
and we get the last inequality since c is in I o as above. Since x2 − x1 > 0, we multiply the
inequality by x2 − x1 , and we now have f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) < 0 and f (x2 ) < f (x1 ). Since x1 and
x2 were arbitrary members of I with x1 < x2 , this means f is decreasing on I.
This ends the proof of the theorem. 
Remark. If there are numbers a, b, c, with a < c < b and such that f is increasing on (a, c]
and decreasing on [c, b), then f (c) is a local maximum value!
If there are numbers a, b, c, with a < c < b and such that f is decreasing on (a, c] and
increasing on [c, b), then f (c) is a local minimum value!
Example 1. Problem. f (x) = x3 − 3x + 2. Find where f is increasing and decreasing. Find
all local extrema. Sketch the graph.

f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 3 = 3(x2 − 1) = 3(x + 1)(x − 1).

So f ′ (x) = 0 iff x = −1 or 1.
If x < −1, then x − 1 < x + 1 < 0, and so f ′ (x) = 3(x + 1)(x − 1) > 0.
If −1 < x < 1, then x − 1 < 0 < x + 1, and so f ′ (x) = 3(x + 1)(x − 1) < 0.
If 1 < x, then 0 < x − 1 < x + 1, and so f ′ (x) = 3(x + 1)(x − 1) > 0.
That is, f ′ (x) > 0 on (−∞, −1), and f ′ (x) < 0 on (−1, 1), and f ′ (x) > 0 on (1, +∞).
Now the Theorem tells us that
f is increasing on (−∞, −1], f is decreasing on [−1, 1], and f is increasing on [1, +∞).
This latter information tells us that
f (−1) is a local maximum value, and
f (1) is a local minimum value.
f (−1) = −1 + 3 + 2 = 4 and f (1) = 1 − 3 + 2 = 0.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 3

10

K2 K1 0 1 2
x
K2
K4
K6

Figure 1. The graph of x3 − 3x + 2

Example 2. Problem. f (x) = (x2 − 1)2 . Find where f is increasing and decreasing. Find
all local extrema. Sketch the graph.

f ′ (x) = 2(x2 − 1)(2x) = 4x(x2 − 1) = 4(x + 1)x(x − 1).

So f ′ (x) = 0 iff x = −1, 0, or 1.
If x < −1, then x − 1 < x < x + 1 < 0, and so f ′ (x) = 4(x + 1)x(x − 1) < 0.
If −1 < x < 0, then x − 1 < x < 0 < x + 1, and so f ′ (x) = 4(x + 1)x(x − 1) > 0.
If 0 < x < 1, then x − 1 < 0 < x < x + 1, and so f ′ (x) = 4(x + 1)x(x − 1) < 0.
If 1 < x, then 0 < x − 1 < x < x + 1, and so f ′ (x) = 4(x + 1)x(x − 1) > 0.
That is, f ′ (x) < 0 on (−∞, −1), and f ′ (x) > 0 on (−1, 0), and f ′ (x) < 0 on (0, 1), and
f ′ (x) > 0 on (1, +∞).
Now the Theorem tells us that
f is decreasing on (−∞, −1],
f is increasing on [−1, 0],
f is decreasing on [0, 1], and
f is increasing on [1, +∞).
This latter information tells us that
f (−1) is a local minimum value, and
f (0) is a local maximum value, and
f (1) is a local minimum value.
f (−1) = ((−1)2 − 1)2 = 02 = 0 = f (1) and f (0) = (−1)2 = 1.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 4

y 2

K2 K1 0 1 2
x

K1

Figure 2. The graph of (x2 − 1)2

Example 3. Problem. f (x) = 3x4 − 16x3 + 24x2 − 10. Find where f is increasing and
decreasing. Find all local extrema. Sketch the graph.

f ′ (x) = 12x3 − 48x2 + 48x = 12x(x2 − 4x + 4) = 12x(x − 2)2 .

So f ′ (x) = 0 iff x = 0, or 2.
Note that (x − 2)2 > 0 except when x = 2.
If x < 0, then x < 0 and x 6= 2, and so f ′ (x) = 12x(x − 2)2 < 0.
If 0 < x < 2, then 0 < x and x 6= 2, and so f ′ (x) = 12x(x − 2)2 > 0.
If 2 < x, then 0 < x and x 6= 2, and so f ′ (x) = 12x(x − 2)2 > 0.
That is, f ′ (x) < 0 on (−∞, 0), and f ′ (x) > 0 on (0, 2), and f ′ (x) > 0 on (2, +∞).
Now the Theorem tells us that
f is decreasing on (−∞, 0],
f is increasing on [0, 2], and
f is increasing on [2, +∞).
Since the latter two intervals overlap at 2, we have that f is increasing on [0, +∞).
This latter information tells us that
f (0) is a local and absolute minimum value.
f has no local maxima.
f (0) = −10 and f (2) = 3 · 16 − 16 · 8 + 24 · 4 − 10 = −5 · 16 + 6 · 16 − 10 = 16 − 10 = 6.
 APPLICATIONS OF THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 5

15

10

K1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x

K5

K10

Figure 3. The graph of 3x4 − 16x3 + 24x2 − 10

Example 4. If f (x) = x1 , then f ′ (x) = −1

x2
< 0 for all x 6= 0. f is continuous on (−∞, 0)
and on (0, ∞). So by the Theorem, f is decreasing on (−∞, 0) and on (0, ∞).

4
y

K6 K4 K2 0 2 4 6
x

K2

K4

K6

Figure 4. The graph of 1/x

Warning. f (x) = x1 is NOT decreasing on (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) because, for example, f (−1) =
−1 < 1 = f (1), but if it were decreasing on (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) we should instead have
f (−1) > f (1).
 APPLICATIONS OF THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 6

You know that

d 2 d 2 d 2 d 2 √ d 2
2x = (x ) = (x − 1) = (x + 17) = (x + 2) = (x + C)
dx dx dx dx dx
where C is any constant. Is there any other sort of solution to
dy
= 2x?
dx
The next Theorem says, “No, there is not.”
Theorem 2. Suppose the functions f and g are continuous on the interval I. If f ′ (x) = g ′ (x)
for all x in its interior I o , then there is a constant C so that
g(x) = f (x) + C for all x in I.
Proof. Suppose f and g are as in the hypotheses. Set h(x) = g(x) − f (x). Then h is
continuous on I, and h′ (x) = g ′ (x) − f ′ (x) = f ′ (x) − f ′ (x) = 0 for any x in I o . Now by (1)
of Theorem 1 h is constant on I; i.e., there is a constant C so that g(x) − f (x) = h(x) = C
for all x in I. That is, g(x) = f (x) + C for all x in I. 
Definition 3. F is an antiderivative of f on the interval I if F is continuous on I and
F ′ (x) = f (x) for all x in I o .
Proposition 4. If n is constant, any antiderivative of xn equals
xn+1
+ C, for n 6= −1
n+1
for some constant C.
Proof.  
xn+1
d n+1 1
= (n + 1)xn+1−1 = xn .
dx n+1
Now apply Theorem 2. 
x5
Example 5. Any antiderivative of x4 equals 5 + C for some constant C, and any antideriv-
ative of x−4 equals x−3 + C for some constant C.
−3

Example 6. Any antiderivative of cos x equals sin x + C for some constant C, and any
antiderivative of sin x equals − cos x + C for some constant C because
d
dx
(− cos x) = − − sin x = sin x.
Proposition 5. If F and G are antiderivatives of f and g, respectively, and c is a real
number, then
• F + G is an antiderivative of f + g, and
• cF is an antiderivative of cf .
 APPLICATIONS OF THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 7

Proof.
d d
(F (x) + G(x)) = F ′ (x) + G′ (x) = f (x) + g(x) and (cF (x)) = cF ′ (x) = cf (x).
dx dx

Example 7. Problem: Given f ′ (x) = 5x4 + 6x3 − 5x2 + 11 and f (0) = −3, find f .
Using the previous two Propositions (and Theorem 2), we see that
6x4 5x3
f (x) = x5 + − + 11x + C and − 3 = f (0) = 0 + 0 − 0 + 0 + C = C
4 3
and so f (x) = x5 + 32 x4 − 53 x3 + 11x − 3.

Now we use the above propositions to derive some laws of physics about a freely falling
body near the earth’s surface.
In what follows a is acceleration, v is velocity, and p is position.
We start with the understanding that a freely falling body near the earth’s surface expe-
riences a constant acceleration of 32 feet per second per second. That is,
a(t) = −32, but v ′ (t) = a(t).
So
v(t) = −32t + C.
Since v(0) = 0 + C = C, we replace C by the constant v0 (which denotes initial velocity.)
That is,
v(t) = −32t + v0 , but p′ (t) = v(t).
So
p(t) = −16t2 + v0 t + D.
Since p(0) = 0 + D = D, we replace D by the constant p0 (which denotes initial position.)
That is,
p(t) = −16t2 + v0 t + p0
where v0 is the velocity at time 0 and p0 is the position at time 0.
Example 8. A ball is thrown upward at a speed of 16 ft./sec. from the edge of a cliff 96
feet above the ground below. The ball is thrown so that it lands below. How long is it till
the ball hits the ground below?
We are given that p0 = 96 and v0 = 16, and so p(t) = −16t2 + 16t + 96. We seek the
solution to 0 = p(t); that is, we seek the solution to 0 = −16t2 + 16t + 96 = −16(t2 − t − 6) =
−16(t − 3)(t + 2). So t = 3 (or −2, but we ignore −2 since that is a time before the ball was
thrown).
 APPLICATIONS OF THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 8
Z
Definition 6. f (x) dx is the family of all antiderivatives of f and is called the indefinite
integral of f .
Theorem 2 says any two antiderivatives of f (x) differ by a constant. So we have the
Z
Proposition 7. If F is any antiderivative of f , then f (x) dx = F (x) + C.

The Propositions 4 and 5 above can be restated as follows.

Corollary
Z 8. Suppose f Zand g have antiderivatives
Z and c is a number.
(1) (f (x) + g(x))dx = f (x) dx + g(x) dx.
Z Z
(2) cf (x) dx = c f (x) dx.
xn+1
Z
(3) If n is constant, xn dx = + C, for n 6= −1.
n+1
x3 x2
Z Z Z Z
2 2
Example 9. (5x + 3x + 4)dx = 5 x dx + 3 x dx + 4 1 dx = 5 + 3 + 4x + C.
3 2
Z Z
Also note that cos x dx = sin x + C and sin x dx = − cos x + C because d sin
dx
x
= cos x
d (− cos x)
and because dx
= − − sin x = sin x, etc.

Some Indefinite Integrals

Z Z
cos x dx = sin x + C sin x dx = − cos x + C
Z Z
2
sec x dx = tan x + C csc2 x dx = − cot x + C
Z Z
sec x tan x dx = sec x + C csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C

xn+1
Z
xn dx = + C for n 6= −1
n+1