Physical Education

Class 12 Notes
Yoga and Lifestyle
Asana as Preventive Measures
Asana refer to the many positions in which a person sits or stands to do yoga. It is a
Sanskrit word which means a ‘physical posture’. Various types of physical postures or
asanas means bending and stretching the body. This stimulates blood circulation, balance
the nervous system, benefits the various systems running in our body like digestive
system, nervous system, cardiovascular system, muscles, joints etc. Asanas are beneficial
for the mind, psyche and chakras (energy centres) thus preventing from many types of
lifestyle diseases. Asanas also help in receiving stress, treating anxiety and make a person
mentally rejuvenated.
Obesity
The excess weight or deposition of excess fats on body is called obesity. It leads to various
diseases like diabetes, heart diseases, hypertension, lowered pulmonary functions, lowers
life expectancy. Obesity is a condition where your Body Mass Index (BMI) is higher than
30.
There are various reasons of obesity such as lack of proper exercise, eating habits,
psychological factors, endocrine glands problems, familial tendency. Males are at high risk
during age 29 to 35 and females are at risk during the age 45 to 49. The risk increases
with age. Various asanas can be practised effectively to reduce the weight, control obesity
and achieve normal healthy condition of body and mind. The major asanas to control
obesity are Vajrasana, Hastasana, Trikonasana and Ardha Matsyendrasana.
Their procedures, benefits and contraindications are listed below

Vajrasana [Thunderbolt Pose]

Procedure

• It is done in sitting posture.

• Stand on the knees with the lower legs , together and stretched backwards,, the two .
big toes crossing each other.
• Lower the body and sit on your heels. Rest your buttocks on the heels and the thighs
on the calf muscles.
• Keep the hands on the knees and keep the head straight.
• Concentrate on breathing, start inhalation and exhalation.
Benefits
 • Vajrasana modifies the blood flow in the lower pelvic region. It increases the.
efficiency of the digestive system.
• It helps to prevent acidity and ulcers by improving the digestion.
• It is a good meditative pose for those suffering from sciatica and severe lower back
problems.
• Supta Vajrasana strengthens the muscles in back, neck and chest regions. It expands
the chest and is good for lung problems.

Contraindications

• Vajrasana should not be practised by those suffering from severe knee pain.
• This asana should be avoided by recent surgery patients of legs or waist.
• If feel any pain in the ankles during Vajrasana, release the pose and massage the
ankle with the hands.

Hastasana
Procedure

• Hastasana is done in a standing posture. Start with standing in Tadasana and twist
the arms in a way that the palms are positioned away from the torso along with
thumbs facing backward. Inhale and along with it brush away your arms out and
towards the roof.
• Bring the arms parallel to one another and then without bending the shoulders push
the palms , tightly together.
• Expand the elbows completely and reach upwards. Then slightly slant your head
backwards and look at the thumbs.
• The shoulder blades need to be slithered down the spine
• Exhale along with tilting the torso towards the front from the joints of the hip into
standing in a forward bending position.

Benefits

• It stretches the complete body and provides a good massage to the arms, spine, upper
and lower back, ankles, hands, shoulders, calf muscles and thighs.
• It stretches the Organs of the stomach, and as a result enhances the digestive system
and increases the capacity of the lungs.
• This asana helps in enhancing the blood circulation of the body.
• It helps in enhancing the body postures.
• It helps in alleviating nervousness and melancholy along with providing asenSe of
Achievement.
• It helps in tightening the abdomen and helps in easing sciatica.
Contraindications
In case of shoulder or neck injuries, experiencing dizziness’ While staring’upwards and in
case of any other medical concerns.

Trikonasana [Triangle Pose]

Procedure

• This is done in a standing posture.

• Stand erect with feet about 3 feet apart with knees straight.
• Raise both the hands till they are in line with each other, parallel to the ground.
Inhale when you are raising the hands.
• Now bend towards the right and slightly bend the knees and touch the right foot with
the hands. Look up at the left hand. Exhale when you are bending down to touch the
foot. Keep the eyes open throughout the practice.
• Return to the standing position.
• Repeat this with the left hand touching the left foot.
• Practise as many rounds as is comfortable.

Beneits

• Strengthens the legs, knees, ankles, arms and chest.

• Stretches and opens the lower back region, groin area, hamstrings, calves, shoulders,
chest and spine.
• Increases mental and physical equilibrium.
• Helps improve digestion.
• Reduces anxiety, stress, back pain and sciatica Contraindications.
• Avoid doing this if suffering from migraine, diarrhoea, neck and back injuries.
• Those with high blood pressure may do this pose but without raising their hand
overhead, as this may further raise the blood pressure.

Ardha Matsyendrasana (Half Spinal Twist Pose]

Procedure

• This is done in a sitting posture.

• Sit with legs straight and stretched in front of you.
• Bend the right leg, lift it and place it on the left side of the stretched left foot.
• Bend the left leg and bring close to the body. Place it under the right buttocks.
• Take the left arm around the right leg and grab the toes of the right leg with the left
hand.
• Now turn towards the right and simultaneously move the right hand behind the back.
Twist the back and the neck as far right as possible. Exhale while twisting the back
and neck.
• Breathe normally and slowly in this position.
 • Repeat with the other leg.

Benefits

• It is one of the best poses to improve the flexibility of the spine.

• It stimulates the liver and kidneys.
• It stretches the shoulders, hips and neck.
• It energises the spine.
• It stimulates the digestive fire in the belly.
• It relieves menstrual discomfort, fatigue, sciatica and backache.
• It is therapeutic for asthma and infertility.

Contraindications

• Avoid during pregnancy and menstruation due to the strong twist in the abdomen.
• People with heart, abdominal or brain surgeries should avoid this asana.
• Avoid those who are having peptic ulcer or hernia.
• Those with severe spinal problems should avoid.
• Those with mild slipped disc can benefit but in severe cases it should be avoided.

Diabetes
Diabetes is a better known lifestyle disease. It has become an epidemic worldwide. Yoga
helps a lot to control and prevent this disease. Different asanas help to stimulate the
production of insuline that helps in controlling diabetes. The asanas to control diabetes
are

Bhujangasana Procedure

• This is done in lying posture.

• Lie on the stomach and rest forehead on the floor.
• Keep the feet and toes together and touch the ground. Place the hands at shoulder
level and palms on floor.
• Inhale and lift the head, chest, abdomen and keep the navel on the floor take five
breaths at least.
• Exhale slowly come down to rest with hands below the head slowly.

Benefits
• It improves the blood circulation and energises the heart.
• It decreases menstrual irregularities in females.
• It strengthens muscles of chest, shoulders, arms and abdomen.
• It is effective in uterine disorder.
• It improves the function of reproductive organ.
• It improves the function of liver, kidney, pancreas and gall bladder.
 • It helps to lose weight.
• It relieves menstrual discomfort and improves fertility.
• It reduces headache, anxiety, insomnia and sinusitis.
• It reduces abdominal fats and helps metabolism.

Contraindications

• Pregnant women should avoid this asana.

• Avoid those who are suffering from slip disc or sciatica problem and asthma.
• Ulcer patients also avoid this asana.
• Avoid during pregnancy.
• People having a hernia problem and backache should not do this asana.
• Avoid those who are suffering from ulcer, heart problem or any surgeries like spine
and brain.

Paschimottanasana
Procedure

• This is done in sitting posture.

• Sit on the floor with the outstretched legs.
• Inhale and lengthen the abdomen then lift the chest.
• Exhale bend forwards from the hips. Keep the shoulders open and the head up.
• Reach forwards and hold the big toes in a lock with the middle and index fingers.
• Inhale, lengthen the torso, bring the sternum forward.
• Exhale, bring the chest and abdomen down to the thighs and the elbows out to the
sides.
• Stay in this position for 5 deep breaths and relax the muscles while exhale.
• Focus on stretching the hamstrings rather than getting the head to the knees.
Benefits
• It stretches hamstrings, spine, shoulders and hip joints.
• It massages the pancreas and improves
• It relieves menstrual discomfort and improves fertility.
• It reduces headache, anxiety, insomnia and sinusitis.
• It reduces abdominal fats and helps metabolism.
Contraindications
• Pregnant women should avoid this asana.
• Avoid those who are suffering from slip disc or sciatica problem and asthma.
• Ulcer patients also avoid this asana.
Pawanmuktasana
Procedure

• This is done in lying position.

• Lie flat on the back and keep the legs, straight, relax breathe .deeply and regularly.
 • Inhale slowly and lift the legs and bend in the knees. Bring upwards to the chest till
the thigh touches to stomach.
• Hug the knees in place and lock the fingers.
• Place the nose tip between the knees.
• Exhale slowly and come back to the original position i,e. Shavasana.
• This is very beneficial for stomach as The results are very impressive.

Benefits

• It cures acidity, indigestion and constipation.

• It is helpful for those suffering from. gastrointestinal problems, arthritis, pain, heart
problems and waist pain.
• It strengthens back muscle and cures back pain.
• It is very beneficial for reproductive organs and for menstruation disorder.

Contraindications

• Those who are suffering from high blood pressure, hernia, heart problems, slip disc
and ulcer should avoid.
• During pregnancy and menstruation, women should avoid this.

DIGESTION.
Ardha Matsyendrasana
Procedure

• This is done in sitting posture.

• Sit straight with stretching the legs in front of you then fold the left leg properly.
• Place the ankle near the hip.
• Place the right leg towards the outside of the left knee on the ground.
• Keep straight the left hand, while taking it near the outside of the right knee and hold
the right toe.
• Fold the right hand behind the back and look backwards.
• The same should be repeated in the alternate position from the other side also.

Benefits

• It increases the flexibility and function of vertebrae of the spine.

• It helps to cure constipation and indigestion.
• It increases oxygen supply to the lungs.
• It is beneficial for slipped disc patients.
• It is helpful in treatment of diabetes, constipation, cervical, urinary, spinal problems.

Contraindications
 • Avoid during pregnancy and menstruation cycle.
• People with cardiac problem, abdominal or brain surgeries should avoid this asana.
• People having peptic ulcer or hernia should avoid.
• Avoid those who are having severe spinal problems and mild slipped disc.

Asthma
Asthma is a universal chronic airway inflammatory disease of the air passage caused by
excessive air sensitiveness and airflow obstruction. The disease can be managed,
controlled and cured by performing various asanas that help in curing asthma.
The asanas to control asthma are

Sukasana
Procedure

• This is done in a sitting position.

• Sit cross legged on the floor or any other flat surface.
• Bring one foot over the opposite knee. Place both the palms on your knees and close
your eyes.
• Breathe slowly and concentrate on the breathing pattern.
• Continue breathing in the same way for 5 minutes.

Benefits

• It helps to make the back stronger and elongate the knees and ankles.
• It is beneficial for opening the muscles of groin, hips and the outer thighs.
• It relieves from physical and mental tiredness and eliminates worries from the
person’s mind.
• It can relive from backache as well as pain.
• It is a good posture to sit for a long time.

Contraindications

• In case of severe knee and back injury, it is required to sit over the folded blanket or
take the assistance of the bolster or pillow.
• If face difficulties in this pose then try placing the blanket or bolster under the thighs.

Chakrasana Procedure

• This is done in lying posture.

• Lie down properly and look upward.
• Bring the feet closer to the hips and bend knees upward; keep a distance of about one
foot between the feet.
 • Bring up the hands near to the ears and put the palms on the ground as the fingers
facing on the shoulders.
• Gradually, lift up the body in air by balancing on feet and rotate the head backward
along with hands slowly.
• Reach the final position by stretching the whole body to forming a position look like a
semi-circle.
• Now maintain this position as longer as possible. To reach the normal position,
slowly lower down the body to touch the ground and release the hands and feet.

Benefits

• It helps to strengthen liver, pancreas, kidneys and heart.

• It is good for infertility, asthma and osteoporosis.
• It strengthens arms, shoulders, hands, wrists and legs buttocks, abdomen and spine.
• It stretches the chest and lungs.
• It helps to stimulate the thyroid and pituitary glands.
• It helps to increase energy and counteracts depression.

Contraindications

• Those who are suffering from diarrhoea, heart problems and hernia should avoid
this.
• Avoid during pregnancy.
• Avoid those who have wrist, ankles and spine pain.
• Hypertension or hypotension person should avoid this asana.

Gomukhasana [Cow Face Pose)

Procedure

• This is a sitting asana.

• Sit erect and stretch both legs together in front, hands by the side, palm resting on
the ground, fingers of the hands together.
• Fold right leg at the knee and place it on the ground by the side of the left buttock.
• Bringing the left leg from above the right leg, place it on the ground by the side of the
right buttock.
• Now place the palms on the knee one above the other and sit erect.
• After some time return to the original position.
• Change the position of the legs i.e. by placing the right knee above and the left knee
down and repeat this as much as you can.

Benefits
 • It helps to stretch and strengthen the muscles of the ankles, hips and thighs,
shoulders, triceps, inner armpits and chest.
• It is helpful in the treatment of sciatica.
• It enhances the workings of the kidneys by stimulating it, thus helping those suffering
from diabetes.
• Regular practice can reduce stress and anxiety.

Contraindications

• Those who are suffering from shoulder, knee or backpain should avoid this.
• People suffering from any kind of knee injury/problem avoid this.

Parvatasana (Mountain Pose)

Procedure

• it down on the floor in a cross legged position or Sukhasana and Padmasana (lotus
ppse).
• Bring the hands in the front and interlock the fingers.
• Breathe out and move the hands over the head. Keep the fingers interlocked and
hands stretched upwards.
• Pull the torso in upward direction and stretch.
• Hold this position for a little longer and breathe
normally.
• Bring down the hands as in original position. Unlock the hands and keep them aside
and stretch the legs in the front and relax.

Benefits

• It helps to improve the blood circulation around the body.

• It reduces mental fatigue and improves the memory.
• It reduces muscle pain, especially in back and neck regions.
• It helps to reduce the problems of carpal tunnel syndrome, rheumatic stiffness.
• It helps in stimulating the synthesis of growth hormone.

Contraindications

• Don’t bend the elbow or overstrain the knees.

• Avoid any forward movement.
• Avoid hunching of the back during sitting position.
• People with hunch back, stiff shoulder should avoid.

Bhujangasana
Procedure
 • This is done in lying posture.
• Lie on the stomach and rest forehead on the floor.
• Keep the feet and toes together and touch the ground. Place the hands at shoulder
level and palms on floor.
• Inhale and lift the head, chest, abdomen and keep the navel on the floor and take five
breaths at least.
• Exhale slowly and come down to rest with hands below the head slowly.
• It is equally effective in all the cases.

Benefits

• It gives a good stretch to the lungs, shoulders, chest and abdomen.

• It is helpful in stress release.
• It is known to open up the lungs and the heart i.e. it helps protect from diseases of
bronchiatis.
• It relieves sciatica and asthma.

Contraindications

• Avoid if suffering from hernia, back injuries, carpal tunnel syndrome.

• Avoid during pregnancy.
• Avoid if undergone recent abdominal surgeries.

Paschimottasana
Procedure

• This is done in sitting position.

• Sit straight with the legs together by stretching in front. Keep the head neck and
spine erect.
• Place the palms on the respective knees.
• Now bend the head and trunk slowly forward and catch the toes with the thumb,
index and middle fingers without bending knees.
• Take a deep breath and exhale slowly.
• Bend the arm and try to touch the elbow on the floor.
• After few seconds slowly return to your starting position.
• Breathe normally.
Benefits

• It relieves stress and relaxes the mind.

• It removes anxiety, anger and irritability.
• It stretches the spine and brings flexibility.
• It helps to remove constipation and digestive disorder.
• It is useful for increasing height.
• It is helpful for women after childbirth.
Contraindications

• Pregnant women should avoid this asana.

• Avoid those who are suffering from slip disc or sciatica problem and asthma.
• Ulcer patients also avoid this practice.

Matsyanasana
Procedure

• This is done in lying position.

• Sit and fold both the legs together.
• Slowly lie down on the back and hold the elbows.
• Place the palms next to ears, towards the shoulder blade.
• Raise the trunk and head then press palms and waist and place the crown of the head
on the floor.
• Place both the hands on the thighs then relax the elbow on the floor and try to hold
the toe with the fingers.
• Crown of head and lower body on the floor making an arc shape on the back.
Maintain this pose at least 50 or 100 counts.
• Now carefully release the fingers from the toes, push the palms on the floor then
raise the head and the shoulder blades and take rest. Straighten the legs and take a
position of Savasana.
Benefits
• It reduces headache caused by stiffness of the neck.
• It refreshes back muscles and the spinal cord.
• It cures asthma and respiratory disorders.
• It will be helpful to take deep sleep or normal sleep and get emancipate from
insomnia due to work stress.
Contraindications
• Avoid those who are suffering from high or low blood pressure.
• Avoid those who are suffering from migraine.,
• Avoid those who are suffering from ‘ serious lower-back or neck injury.
Hypertension
Blood pressure is the force of blood in the arteries. When this pressure becomes –
abnormally high then it is called hypertension or high blood pressure. Stress is a major
factor that causes hypertension. Yoga can be a very beneficial therapy for controlling
blood pressure. The gentle, soothing practice of asanas settles both mind and body and
reduces stress which causes hypertension. There are different types of asanas for the
treatment of hypertension.

Tadasana [Mountain Pose]

Procedure
• This is a standing asana.
 • Stand straight with the feet together.
• Slowly lift the toes and place them back on the floor.
• Pull up the kneecaps and squeeze the thighs.
• Inhale and lift up from the waist.
• Breathe and hold for 4 to 8 breaths.
• Exhale and drop the shoulders down.

Benefits

• It improves body posture and reduces flat feet problem.

• Knees, thighs and ankles become stronger.
• Buttocks and abdomen get toned.
• It helps to alleviate sciatica.
• It also makes spine more agile.
• It helps to increase height and improve balance.
• It regulates digestive, nervous and respiratory systems
Contraindications

• Avoid during headaches.

• Avoid during insomnia.
• Avoid during low blood pressure.
Vajrasana [Thunderbolt Pose]

• It is done in sitting posture.

• Stand on the knees with the lower legs together and stretched backwards, the two
big toes crossing each other.
• Lower the body and sit on your heels. Rest your buttocks on the heels and the thighs
on the calf muscles.
• Keep the hands on the knees and keep the head straight.
• Concentrate on breathing, start inhalation and exhalation.
Benefits

• It enhances blood circulation.

• It helps to improve digestion.
• Food gets digested well if one sits in Vajjasana after taking meals.
• It relieves excessive gas trouble or pain.
• Nerves of legs and thighs are strengthened.
• It helps to make knee and ankle joints flexible.
• It prevents from certain rheumatic diseases.

Contraindications

• Avoid if acute trouble or stiffness in foot, ankle and knees.

• Avoid during slip disc conditions.
Pawanmuktasana
Procedure

• This is done in lying position.

• Lie flat on the back and keep the legs straight, relax, breathe deeply and regularly.
• Inhale slowly and lift the legs and bend in the knees. Bring upwards to the chest till
the thigh touches to stomach.
• Hug the knees in place and lock the fingers.
• Place the nose tip between the knees.
• Exhale slowly and come back to the original position i.e. Shavasana.
• This is very beneficial for stomach abs. The results are very impressive.

Benefits

• It helps to strengthen the back.

• It massages the abdominal muscles.
• It helps in digestion.
• It reduces belly fat.

Contraindications

• Those who are suffering from high blood pressure, hernia, heart problems, slip disc
and ulcer should avoid.
• During pregnancy and menstruation, women should avoid this.

Ardha Chakrasana Procedure

• This is a standing asana.

• Stand straight and arms alongside the body.
• Balance the weight equally on both feet.
• Breathing in, extend the arms overhead, palms facing each other.
• Bend backwards, push the pelvis forward, keeping the arms in line with the ears,
elbows and knees straight, head up and lifting the chest towards the ceiling.
• Breathing out, bring the arms down and relax.

Benefits

• It stretches the front upper torso.

• It tones the arms and shoulder muscles.
Contraindications

• Avoid during headache.

• Avoid during serious back injury.
 Physical Education and Sports for CWSN –
Children with Special Needs: Divyangs
Concept of Disability and Disorder
Disability and disorder are two separate terms that stand for different types of physical and
mental conditions.
Concept of Disability
The term disability means any kind of impairment or permanent reduction in physical or mental
capacity. The reduction can be related to any kind of physical loss, mental illness, intellectual
impairment or reduction in the use of sense organs. This may be present from birth or occur
during a person’s lifetime. This affects a person’s participation in different areas of life and
reduces the full use of body structures and functions.
Definition – “A disability is defined as a condition or function judged to be significantly impaired
relative to the usual standard of an individual or group,”
Concept of Disorder
Disorder is any ailment that disturbs the health of a person, hinders a person’s performance and
diminishes his/her efficiency. Disorder grows inside a person, they are small in the beginning but
may become serious and grow into a disability. There are many kinds of disorders like mental
disorder, neurological disorder, hyper activity disorder, eating disorder, addiction disorder,
attention disorder etc.
Definition – “Disorder can be defined as a blip in the usual functioning of a person.”
4.2 Types of Disability, Its Causes and Nature
Disability is conceptualised as being a multidimensional experience as it may affect the organs
and body parts which hampers a person’s life in many ways.
Types of Disability
There are three types of disabilities which are as follows
[i] Cognitive Disability
The nature of this disability is mental since cognitive domain is related to using mental abilities
and achieving results from it.
It is related to impairments in intellectual functioning and adaptive behaviour. Intellectual
functioning means person’s ability to plan, comprehend and reason while adaptive behaviour
refers to applying social and practical skills in everyday life. Children suffering from dyslexia,
learning difficulties, speech disorders, problem in solving math calculations, short span of
attention and short of memory are said to have cognitive disability.
Causes of cognitive disability are as follows

• Cognitive impairment may be present at birth and may be genetic or chromosomal or result
from complications of pregnancy.
• Chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome.
• Genetic abnormalities such as phenylketonuria, Hunter syndrome etc.
• Prenatal drug and infections and exposure to alcohol.
• Lack of oxygen during labour pain or birth.
[ii] Intellectual Disability
The nature of this disability is also mental since the intellectual domain is related to using the
capacity of the mind. It is a disability characterised by significant limitations in both intellectual
functioning and in adaptive behaviour. This is characterised by low intelligence quotient score
(under 70) and significant problems in the ways learners adapt to new situations. It is different
from cognitive because cognitive is a broad concept while intellectual disability is specific in
nature.
Causes of intellectual disability are as follows

1. Genetic Conditions These include things like Down syndrome and fragile X syndrome.
2. Problems during Pregnancy This can interfere with fetal brain development.
3. Alcohol or Drug Use may also cause intellectual disability.
4. Problems during Childbirth Like if a baby is deprived of oxygen during childbirth or born
extremely premature.
5. Illness or Injury Infection like meningitis, whooping cough or measles can lead to
intellectual disability. Extreme malnutrition, infections in the brain, exposure to toxic
substances such as lead, and severe neglect or abuse can also cause it.
[iii] Physical Disability
The nature of this disability is physical since it relates to physical functioning of the body parts
including sense organs.
This refers to the limitation on a person’s physical functioning, mobility, dexterity or stamina.
This includes upper or lower limb loss, poor manual dexterity, visual impairment, hearing loss or
disability in coordination with different organs of the body. Apart from these, respiratory
disorders, epilepsy and sleep disorders are also considered physical disability.
Causes of physical disability are as follows

• Illnesses like cancer, heart attack or diabetes cause the majority of long-term disabilities.
• Back pain, injuries and arthritis are also significant causes.
• Lifestyle choices and personal behaviour that lead to obesity are also becoming major
contributing factors.
• Musculoskeletal disorders also cause disabilities. Examples include spine/joint disorders,
fibromytis etc.
• Genetic causes like gene inheritance can cause this disability.
4.3 Types of Disorder, Its Causes and Nature
A disorder is referred to as a disturbance in physical or mental health or functions that causes
dysfunction. Some types of disorder are discussed below
ADHD [Attention Deficit’ Hyperactivity Disorder]
The nature of this disorder is related to . behavioural changes or disorders. About 10% of school
going kids suffer from ADHD,
Boys are more suspectible to this disorder than girls. The common symptoms of this disorder are
hyperactivity, trouble focusing on a task, very short span of attention and missing details. .
Children with ADHD may understand what’s expected of them but have trouble following the
instructions required to complete the task. ‘ Young children mostly act in this way when they are
excited or anxious but the difference with ADHD is that these symptoms are present over a
longer period of time and take place in different settings. The ADHD disorder affects a child’s
academic performance as well as social behaviour. Causes of ADHD are .

1. Genes and Heredity Genetic inheritance and abnormalities in genes may cause this disorder.
 2. Brain Injury and Epilepsy Children who have had traumatic brain injuries or who have
epilepsy can often have ADHD-like symptoms.
3. Environmental Causes Prenatal exposure to smoke, exposure to high levels of lead as a
toddler and preschooler is possible contributor.
SPD [Sensory Processing Disorder]
This is a condition in which the brain has trouble in receiving and responding to information that
comes in through the senses. The SPD is related to mental nature. There the sensory inputs are
not organised by the brain in an appropriate manner.
The common symptoms are showing heightened reactivity to sound, touch or movement. Under-
reactive in certain situations example not noticing when name is called, lethargic, disinterested,
poor motor skills, lack of attention, impulsive behaviours etc. The SPD interferes with the
children’s normal everyday functioning. They also have delayed communication and social skills.
SPD also impacts on a person’s ability to interact with different environments. Causes of SPD are
as follows

• Genetic or hereditary factors such as having a family history of autism, SPD.

• Have been understimulated during critical periods of neurological development.
• Have been exposed to variety of environmental toxins.
• Have food allergies.
• Having developmental delays and other , neurological disorders.
ASD [Autism Spectrum Disorder]
The nature of this disorder is related to mental illness which then changes the behaviour. It is a
complex .developmental disorder that affects normal brain development. The symptoms of ASD
are difficulty in communication and interaction with people. They also have repetitive behaviour
patterns like flicking a light switch repeatedly, smelling everything, flipping objects etc.
Children with ASD also have sensory sensitivities such as not using eye contact, confused by
language, repeating a word etc. Here the brain does not function in the typical’way due to which
they face developmental challenges.. Children and adults with ASD do not acquire good social
skills and face many behavioural problems. They often stare at a particular person or object, like
a few foods, get over excited by certain sounds etc.
Causes of ASD are as follows

1. ASD can be the result of heredity factors, genetic differences and genetic mutations.
2. It can also cause through abnormal mechanisms of brain development and other
neurobiological factors.
3. Environmental factors related to exposure to drugs, toxins like lead, insecticides,
hydrocarbons and dietary factors may cause ASD.
ODD [Oppositional Defiant Disorder]
The nature of this disorder is related to social behaviours. This behaviour disorder usually takes
place in early teens. Apart from teens, ODD also affects young children especially boys. In
children it begins from the age of 8 years. About 2-16% of children are affected by ODD. The main
symptoms of ODD are similar patterns of anger, irritable mood, saying hateful things, flaring up
at trivial matters, seeking revenge etc.
Here children in their early teens try to defy authority every now and then, they express their
defiance by arguing, disobeying, talking back to parents, teachers and other adults. Though this
type of behaviour is normally seen among all the teenagers but the difference in ODD is that the
behaviour lasts more than 6 months and is excessive in comparison to other children of the same
age. This kind of behaviour often disrupts the child’s normal daily activities and hampers
academic performance.
Causes of ODD are as follows

1. Genetics A child’s natural disposition or temperament and possible neurobiological

differences in the way nerves and the brain function may cause ODD.
2. Environment Problems with parenting that may involve a lack of supervision, inconsistent
or harsh discipline, or abuse or neglect also cause ODD.
OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder]
The nature of this disorder is related to mental illness. This usually takes place in people of
middle ages. Males and females both are equally affected by OCD. About 15-20% of the people
experience OCD in mild forms. The symptoms of this disorder are people doing repetative
behaviours, performing routine tasks over an over again or having certain thoughts repeatedly.
Some examples of this type of disorder are frequent or excessive hand washing, counting to
things repeatedly, checking if a door is locked again and again. These activities occur to such a
degree that it affects a person’s life negatively. The OCD can become serious and may cause other
problems related to mental illness.
Causes of OCD are as follows

1. Familial Disorder The disorder may run in the family, therefore close relatives of people
with OCD are likely to develop it.
2. Behavioural Causes The behavioural theory suggests that people with OCD associate certain
objects or situations with fear and learn to avoid those things or learn to perform rituals in
order to help reduce the fear or the stress related to that situation.
3. Cognitive Causes This happens when people misinterpret their thoughts like the feeling of
dirty hands even when they are cleaned many times.
4. Environmental Causes This means stressful situation present in the environment such as
within the family or society that triggers OCD in people.
Disability Etiquettes
Disability etiquettes is a set of guidelines to deal with the people facing physical or mental
disabilities. It was started as a clinical play on existing rule sheets, written for non-disabled
audiences that were seen as demeaning by civil rights activists in 1970s. The term serves to
communicate people with disabilities more respectfully in all types of situations. It refers to
educate people regarding disabilities. It involves treating people with disabilities with respect
and care, and try to bring them into a normal life.
Disability Etiquettes in General

• Always respect the dignity of a disabled person, individuality and desire for independence.
• Treat a person with disability in the same manner and with the same respect and courtesy
as with others.
• Speak directly to the person rather than through the friend, attendant or sign-language
interpreter who may also be present.
• Never speak about the person as if they are invisible, can’t understand what is being said. .
• Don’t put people with a disability on a pedestal or talk to them in demeaning terms.
Disability Etiquette Guidelines
[i] ill Persons with Speech Difficulties

1. Give attention to the person who has difficulty

in speaking.
2. Keep manner to encourage rather than correcting.
3. Give extra time for the conversation and be patient.
4. If you have difficulty in understanding, don’t pretend that you do. Repeat as much as you do
understand.
[ii] Person with Hearing Loss

• Get the person’s attention with a wave of the hand, or a tap on the shoulder.
Speak clearly and slowly, but without exaggerating your lip movements or shouting.
• Many persons with hearing loss read lips. Place yourself facing the light source and keep
hands, cigarettes and food away from your mouth when talking in order to provide a clear
view of your face.
• When an interpreter accompanies a person, direct your remarks to the person rather than
to the interpreter.
• Look directly at the person and speak expressively.
• Use sign language if you and the person are both familiar with it.
[iii] Persons with Vision Loss

• When enter the room, indicate who is there. Let the person know when leaving the room.
• When talking to a person with a visual impairment, begin to identifying yourself by name
and that you are speaking to them.
• When offering your assistance, do not grab the person’s cane or arm.
• If you are walking with a person who is blind, offer your arm for him/her to hold.
• Walk at the norma! pace. It is helpful to speak casually and naturally about the
environment, objects and buildings you are passing as you walk.
• Not all visually impaired people read Braille. Ask the person what alternative format they
prefer.
(iv) Persons with Cognitive / Language Impairments

• Use a calm voice and be comfortable. Use simple and short sentences.
• Do not argue with the person.
• Treat each person as an individual with talents and abilities deserving of respect and
dignity.
• Give extra time for the person to process what: you are saying and to respond. Look for
signs of stress and/Or confusion:
The rules of etiquettes and good manners to deal with people with disabilities are generally the
same as the rules for good etiquettes in society. These guidelines address.specific issues which
frequently arise for people with disabilities; Since everyone is different, these guidelines only
hold true for most individuals most of the time.
Advantage of Physical Activity for Children with Special Needs
Physical Activity
According to the Department of Health and Human Services, USA, physical activity generally
refers to movement that enhances health.
It means the movement of the body that uses energy. Walking, running, dancing, swimming, yoga
and gardening are a few examples of physical activity. For health benefits, physical activity
should be moderate or vigorous intensity.
Exercise is a type of physical activity that’s planned and structured. Lifting weights, taking an
aerobics class and playing on a sports team are examples of exercise.

Regular physical activity is good for everyone but it’s particularly important for children with
special needs. These are most important for their growth and development. There are numbers
of advantages of physical activities.
These are as follows

• It strengthens the heart muscle thereby improving cardiovascular efficiency, lung efficiency
and exercise endurance. This helps in controlling repetative behaviours among disabled
children.
• Besides improving fitness, physical activity develops social relationships with other
children, teammates and teachers.
• This brings positive changes in the social behaviour of these children.
• It helps to improve energy level in the body. Regular physical activity often makes children
more energetic, allows them to become active.
• It regulates blood pressure, cholesterol level and diabetes. Physical activity reduces stress
level.
• It helps to control weight. The children with disabilities are not physically active or may
have deficit of calories, which takes fat away and lowers weight and regular exercises help
in regulating weight.
• Physical activities help in improving muscle strength, coordination and flexibility among
disabled children.
• This also improves motor skills, brings better balance and body awareness which is lacking
in these children.
• Physical exercise finds an outlet to channelise the physical energy which helps these
children to cope with stress, anxiety and depression.
• Physical activity enhances the metabolism of brain in the children. It leads to cognitive
improvement in children with special needs allowing them to acquire new skills, learn new
things and focus on specific goals.
• Physical activity decreases anxiety, reduces depression, and improves mood and outlook in
children. In addition, their
• quality of sleep is also improved.
Strategies to Make Physical Activities Accessible for Children with Special Need
The various strategies or ways by which physical activities can be made accessible for children
with special needs are as follows

1. Inclusive Classrooms It means development of education laws in such a way that children
with special needs get education within the normal classrooms along with other children so
that they are well accepted in society.
2. Assistive Technology It refers to creating devices, tools or equipments that help children
with special needs to participate in learning activities like bigger balls, balls with bells, balls
attached to strings to bring it back to the students etc.
3. Adaptive Physical Education Depending on student’s disability, a separate, adaptive class
or modifications within a game, changing the rules of the game or sport to some extent can
help the students in a big way.
4. Creating Specific Environment Students with special needs can be provided with specific
play area with special requirements as needed by them. Loud music, glaring lights often
cannot be tolerated by these children, so a lot of natural lighting should be there.
5. Positive Behaviour In physical education classes, teachers should show positive behaviour
and healthy interactions and prevent negative behaviours. The method is to “Prevent,
Teach, Reinforce”. This means class material taught through positive interactions, lesson
reinforced by referring back to behavioural expectations and evaluating progress.
6. Focus on Creative Games Instead of competitive games and physical activities, the
strategy is to develop creative games. This helps in team building and cooperation and
prevents unnecessary competition and boosts the confidence of these children.
7. Accomodations and Modification Since the individual needs of the children with special
needs ard different^ it is essential for . the teachers to modify the teaching strategies in
order to accommodate the children with disabilities. Therefore constant modification and
accommodation is required.
8. Professional Courses Developing more professional courses and teacher certification
programs for teaching physical education to children with special needs is essential to
popularise the adaptive physical education programme.
 PHYSIOLOGY AND SPORTS
Physiology
In physiology, we study how our organs, systems, tissues, cells and molecules within cells work
and how their functions are put together to maintain our internarenvironment. “Physiology is the
study of how the human body functions.” Physiology is very essential to understand how to attain
physical fitness in order to enhance the performance in sports

Gender Differences In Physical Physiological Parameters

Physical Parameters Male Female

Height Taller Shorter
Body Mass More Less
Body Fat More Less
Lean Body Mass Less More
Physical Fitness
Stronger due to greater Less muscle
Strength
muscle mass mass
High due to more
Endurance Less
hemoglobin and VO2
Flexibility Less More
Coordination and
Less More
Agility
Muscular System
Muscle Mass More Less
Muscle Composition More Less 1
Longer, stronger but poor
Bones and Ligaments Less stronger
balance
but better
Attachments
balance
Cardiovascular System
Lower cardiac
Cardiac Output Better cardiac output
output
Heart Size Bigger Shorter
Stroke Volume More Less
V02 Max More Less
Respiratory System
Lung Size Bigger Smaller
Tidal Volume More Less
Better due to more Lack in certain
Respiratory Function
haemoglobin parameters
content and VO2
Physiological Factors Determining Components of Physical Fitness
To understand the physiological factors, the components have to be understood.
The components of physical fitness are as follows

1. Muscular Strength One of the basic requirements for success in all movements is muscular
strength. It may be defined as the maximum force or tension a muscle or a muscle group can
exert against a resistance. The development of strength is specific to the muscle or muscles
involved in a particular activity.
2. Power Power is the ability of the body to release maximum muscle contraction in the
shortest possible time.
3. Speed It is the rapidity with which one repeats successive movements of the same pattern.
It may also be defined as the ability of a person to move quickly through a short distance.
4. Muscular Endurance It may be defined as the ability of a muscle or muscle group to
perform repeated contractions against a resistance / load or to sustain contraction for an
extended period of time with less discomfort and more rapid recovery.
5. Agility It is the ability of the person to change direction while moving at or near full speed.
More specifically, agility is the ability of a person to change direction or body position
quickly (as fast as he can) and regain body control to proceed with another movement.
6. Flexibility In general, flexibility is that quality of the muscles, ligaments and tendons that
enables the joints of the body to move easily through a complete range of movement.
7. Size of the Muscle The size of the muscle determines the strength possessed by an
individual. Males have bigger and larger muscles due to which they have more strength
than females.
8. Body Weight There is a positive correlation between body weight and strength among
international weightlifters. So people who weigh heavier are stronger and have more
strength than people who are lighter.
9. Muscle Composition Muscles consist of two types of fibres i.e. fast twitch fibres (white
fibres) and slow twitch fibres (red fibres).
10. Intensity of the Nerve Impulse A muscle consists of many motor units. The number of
contracting motor units determines the total force.
11. Metabolic Power The metabolic power depends upon the energy supplied through certain
enzymes.
 12. Aerobic Capacity The ability of a person to maintain adequate supply of oxygen to the
working muscles influences the endurance.
13. Joint Structure The joint structure of a person determines the range of motions and hence
level the flexibility of an individual.
14. Age and Gender The age of a person as well as the gender determines the level of
flexibility. Flexibility decreases with advancement of age and females are more flexible than
males.

Effects of Exercise on Cardiovascular System

It has been observed that physical exercises affect the various parameters of the cardiovascular
system in many ways. Effects of exercise on the cardiovascular system are

1. Cardiac Output It is the amount of blood pumped by the heart in one minute. In other
words, it is the product of stroke volume and heart rate. Cardiac output increases with the
intensity of the exercises. At rest it is 4 to 6 L/min and during exercises it is 20 to 40 L/min.
Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume=mLbloodmin
or Litresmin
2. Heart Rate The number of cardiac contractions in one minute is called heart rate..
Generally normal adult heart rate is 72 beats/min: During exercises the heart rate goes up.
3. Stroke Volume The amount of-blood pumped into the aorta with every heartbeat is known
as the stroke volume. In an untrained male, it is 70 – 90 mL/beat. In a trained.male athlete,
it may be 100 – 120 mL/beat. The stroke volume increases in response to the intensity of
the exercises.
4. Blood Flow Exercise increases the blood volume caused by a 12% increase in the plasma
volume and a slight increase in the red blood cells volume. With increasing intensities of
exercise, a . greater accumulation of lactic acid and the production of other metabolic end
products (potassium, phosphate) occurs. This increases blood flovy in the cardiac output,
while it decrease in kidneys and abdomen.

Effects of Exercise on Respiratory System

Many parameters of respiratory system get affected due to exercises. Effects of exercise on
respiratory system are

1. Lung Volume With endurance training, lung volume and lung capacity increase. Vital
capacity, which is maximal volume of air forcefully expelled is increased after endurance
training.
2. Breathing Frequency Breathing frequency is the number of breaths per minute. After
training, breathing frequency or respiratory rate is decreased.
3. Maximum Minute Ventilation Minute ventilation is the amount of air which is inspired or
expired in one minute. After training, maximum, as well as minute ventilation is increased.
4. Tidal Volume Tidal volume, which is the amount of air inspired or expired per breath, is –
also increased as a result of endurance training,
 5. Ventilatory Efficiency With physical exercises, particularly endurance training, our
ventilatory efficiency increases.
6. Pulmonary Diffusion Pulmonary diffusion is the exchange of gases taking place in the
alveoli (small air sacs in our lungs).

Effects of Exercise on the Muscular System

The effects of exercise on the muscular system are as follows

1. Increase in Blood Flow The volume of blood flow to muscle tissues increases during
exercise. It can increase by upto 25 times – during specially demanding exercise:
2. Respiration During exercise, muscles repeatedly contract and relax,.using and requiring
energy to do so. The energy comes from the chemical ATP that-is. broken down during
exercise into another chemical called ADP. When there is plenty of oxygen available in the
muscle tissues, the energy for muscle action is prpduced aerpbically so muscles get more
oxygen.
3. Muscle Size Although muscle size (and other physical characteristics such as height) is
largely determined by a person’s genes but muscle size also gets affected by the intensity of
exercises.
4. Blood Supply (to and through muscles) As a result of frequent exercise over a sustained
period of time, both the quantity of blood vessels and the extent of the capillary beds
increases.
5. Muscle Coordination Frequent exercise and specially use of specific muscles for the same
or similar skilled tasks.
6. Muscle Biochemistry Many beneficial biochemical changes take place in muscle tissues as
a result of regular long-term exercise such as increase in the size and quantity of
mitochondria in the cells, increase in the activity of enzymes.

Long -Term Effects of Exercises

Exercises are good for the overall well-being of a person. The long-term effects of exercises are as
follows

• Increase in Heart Size

• Increase in Heart Rate
• Increase in Stroke Volume
• Decrease in Cholesterol Level
• Increase in Number and Efficiency of Capillaries
• Reduced Risk of Heart Diseases
Physiological Changes Due to Ageing
Some of the physiological changes accompanying the ageing process are

1. Muscle Size and Strength As an individual gets older, there is a decline in muscle size. It is
believed that this decline is due in part to a reduced amount of protein as well as a decline
in the number and size of muscle fibres. As people get old, there is also a parallel decrease in
the muscular strength.
2. Accumulation of Body Fat With advancing age, there is a general trend to increase the
accumulation of body fat. First of all, with advancing age there is a decrease in one’s ability
to release or mobilise stored fatty acids from adipose tissues for energy.
3. Respiratory System There is good evidence to indicate that pulmonary function is
impaired with advancing age. The uptake and exchange of oxygen reduces.
4. Cardiovascular System A number of studies have shown that as individuals get older, their
overall heart size becomes, smaller. The left ventricular cavity may especially decrease in
size as a result of reduced activity and the reduced physical demands of increased age.
5. Nervous System The nervous system is responsible for reactions and movements. The
brain’s weight, network of the nerves and blood flow decrease with age due to which the
reaction time and movement time also slows down.
6. Bone Density Bone density decreases with increasing age, which means that elderly people
(especially those over 40 years of age) are much more prone to bone injury than young
people whose bones have reached full growth and maturity.

Role of Physical Activity in Maintaining Function Fitness in Aged Population

Regular exercises are good to improve the efficiency of the body. It delays the onset of fatigue,
develops fitness levels and increases endurance. Regular physical activity keeps the human body
livelier, fitter and in better condition for long years before any ageing sets in. Ageing is not a
sudden, dramatic occurrence; rather it is a slow process that prolongs over several decades. This
process can be delayed with regular physical activity.
 Psychology and Sports
Sports Psychology and Its Importance
The word psychology refers to the study of human behaviour and sports psychology denotes a
sub-category of psychology that deals with the behaviour of athletes and teams engaged in
competitive sports Sports psychology is important because it.

1. analyses the behaviour of sportsmen

2. identifies talent for specific sports
3. creates a better learning situation
4. stabilises the performance of athletes for a longer period
5. encourages players to make a comeback in professional sports
6. is important from the research point of view

Understanding Stress and Its Management

Stress
Stress is experienced when individuals feel that they cannot cope with a situation with which
they are presented. If athletes are in a stressful situation then their athletic performance,
whether this be in competition or in training, will be affected.

Management of Stress
There are many aspects of an athlete’s life that can be stressful at certain times. By proper
planning, the level of stress that the athletes and perhaps the coach will encounter can be
reduced This can be done by following the steps given below.

• Aim to exercise regularly

• Eat healthy
• Get enough sleep
• Set realistic goals
• Accept mistakes
• Use imagination
• Take a break
• Use relaxation techniques

Coping Strategies
In psychology, coping is expending conscious effort to solve personal and interpersonal problems
and seeking to master, minimise or tolerate stress or conflict. We are discussing here only two
types of coping strategies.

(i) Problem Focused Coping

Problem focused coping targets the causes of stress in practical ways which tackles the problem
or stressful situation that is causing stress, consequently, directly reducing the stress. Problem
focused strategies aim to remove or reduce the cause of the stressor Problem focused strategies
include.
 • Taking control
• Information seeking
• Evaluation

(ii) Emotion Focused Coping

It is directed towards changing one’s own emotional reaction to a stressor Emotion focused
coping strategies are effective in the management of unchangeable stressors. These coping
mechanisms involve a cognitive reappraisal process that includes self-reflection and taking
control over one’s emotions. Emotion focused strategies include.

• Keeping yourself busy to take your mind off the issue.

• Letting off steam.
• Praying for guidance and strength.
• Distracting yourself (e.g. watching TV, eating).
• Building yourself up to expect the worst.

Personality
The word personality is derived from Latin word persona meaning the mask. In ancient Greece,
the actors used to wear masks to hide their identities while portraying their roles in a theatrical
play. To an ordinary person, the word personality conveys the meaning of one’s physical
appearance, his habits, his ways of dressing, his reputation, his manners and other similar
characteristics.

Definitions of Personality
According to Macionis, “It is the constant pattern of thinking, feeling and actions.” According to
Ogburn and Nimkoff, “The totality of sentiments, attitudes, ideas, habits, skills and behaviors of
an individual is personality.”

Types of Personality
[Sheldon and Jung Classification]
The concept of personality and its types have been formulated by many psychologists. The
personality type on the basis of physical attributes is given by William Herbert Sheldon. It is as
follows

1. Endomorph The endomorph is physically quite round, with wide hips, narrow shoulders
which makes them pear-shaped Lot of fat is spread across the body. They are sociable, fun-
loving, tolerant, even-tempered, good humoured, relaxed and love food.
2. Ectomorph They are quite the opposite of endomorph. They have narrow shoulders and
hips, thin, narrow face, high forehead, thin, narrow chest and very little body fat. They are
self-conscious, private, introvert, socially anxious, intense, emotionally restrained and
thoughtful.
3. Mesomorph They are somewhere between endomorph and ectomorph. They have large
head, broad shoulders, narrow waist (wedge shaped), muscular body, strong limbs and
little body fat. They are well proportioned. They are adventurous, courageous, assertive,
bold, competitive, with a desire to dominate, take risk, rise to power.
The personality type on mental basis is formulated by Carl Jung. These are as follows

• Extroverts Have more self-confidence, take more interest in others, are outgoing, lively and
realistic. They are very social and form friends quite easily. Actors, social and political
leaders etc belong to this group.
• Introverts Are too self-conscious, more interested in their own thoughts and ideas, self-
centered, shy, reserved and lovers of solitude. They do not make friends easily andkeep
in’the’ background op social occasions. Philosophers, poets, artists and scientists belong to
this class.
• Ambiverts Doubting whether people can be divided into these two extremes, he put most
of the people in this category and they-have been labelled as ‘ambiverts.’ The.ambiverts are
a mixture of both the extremes in a balanced manner. Ambiverts are neither outgoing nor
reserved to themselves. They are able to adjust themselves to any situation.

Role of Sports in Personality Development

Sports helps an individual much more than in the physical aspects alone. It builds character,
teaches and develops strategic thinking, analytical thinking, leadership skills, goal setting and
risk taking. It teaches individual to develop the following which ultimately develop the
personality of the individual

• Team spirit
• Leadership skill
• Fairplay
• Never give up
• Great leveller
• Focus
• Strength and abilities
• Process and result
• Planning
• Earnestness and sincerity
• Observation and analysis
• Positive attitude

Big Five Theory

The ‘big five’ are the broad categories of five personality traits that are universal. They are as
follows

• Extraversion It is characterised by excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness and

high amounts of emotional expressiveness. People high in extraversion are extroverts and
low in extraversion are introverts.
• Agreeableness This includes attributes like trust, kindness, affection and other social
behaviours. People high in agreeableness are more cooperative and people low ih this trait
are more competitive and manipulative.
• Conscientiousness Characteristics include high level of thoughtfulness, good impulse
control and goal-directed behaviours. People high on this trait are organised and mindful of
details.
 • Neuroticism Characteristics are sadness, moodiness and emotional instability. People high
in this trait experience mood swings, anxiety, irritability and sadness. People low in this
trait are more stable and emotionally , resilient.
• Openness Characteristics are imagination and insight. People high in this trait are creative,
adventurous and have a broad range of interests. People low in this trait are more
traditional and less in abstract thinking.

Motivation and its Types

Motivation is a process through which an individual is inspired m stimulated to act in a particular
fashion or manner towards a particular direction. Motivation is of two types
1. Internal Motivation or Intrinsic Motivation
This motivation is within an individual and guides one to perform better to satisfy one’s own
personal feelings. Internal motivation depends upon basic needs like biological needs (thirst,
hunger), social needs (family, friends etc), psychological needs (interest, attitude, love, self-
esteem) and personal needs (safety, personality, economical etc).

2. External Motivation or Extrinsic Motivation

This motivation depends upon environmental factors. External motivation has great impact on an
individual’s performance. It is of various types like

• Rewards
• Punishment
• Active participation
• Equipment and surroundings
• Teaching methods
• Audio-Visual aids
• Test-evaluations and competitions
• Teacher-pupil relationship

Techniques of Motivation
Various techniques of motivation are applied on sportspersons which can enable them to achieve
the top positions in the field of sports and games. These techniques of motivation are

1. Haying an Innovative Curriculum Many elementary skills basic to sports development

have already developed in most of the children by the time they reach primary school age.
2. Knowing Your Athlete Each athlete comes from a different background with varied
experiences and having different degrees of maturity.
3. Teacher as a Motivator A teacher or coach who has participated in the sport himself, who
is highly skilled and can demonstrate and explain the skill more accurately and can plan the
next competition wisely, is a great asset in motivating the athletes.
4. Freedom to Beginners To motivate young beginners, they should be allowed a greater
degree of freedom in their early attempts.
5. Level of Aspiration/ Goal Setting As we know that achieving performance goals is a sign
of competence that affects motivation positively, it is necessary to set realistic goals based
on one’s own abilities.
 6. Identifying Incentive Factors If an athlete perceives that any particular kind of
experiences are available to him in a given sport and he feels that these will be pleasant,
enjoyable or satisfying, then he will choose to participate in that game or sport and not any
other.
7. Assigning Well-Defined Roles Assigning well-defined roles to athletes enhances their
perception of self-competence.

Exercise Adherence
Exercise adherence refers to maintaining an exercise regimen for a prolonged period of time
following the initial adoption phase. Exercise adherence is voluntary, self-regulated and largely a
psychological issue.

Determinants of Exercise Adherence

Following are the determinants of exercise adherence

1. Demographic Variables Education, income, gender, socio-economic status etc are some of
the demographic variables which determine the exercise adherence of people. Educated
people with high income are health-conscious and they are adherent with their exercising
habits.
2. Spousal Support It is critical to enhance adherence rates for people in exercise programmes.
3. Group Exercising It generally produces higher levels of adherence than exercising alone.
Group exercising makes people exciting and interesting.
4. Early Involvement If people engage in sports and physical activity during childhood, they
are adherent to their exercising habits.

Reasons to Exercise
We all unconsciously know that exercise is good for us. It is fair to say that everyone wants to be
healthy. At the same time, it is probably equally fair to say that most of us are not exercising
enough. The main incentive that can make us start exercising is overall health improvement.

Here is the list of powerful reasons to exercise

1. Longevity
People who are physically active live longer. Regular exercise habit reduces the risk of dying
prematurely.

2. Weight Control
Regular physical activity helps to reach and maintain a healthy weight. Exercises speed, up, the
rate of , energy use, resulting in increased metabolism. When metabolism increases through
exercise, the body weight remains under-control.

3. Bone Strength
An active lifestyle benefits bone density. Regular weight-bearing exercise promotes bone
formation, delays bone loss and may protect against osteoporosis (form of bone loss associated
with aging).
4. Strong Immune System
Regular exercise is beneficial for immune function. Exercise or physical activity may help flush
bacteria out of the lungs and airways. This increases the immunity of body and reduces chance of
getting a cold, flu or other illness.

5. Cholesterol Lowering Effect

Physical exercise favourably influences blood cholesterol levels in our body. Exercise positively
alters cholesterol metabolism by increasing the production and action of several enzymes in the
muscles and liver that function to convert some of the cholesterol to a more favourable form.

Benefits of Exercise
Exercise is defined as any movement that makes body’s muscles work and requires body to bum
calories. There are many types of physical activity, including swimming, running, jogging,
walking, dancing etc. Being active has been shown to have many health benefits, both physical
and mental. Here is the list of scientifically proven health benefits the regular exercise brings

• Exercise has been shown to improve our mood and decrease feelings of depression, anxiety
and stress. It produces changes in the parts of the brain that regulate stress and anxiety.
• Exercise plays a vital role in building and maintaining strong muscles and bones. Physical
activity like weightlifting can stimulate muscle building when paired with adequate protein
intake.
• Regular exercise has been shown to improve insulin sensitivity, cardiovascular fitness and
body composition, yet decrease blood pressure and blood fat levels.
• Exercise can provide antioxidant protection and promote blood flow, which can protect skin
and delays signs of aging.
• Exercise improves blood flow to the brain and helps health and memory. Among older
adults, it can help protect mental function.
• Exercise can help us to sleep better and feel more energised during the day.
• Exercise has favorable effects on the pain that is, associated with various conditions. It can
also increase.pain tolerance.
• Exercise is crucial to support a fast metabolism and for burning more calories per day.
• Exercise is also helpful in maintaining self-confidence.

Strategies for Enhancing Adherence to Exercise

The choice of whether of not to exercise is a daily decision Although a person’s risk of dropping
out of an exercise programme is lower when he/she has maintained participation for six months
or longer. Following should be strategies for enhancing adherence to exercise

• An individual should identify situations when he/she is likely to experience lapses in

his/her exercise programme. The most common situations include travel, holidays, illness,
stress, poor weather, and competing family obligations.
• People should use realistic plans that work with the exercise schedule and willingness.
• You should make your exercise fun, interesting, challenging and enjoyable.
• There should be adequate break during intensive exercise.
• Exercise should be scheduled with a group or club and isolated exercise habit should be
avoided.
Aggression in Sports
Aggression or aggressiveness means the intention to cause mental or physical harm to a person.
This is done by doing physical harm, showing unkind or nasty behaviour, abusing or using cruel
words. A person shows aggression due to stress, anger or even due to insecurity. Aggression may
come instantly or may build up over time. It can be positive as well as negative. According to
Baron and Richardsons, “Any form of behaviour towards the goal of harming or injuring another
living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment is aggression.”

Concept of Aggression in Sports

In sports, aggression is often seen in the field where players play aggressively. There is a desire
to excel which leads the players to play with high intensity. So aggression is positive when
players play within the rules of the game with high intensity and without harming other players.

However aggression becomes negative when players have an intention to harm other players,
use abusive language or doing other such things which are not within the laws of the game. For
example, pushing another player over a game of football or using abusive language for other
players or teams.

Types of Aggression in Sports

In sports, aggression has been defined into two kinds or types. These are instrumental aggression
and hostile aggression.
1. Instrumental Aggression In instrumental aggression, the main aim is to achieve a goal by
using aggression. It is a positive form of aggression. Here the aim of the player is to excel in the
sport that he is playing through high intensity output and competitive spirit. For example, a
football player using aggression to tackle his opponent and win the ball. He is not harming any
player but only using his aggressiveness to gain the ball. Experienced players show instrumental
aggression on the field as they have greater self-control to manage their aggression.

2. Hostile Aggression In hostile aggression, the main aim is to cause harm or injury to your
opponent. It is usually an unplanned, impulsive reaction towards a player who may have become
a threat in achieving the goal. However it may also be planned to cause injury to intended player
on the field. This kind of aggression often arises from insult, hurt, bad feelings, jealousy and
threat.

For example, a bowler throwing a bouncer to deliberately injure the batsman or to shake up his
concentration. In some extreme cases, hitting an opponent or deliberately obstructing his path
leads to his fall on the ground. This kind of aggression is usually seen in new players who want to
achieve success quickly. The difference between the two is that instrumental aggression is
positive where the aim is to excel by own efforts while hostile aggression is negative. Here the
aim is to excel by causing harm to others.
 Training in Sports
Sports Training
Training is a process of preparing an individual for any event, activity or job. Usually in sports,
we use the term sports training, which denotes the sense of preparing sports persons for the
highest level of performance. According to Mathew (1981), “Sports training is the basic form of
preparation of a sportsman.” Keeping in view the aim of sports training in competitive sports, the
following objectives of sports training may be set to reach the aim

1. Personality development
2. Physical fitness and development
3. Skill/Technique development
4. Tactical development
5. Mental Training

Strength
Strength is the ability of a muscle to exert force in single muscle contraction or it is the ability to
overcome resistance. Strength is an essential component of physical fitness.
Types of strength are

1. Maximum strength
2. Explosive strength
3. Strength endurance
4. Static strength

Training Methods for Improving Strength

Training methods for improving strength are
(i) Isometric Exercises
An isometric contraction occurs when there is tension on a muscle but no movement is made,
causing the length of the muscle to remain the same. These isometric exercises were first
introduced by Hettinger and Muller (1953). Examples of these exercises are pressing or pushing
a wall, lifting a very heavy weight, holding a static position, pulling the rope in tug-of-wall etc.
Advantages of isometric exercises are as follows

• Develops static strength.

• Need less time.
• Can be performed anywhere because no equipment is required.

Disadvantages of isometric exercises are as follows

• Muscles gain most strength at the angle used in exercise.

• Avoid if you have heart problems as they cause a rise in blood pressure due to a drop in
blood flow to the muscle during the contraction.
• Develops dynamic strength.
(ii) Isotonic Exercises
Isotonic exercise is a form of exercise which involves controlled contraction and extension of
muscles and mobilisation of the joints around those muscles. Examples include a push-up or
squat. These were developed by De Loone (1954). Isotonic exercises are of two types

• Concentric
• Eccentric

Advantages of isotonic exercises are as follows

• Strengthens the muscle throughout the range of motion.

• Can be adapted easily to suit different sports. Disadvantages of isotonic exercises are as
follows
• Muscle soreness after exercise because of the high stress level.
• Muscles gain the dynamic strength when they are at their weakest point of action.

(iii) Isokinetic Exercises

Isokinetic exercises are performed on specially designed machines. These exercises were
developed by Perrine in 1968.
In these exercises, there is movement along with continuous tension in both flexor and extensor
muscles e.g. swimming, cycling etc.

Advantages of isokinetic exercises are as follows

• They develop a high level of dynamic as well as explosive strength.

• These are effective for almost every game.

Disadvantages of isokinetic exercises are as follows

• They require special types of equipment.

• They must be performed under observation of a coach.

Endurance
Endurance is the ability to do sports movements with the desired quality and speed under
conditions of fatigue.
Types of endurance are

1. Aerobic Endurance Aerobic means ‘with oxygen’ During aerobic work, the body is working
at a level that the demands for oxygen and fuel can be met by the body’s intake.
2. Anaerobic Endurance During anaerobic (without oxygen) work involving maximum effort,
the body is working so hard that the demands for oxygen and fuel exceed the rate of supply
and the muscles have to rely on the stored reserves of fuel.
3. Speed Endurance Speed endurance is used to develop the coordination of muscle
contraction.
 4. Strength Endurance Strength endurance is used to develop the athlete’s capacity to
maintain the quality of his muscles’ contractile force.
Advantages of endurance are as follows
• Needs only a small amount of easy to use, accessible equipment, if any.
• Good for aerobic fitness.
• Good for losing weight.
Disadvantages of endurance are as follows
• Can be boring.
• Does not improve anaerobic fitness, so it is not as good for team games like football or
hockey which involve short bursts of speed.
Training Method for Endurance Development
Methods for endurance development are
1. Continuous Training
2. Interval Training
3. Fartlek Training
Advantages of training method for endurance development are as follows
• It is good for increasing strength and cardio respiratory endurance.
• Several athletics can take part in the training programme at a time.
• It does not require any equipment and can be organised easily.
• This training method is not rigid; it is flexible in nature.
Disadvantages of training method for endurance development are as follows
• The trainee does very hard training which is sometimes difficult to see his/her efforts
making.
• Sometimes the athlete is likely to drop efforts.
• As it is not pre-planned so it may cause accidents.
• An appropriate check on trainees cannot be maintained.
Speed
It is the ability to cover distance in minimum possible time or the ability to perform movement in
the shortest possible time. It is the quickness of movement of body parts. Speed used in
endurance is called speed endurance. It is the ability to do work faster.
Different types of speed are
1. Maximum speed
2. Explosive speed (power)
3. Speed endurance
Training Methods for Speed Development
A speed development programme can be framed according to need, level and training state of the
players.
1. Acceleration Run Acceleration runs are usually adopted to develop speed specially in
attaining maximum speed from a stationary position.
2. Pace Races or Run Pace races mean running the whole distance of a race at a constant
speed. In pace races, an athlete runs the race with uniform speed, generally 800 m and
above.

Flexibility and Its Methods

Flexibility is . the ability to perform a joint action through a range of movements. It is needed to
perform everyday, activities with relative ease. Flexibility tends to deteriorate with age. Without
adequate flexibility, daily activities are more difficult to perform. Being flexible significantly
reduces the chance of experiencing occasional and chronic back pain.
There are two types of flexibility

1. Passive flexibility
2. Active flexibility

Methods of flexibility development are as follows

1. Ballistic Method It is the oldest form of doing stretching exercises. This method involves
jerk in movement.
2. Slow Stretching Method In this method the muscle or joint involved is stretched to the
maximum possible limit using slow movement.
3. Slow Stretching and Holding Method It is the extension of slow stretching method.
4. Post-Isometric Stretching This method of-flexibility development is based on the principle
of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation.

Coordination
Coordination is one of the main components of physical fitness. It is the ability to perform smooth
and accurate movements involving different parts of the body. It requires good awareness of
relative limb and body positions, and good integration between the senses and muscles involved
in the movement.
Different types of coordinative abilities are

1. Differentiation ability
2. Orientation ability
3. Coupling ability
4. Reaction ability
5. Balance ability
6. Rhythm ability
7. Adaptation ability

Circuit Training
It is a form of body conditioning or resistance training using high intensity aerobics. It targets
strength building and muscular endurance. Activities in circuit training are step ups, stomach
crunch, squat ups, jogging, skipping etc.
Impact of circuit training are

• Get maximum result in minimum time.

• Increases rate of metabolism.
• Enhances cardiovascular fitness.
• Enhances muscle endurance.
• Helps in strength training.