Lecture note on Hydrostatics of Fluid 2021/22

CHAPTER TWO
Hydrostatics of Fluid
3. Introduction
Hydrostatics deals with the study of fluid that is at rest or moving with uniform velocity as a
solid body so that there is no relative motion between fluid elements. When there is no relative
motion between fluid layers, there is no shear stress in fluids at rest whatever the viscosity of the
fluid. Hence, only normal pressure forces are present in hydrostatics. Engineering applications of
hydrostatic principle includes the study of force acting on submerged bodies such as gates,
submarines, dams, etc. and analysis of stability of floating bodies such as ships, pontoons, etc.
3.1. Pressure at a point
In a fluid at a rest, no tangential stresses can exist. The only force between adjacent surfaces is
pressure forces that are normal to the surfaces. Therefore, pressure at any point in a fluid at rest
is the same in every direction. This is known as Pascal’s Law. Pascal’s principle can be proved
by considering a small wedge shaped fluid elements at rest. The thickness of the wedge
perpendicular to the plane of the paper is dy.
Pressure at point:

Figure 3.1 Free-body of a fluid wedge

Let P1, P2 and P3 be the average pressure acting on the faces ab, ac and bc of the prism
respectively. The weight of the fluid prism is where, is the specific weight of the

fluid. Since the fluid prism is in equilibrium, the equations of the equilibrium will be;
 In the X direction:

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 but
 So that,

 In the Z direction:

 But and all shrink to zero, the third term in the

above equation becomes zero.
Thus

Then
 This shows that the pressure at a point in a static fluid is the same in all directions.
3.2. Basic Equations of Hydrostatics
The basic equation of hydrostatics may be derived by considering the infinitesimal fluid
parallelepiped in a static fluid as shown in figure 3.2 below. Assuming the density of the fluid 
in the infinitesimal cube to be constant, the mass of the fluid is  . Let the pressure

varation in the x, y and z directions be respectively.

dP
P( )dz
dz

Z
dz

P p.dx
p
X dxdydz dy x

Y dx

Figure 3.2 A rectangular fluid parallelepiped

For fluid element at rest FX=0, Fy =0, Fz=0, the pressure force in the opposite vertical faces
must be equal.

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 p.dx 
Fx  0  p dy dz   p   dy dz  0
 x 
p
 0
x

 p.dy 
Fy  0  p dx dz   p   dx dz  0
 y 

p
 0
y

The preceding two equations show, respectively, that the pressure does not change in the x and y
directions. With reference to (Figure 3.2) the vertical direction will now be examined. Similar to
the foregoing procedure, if the pressure on the bottom face is taken as P, the pressure on the top
face becomes P+ (P/z) dz.

 p 
 Fz  pdx dy   p  z dz  dx dy   dx dy dz  0
p
  
z
It has been shown that P is not a function of x or y. If it is further assumed that the pressure does
not change with time, the relationship may be replaced by the total differential equation.

 dp    …………………………………………………………… (3.1)
dz
 dp =   dz ……………………………………………………………(3.2)

3.2.1. Variation of Pressure with Elevation in a Static Incompressible Fluid

For a fluid at rest and subjected only to gravitational force, the pressure variation is not a
function of x and y. Equation 3.1 thus represents the actual pressure variation in the vertical
direction. Equation 3.2 holds true for both compressible and incompressible fluids. However, for
homogeneous and incompressible fluid, ρ is constant and equation 3.2 may be integrated to give,
P =  z + c = -gz + c. Where c is constant of integration and is equal to pressure at z = zero.
The negative sign indicates that as z gets higher up ward, the pressure gets smaller. In
hydrostatic, the law of variation of pressure with depth is usually written as;
P = -gz + P0 ………………………………………. ……………………………………….. (3.3)
In equation 3.3 h is measured vertically down ward (i.e. h = -z) from free surface, p is pressure
at depth h below the free surface and P0 is pressure at free surface. Equation 3.3 shows that for a
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fluid at rest the pressure at the same depth from free surface are equal. Hence, in a homogeneous
continuous fluid, a surface of equal pressure is horizontal plane.

Figure 3.3 Pressure relative to the surface of a liquid

Consider two points (1) and (2) at a depth of h1 and h2 in a tank containing a liquid, with
density,  at rest as shown in figure 3.3. Pressures at point (1) and (2) are: P1 = Po + gh1 and P2
= Po + gh2 respectively. If h1 = h2, then P1 = P2. For h1 > h2, the pressure difference between (1)
and (2) is P1 –P2 = ∆P = gh1 - gh2 = g (h1 - h2) = g∆h.

Is the pressure difference between (1) and (2) expressed as the height of the liquid. This


difference is also refered to as the pressure head difference. Thus, by dividing a pressure by the
specific weight  = g of fluid, the pressure can be expressed as height of fluid column.

N.B: Read variation of pressure with elevation in static compressible fluid so that you will find
isothermal condition, diabetic condition, etc.
3.2.2. Absolute and Gage Pressure
A pressure may express with any reference arbitrary datum. It is usually expressed with respect
to absolute zero (perfect vacuum) and local atmospheric pressure. When a pressure is expressed
with respect to absolute zero, the pressure is called absolute pressure Pabs. If a pressure is
expressed with respect to local atmospheric pressure, it is called gage pressure Pgage.

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Figure 3.4 Pressure and pressure datum

It is evident from the figure above that absolute pressure is always positive since there cannot be
any pressure below absolute pressure. Gage pressure is positive if the pressure is greater that
atmospheric pressure and negative if the pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure. The
following equation expresses the relationship between Pabs, Pgage and Patm.
Pabs=Pgage + Patm ……………………………………………………………………………… (3.4)
In equation (3.4) Pgage may be positive or negative as the case may be. In hydrostatic, pressure
is usually expressed as gage pressure unless specified. Atmospheric pressure is also called
barometric because the barometer is an instrument that used to measure the atmospheric
pressure. The simple barometer consists of an inverted tube closed at one end and immersed in a
liquid with the open end down. If air is exhausted from the closed end of the tube, the
atmospheric pressure on the surface of the liquid in the container forces the liquid to rise in the
tube. If air is completely exhausted from the top portions of the tube, the liquid will rise to a
height y and the only pressure on the liquid surface in the tube is vapor-pressure of the liquid Pv.

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Figure 3.5 the simple Barometer

If ρ is density of the liquid, then the following equation is obtained from variations of pressure in
a static liquid.
Pa=PV+gy=Patm, i.e. Patm = gy + PV ………………………………… …………………… (3.5)
The vapor pressure is very small compared to atmospheric pressure. Hence the above equation is
approximated to Patm = gy. Thus, the atmospheric pressure when expressed as the depth of the
liquid becomes; y = Patm/g and y is called pressure head. It follows from this that if a liquid
with low density is used, y will be excessively large. Therefore, mercury is usually used in
barometers mainly because its specific weight is very high thus enabling the use of short tube
and also because its vapor pressure is negligibly small. At sea level y is 760mm of mercury or
10.33m of water. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is equal to 101.325KN/m2 and is also called
standard atmospheric pressure.
3.3. Measurement of pressure
3.3.1. Device pressure measurement
All the devices designed for measurement of the intensity of hydraulic pressure are based on
either of the two fundamental principles of measurement of pressure: firstly by balancing the
column of liquid (whose pressure is to be found) by the same or another column of liquid and
secondly by balancing the column of liquid by spring or dead weight.
1. Mercury Barometer
The measurement of atmospheric pressure is usually accomplished with a mercury barometer,
which in its simplest form, consists of a glass tube closed at one end with the open end immersed
in a container of mercury as shown in figure3.6. The tube is initially filled with mercury (inverted

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with its open end up) and then turned upside down (open end down) with the open end in the
container of mercury. The column of mercury will come to an equilibrium position where its
weight plus the force due to the vapor pressure (which develops in the space above the column)
balances the force due to the atmospheric pressure. Thus,
Patm = h + P vapor
Where:  is the specific weight of mercury, for most practical purposes the contribution of the
vapor pressure can be neglected since it is extremely small at room temperatures (e.g. 0.173 Pa at
20ºc).

P vapor
A

h
Patm

Figure 3.6 Mercury barometer

2. Manometer
A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the use of liquid columns in vertical or
inclined tubes containing one or more liquid of different specific gravities. Pressure measuring
devices based on this technique are called manometers. In using a manometer, generally a known
pressure (which may be atmospheric) is applied to one end of the manometer tube and the
unknown pressure to be determined is applied to the other end. In some cases, however, the
difference between pressures at ends of the manometer tube is desired rather than the actual
pressure at the either end. A manometer to determine this differential pressure is known as
differential pressure manometer.
The mercury barometer is an example of one type of manometer, but there are many other
configurations possible, depending on the particular application. The common types of
manometers include piezometric tube, the U-tube manometer, U-tube differential manometer and
the inclined U-tube manometer.

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i. Piezometric Tube
The simplest type of manometer consists of a vertical tube, open at the top, and attached to the
container in which the pressure is desired, as illustrated in figure 3.7. Since manometers involve
columns of fluids at rest, the fundamental equation describing their use is:
P = h + P0, Which gives the pressure at any elevation within a homogeneous fluid in terms of a
reference pressure p0 and the vertical distance h between p and p0. Remember that in fluid at rest
pressure will increase as we move downward, and will decrease as we move upward. Application
of this equation to the piezometric tube figure 3.7 indicates that the pressure PA can be
determined by a measurement of h1 through the relationship.
PA = 1h1
Where, 1 is the specific weight of the liquid in the container. Note that since the tube is open at
the top, the pressure Po can be set equal to zero (we are now using gage pressure), with the height
h1 measured from the meniscus at the upper surface to point (1). Since point (1) and point A
within the container are at the same elevation, PA =P1.
Although the piezometric tube is a very simple and accurate pressure-measuring device, it has
several disadvantages. It is only suitable if the pressure in the container is greater than
atmospheric pressure (otherwise air would be sucked into the system), and the pressure to be
measured must be relatively small so that required height of the column is reasonable. Also, the
fluid in the container in which the pressure is to be measured must be a liquid rather than a gas.

Figure 3.7 Piezometric tube

ii. U- Tube Manometer
To overcome the difficulties noted previously, another type of manometer, which is widely used,
consists of a tube formed into the shape of U as is shown in figure 3.8. The fluid in the

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manometer is called the gage fluid. To measure larger pressure differences we can choose a
manometer with higher density, and to measure smaller pressure differences with accuracy we
can choose a manometer fluid which is having a density closer to the fluid density.
To find the pressure pa in terms of the various column heights, we can use one of the two ways of
manometer reading techniques:
I) Surface of equal pressure(SEP)
II) Step by step procedure(SS)
a) Start at one end and write the pressure there
b) Add the change in pressure there
+ If next meniscus is lower.
- If next meniscus is higher
c) Continue until the other end of the gage and equate the pressure at that point
Thus, for the U- tube manometer shown in Figure 3.8, using SS method we will start at point A
and work around to the open end. The pressure at points A and (1) are the same, and as we move
from point (1) to (2), the pressure will increase by 1h1. The pressure at point (2) is equal to the
pressure at point (3), since the pressures at equal elevation in a continuous mass of fluid at rest
must be the same. Note that we could not simply “jump across” from point (1) to a point at the
same elevation in the right – hand tube since these would not be points within the same
continuous mass of fluid. With the pressure at point (3) specified we now move to the open end
where the pressure is zero. As we move vertically upward the pressure decreases by an amount
2h2. In equation form, these various steps can be expressed as:

PA + 1h1 - 2h2 = 0
Therefore, the pressure PA can be written in terms of the column heights as:
PA = 2h2 - 1h1
A major advantage of the U-tube manometer lies in the fact that the gage fluid can be different
from the fluid in the container in which the pressure is to be determined. For example, the fluid
in A in figure 3.8 can be either a liquid or a gas. If A does contain a gas, the contribution of the
gas column, 1h1, is almost always negligible so that PA  P2 and in this instance the above
equation becomes.
PA = 2h2

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Thus, for a given pressure the height, h2 is governed by the specific weight, 2, of the gage fluid
used in the manometer. If the pressure PA is large, then a heavy gage fluid, such as mercury, can
be used and a reasonable column height (not too long) can still be maintained. Alternatively, if
the pressure PA is small, a lighter gage fluid, such as water, can be used so that a relatively large
column height (which is easily read) can be achieved.

Figure 3.8 Simple U-tube manometers

iii. U-tube and Inverted U-tube differential manometer
The U- tube manometer is also widely used to measure the difference in pressure between two
containers or two points in a given system. Consider a manometer connected between container
A and B as is shown in figure 3.9a). The difference in pressure between A and B can find by
starting at one end of the system and working around to the other end. For example at A, the
pressure is PA, which is equal to P1, and as we move to point (2), pressure increases by 1h1. The
pressure P2 is equal to P3, and as we move upward from point (3) to (4) and from point (4) to (5)
the pressure decreases by2h2 and 3h3 respectively. Finally, P5 = PB, since they are at equal
elevation. Thus,
PA + 1h1 -2h2 - 3h3 = PB
Hence, the pressure difference is:
PA - PB = 2h2 + 3h3 - 1h1
NB: When substituting in numbers, be sure to use a consistent system of units!
Inverted U-tube differential manometer (figure 3.9b) consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a
light liquid. The two ends of the tube are connected to the points whose difference of pressure is
to be measured. It is used for measuring difference of low pressures. Capillarity due to surface

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tension at the various fluid interfaces in the manometer is usually not considered. Two common
gage fluids are water and mercury. Taking X-X as a datum line;
The pressure in the left limb below X-X = PA - 1*g*h1
Pressure in the right limb below X-X = PB - 2*g*h2 - F*g*h
Combining the two pressure; PA - PB = 1*g*h1- 2*g*h2 - F*g*h

Figure 3.9 a) U-tube differential manometer b) Inverted U-tube differential manometer

iv. Inclined U–tube Manometer
To measure small pressure changes, a manometer of the type shown in figure 3.10 is frequently
used. One leg of the manometer is inclined at an angle, and the differential reading  2 is
measured along the inclined tube. The difference in pressure PA – PB can be expressed as

PA   1 h1   2  2 sin    3 h3  PB

Or p A  pB   2 2 sin    3h3   1h1 , where it is to be noted that the pressure

difference between points (1) and (2) is due to the vertical distance between the points, which
can be expressed as  2 sin. Thus, for relatively small angles the differential reading along the
inclined tube can be made large even for small pressure differences. The inclined U-tube
manometer is often used to measure small differences in gas pressures. So that if pipes A and B
contain a gas then;

p A  pB   2 2 sin 
p A  pB
Or 2 
 2 sin 

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Where the contributions of the gas in columns h1 and h3 have been neglected, The above
Equation shows that the differential reading  2 (for a given pressure difference) of the inclined
U–tube manometer can be increased over that obtained with a conventional U-tube manometer
by the factor 1/sin. Recall that sin  0 as   0.

Figure 3.10 Inclined U-Tube manometers

3.3.2. Mechanical and Electronic pressure measuring devices

Although manometers are widely used, they are not well suited for measuring very high
pressures, or pressures that are changing rapidly with time. In addition, they require the
measurement of one or more column heights, which although not particularly difficult, can be
time consuming. To overcome some of these problems numerous other types of pressure
measuring instruments have been developed. Most of these make use of the idea that when a
pressure acts on an elastic structure the structure will deform, and this deformation can be
related to the magnitude of the pressure. Probably the most familiar device of this kind is the
Bourdon pressure gage, which is shown in figure 3.11.
The essential mechanical element in this gage is the hollow, elastic curved tube (Bourdon tube)
which is connected to the pressure source as shown in Fig. As the pressure within the tube
increases the tube tends to straighten, and although the deformation is small, it can be translated
into the motion of a pointer on a dial as illustrated. Since it is the difference in pressure between
the outside of the tube (atmospheric pressure) and the inside of the tube that causes the
movement of the tube, the indicated pressure is gage pressure. The Bourdon gage must be
calibrated so that the dial reading can directly indicate the pressure in suitable units. A zero

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reading on the gage indicates that the measured pressure is equal to the local atmospheric
pressure. This type of gage can be used to measure a negative gage pressure (vacuum) as well
positive pressure.

Figure 3.11 Bourdon Gauge

3.4. Hydrostatic pressure on Surfaces

Plane and curved surfaces immersed fully or partly in liquids are subjected to hydrostatic
pressure forces. It is therefore, essential to determine the magnitude, direction, and location of
these forces. For the analysis of stability of body fully or partly immersed in liquid and for the
appropriate design of hydraulic structures such as dams, gates, etc.

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3.4.1. Hydrostatic forces on plane surfaces

a) Horizontal plane surfaces
The pressure intensity in static fluid is the same at any two points in a horizontal plane surface.
Therefore, a plane surface in horizontal position at a depth h below a free surface in a liquid at
rest will be subjected to constant pressure intensity .The total pressure force on a small
differential area is given by . The total pressure force on the entire horizontal plane

surface with area A will be; .

The force acts normal to the surface and towards the surface. Since the pressure, intensity is
uniformly distributed over the plane surface, total resultant force Fp acts through the centroid of
the area and where, is the depth from the free surface to the centroid. Thus for the
horizontal plane surface, the center of pressure C coincides with the center of gravity G.
Center of pressure: - is the point on the immersed surface at which the resultant pressure force
on the entire area is assumed to act.
b) Vertical Plane Surface
Consider a plane vertical surface of area A immersed vertically in a liquid (Figure 3.12). Since
the depth from the free surface to the various points on the surface varies, the pressure intensity
on the surface is not constant and varies directly with depth.

Figure 3.12
Consider also a narrow strip of horizontal area dA, shown shaded in figure 3.12, at a depth h
below the free surface. The pressure intensity on this area dA is and is uniform. The total
pressure force on one side of the strip is thus . The total pressure force on one side
of the entire area A is:

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Where is the depth from the free surface to the centroid G of the area, Thus, as for a horizontal
plane area, the magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic pressure force on a vertical plane area is
obtained by multiplying the pressure intensity at the centroid G, i.e. , by the total area A.
If the vertical area is not of a regular shape, the area may be divided into a finite number of small
regular areas and the total hydrostatic pressure force determined as the sum of the pressure forces
acting on these small areas. The total pressure force F, acts normal to the vertical plane area and
towards the area through the center of pressure C. Since the pressure distribution on the area is
not uniform, the center of pressure and the centroid will not coincide. The depth h, to the center
of pressure may be obtained from the principle of moments. The moment of the elementary force
dF, acting on the area dA (Figure 3.12) about axis 0-0 on the free surface is
. The total moment of all elementary forces on the whole area is: .
From the principle of moments, the sum of the moments of a number of forces about an axis is
equal to the moment of their resultant about the same axis. Thus: .
The term may be recognized as the second moment of area about the free surface i.e. I00.

Using the parallel axis theorem of second moment of area,

Where is the second moment of area about the axis parallel to 0-0 and passing through the

centroid G. Therefore, Or Thus, the center of pressure C for

vertical plane area is below the centroid by an amount equal to:

The moment of Fp about the centroid is: , which is independent

of depth of submergence.

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Table 3.1 Surface area, centroid and second moment of area of some simple geometric
shapes

c) Inclined Plane Surface

The analysis of the hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface will be made by considering a
plane surface of arbitrary shape and total area (A) inclined at an arbitrary angle to the free
surface as shown in Fig. 3.13. AB is the trace of the inclined surface with the extension of which
intersects with the free surface at O. and are the depths from the free surface to the
centroid C and center of pressure CP of the area respectively. and , are the corresponding
distances from O to C and CP respectively, measured along the inclined surface. It is required to
determine the magnitude, direction and line of action of the resultant hydrostatic force Fp acting
on one side of the area.

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Figure 3.13 Hydrostatic forces on an inclined plane surface

The magnitude of the force acting on an elementary area at a depth h below the free
surface is given by . The force , acts normal to the
plane surface. The resultant hydrostatic force Fp is the sum of all elementary forces , which
are parallel to each other. Thus
But is the first moment of area A about axis through O and is equal to . A and since
= , the above equation for , becomes: . is the pressure
intensity at the centroid of the inclined plane area. This shows that the magnitude of the resultant
hydrostatic force on an inclined plane area is equal to the product of the area and the pressure
intensity at the centroid of the area. The force , acts normal to the plane surface and
towards the surface. The resultant force , acts through the centre of pressure CP of the
submerged plane area. The location of CP is determined using the principle of moments for a
parallel force system. In figure 3.13 let the axis through O coinciding with the free surface be the
axis of moments. The moment of force , about this axis is equal to , which is given by:

The moment of the resultant force , about the axis of moments will be equal to the sum of all
elemental moment . i.e.; , where ,is the
second moment of the plane area about axis 0-0.

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Thus using the parallel axis theorem, , Where

, is the second moment of area about an axis parallel to 0-0 and passing through the centroid C.

Thus - This shows that the center of pressure is always below the

centroid of the area. The same has been shown for vertical plane surfaces. The depth of the
center of pressure below the free surface is . Substituting this and the value of
in the above equation, the following equation is obtained for the depth to the
center of pressure.

d) Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces

The total hydrostatic force on a curved surface immersed in a liquid cannot be directly
determined by the methods developed for plane surfaces. For plane surfaces, the pressure forces
on elementary areas act perpendicular to the surface and hence are parallel to each other.
Consequently, it is easier to obtain the resultant force by a simple summation of the elementary
forces. In the case of a curved surface each elementary force acts perpendicular to the tangent of
the elementary area and because of the curvature of the surface the direction of each elementary
force is different. As a result, the usual procedure is to determine the horizontal and vertical
components of the resultant force and then add them vectorially to obtain the magnitude,
direction and location of the line of action of the resultant hydrostatic force. Consider the curved
surface BC of unit width shown in Figure 3.14.

Figure 3.14 Hydrostatic force components on curved surfaces

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The elementary force dF acting on the elementary area dA has a horizontal component and a
vertical component . The pressure intensity on dA is gh.
The total hydrostatic force on dA = dF = ghdA
The horizontal component of dF = = ghdACos
The vertical component of dF = = ghdASin
But dACos = dA = The projection of dA on the vertical plane and dASin = dA = The
projection of dA on the horizontal plane. The components of the total hydrostatic force in the x
and y directions are and respectively and are given by:

Where: & is the projection of the whole curved surface BC on the vertical plane, i.e. BD and
dV is the volume of the water prism (real or virtual) extending over the area dA to the free
surface.
i.e. , Thus: the horizontal component, , of the resultant hydrostatic force on a curved
surface BC is equal to the product of the vertically projected area of BD and the pressure
intensity at the centroid of the vertical area BD. The Force , passes through the center of
pressure of the vertically projected area BD.
The vertical component, , of the resultant hydrostatic force on a curved surface BC is equal to
the weight of the water (real or virtual) enclosed between the curved surface BC, the vertical BD
and the free surface CD. The force component , acts through the center of gravity of the
volume.

The resultant force F is given by: , F acts normal to the tangent at the contact

point on the surface at an angle to the horizontal, where: .

3.4.2. Pressure Diagrams
The resultant hydrostatic force and center of pressure for regular plane areas could be determined
from pressure distribution diagrams such as those shown in Figure 3.15.

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(a) (b)

Figure 3.15 Pressure diagrams

In figure 3,15(a) the surface AB is horizontal and the pressure intensity is uniform over the area
of the horizontal surface AB. The total hydrostatic thrust on AB is equal to the volume of the
pressure prism, which is the product of the uniform pressure intensity and the area A, and
acts through the centroid of the area.
In figure 3.15(b), AB may be assumed to be rectangular with width b perpendicular to the plane
of the paper. The pressure distribution is trapezoidal with intensity at A and at B. The
total hydrostatic force on AB is equal to the volume of the pressure prism and is given by:

The center of pressure is the centroid of the pressure prism. It may be located by dividing the
prism into a rectangular and triangular prism. For the rectangular prism, the centroid is at
( )/2 above B and for the triangular prism it is at ( )/3 above b. The centroid of the
trapezoidal prism can then be found from the principle of moments.
3.5. Buoyancy forces and stability of floating and submerged bodies
3.5.1. Buoyancy force
A buoyancy force is defined to be the net force from fluid pressure acting on the surface of an
object that is either completely or partially submerged in a fluid at rest. If the object is
completely submerged at the same depth, that has the same geometry and orientation as the
surface of the submerged body. The fluid body has only two external forces acting upon it: its
weight, which acts downward through its mass centroid, and the pressure or buoyancy force
acting on its surface. Since the vector sum of these external forces must vanish the buoyancy
force must have zero horizontal components and a vertical component equal to the weight of
fluid displaced by the physical object.

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Figure 3.16 Buoyancy forces on (a) a submerged physical object and (b) a volume of fluid
with the same pressure distribution around its surface
An equilibrium configuration or position for the submerged object is determined by considering
all of the external forces acting on the object. These forces include the buoyancy force, the
weight of the object plus all other external forces acting on the object. If the system is statically
indeterminate, then elastic considerations must be used to close the system of equations. An
example is shown in (figure 3.17) where an object is tethered by a single rope. Since the rope is
capable of carrying only a single tensile force in the direction of its longitudinal axis, the tensile
force in the rope must equal the difference between the upward buoyancy force and the
downward object weight. All three of these forces are vertical and setting the summation of
moments equal to zero will give the relative positions of c, cg and the point at which rope is
attached to the body.

Figure 3.17 Forces on an object tethered by a single rope

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The problem for an object floating on a free surface differs from the problem for a completely
submerged object in two ways. First, the object weight and the buoyancy force are usually the
only two external forces acting on the floating body. This means that these two forces must be
equal in magnitude opposite in direction and have the same line of action in order to ensure that
the resultant force and moment both vanish. Second, the volume of fluid that is used to calculate
the buoyancy force and its line of action has the same geometry as the wetted surface of the
floating object when closed with a plane of zero fluid pressure that coincides with the free
surface.

Figure 3.18 Forces on (a) a floating object and (b) the volume of fluid used to calculate the
corresponding buoyancy force on the floating object

3.6. Relative Equilibrium of liquids

3.6.1. Stability of submerged bodies
The stability of a submerged body depends upon the relative position of its centre of gravity and
its centre of buoyancy both of which have fixed positions. Considering the three possible relative
positions of centre of buoyancy B and centre of gravity G of submerged bodies, there are three
conditions of equilibrium:
a. Stable equilibrium-where the centre of buoyancy is always above the centre of gravity.
b. Unstable equilibrium-where the centre of buoyancy is always below the centre of gravity.
c. Neutral equilibrium- where the centre of gravity and the centre of buoyancy coincide.
3.6.2. Stability of floating bodies
Not all equilibrium configurations are stable. As in all stability theory, the stability of a floating
body is tested by subjecting the body to a small disturbance. This disturbance, which takes the
form of a small rotation, creates a change in the system of forces acting on the body. If this new

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system of forces acts to force the body back into its original configuration, then the initial
configuration is said to be stable. However, if the new system of forces acts to further increase
the disturbance, then the initial configuration is unstable.
Meta-centre and meta-centric height
The point at which the line of action of the buoyant force for the displaced position intersects the
original vertical through the center of gravity of the body c.g is called meta-center, designated as
M. Meta-centric height is the distance between c.g and M. Considering the relative location of
meta-centre to the centre of gravity, there are three conditions of equilibrium:
1. If M lies above c.g, a righting moment is produced and equilibrium is stable.
2. If M lies below c.g, an overturning moment is produced and equilibrium is unstable.
3. If M and c.g coincide, the body is in neutral equilibrium.

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