Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism

Volume II:
Lives

Editor-in-chief
Jonathan A. Silk

Editors
Richard Bowring
Vincent Eltschinger
Michael Radich

Editorial Advisory Board

Lucia Dolce
Berthe Jansen
John Jorgensen
Christian Lammerts
Francesco Sferra

LEIDEN | BOSTON

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 Contents

Prelims
Contributors ............................................................................................................................................................. xi
Editors and Editorial Board .................................................................................................................................. xxxiii
Primary Sources Abbreviations........................................................................................................................... xxxv
Books Series and Journals Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xxxvii
General Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... xlii
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. xliv

Section One:
Śākyamuni: South Asia .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Barlaam and Josaphat ............................................................................................................................................ 39

Section Two:

South & Southeast Asia:

Ajātaśatru .................................................................................................................................................................. 51
Āryadeva.................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Āryaśūra..................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Asaṅga/Maitreya(nātha)....................................................................................................................................... 73
Bhāviveka .................................................................................................................................................................. 81
Brahmā, Śakra, and Māra ...................................................................................................................................... 85
Buddhaghoṣa............................................................................................................................................................ 92
Buddhas of the Past: South Asia ......................................................................................................................... 95
Buddhas of the Past and of the Future: Southeast Asia ............................................................................... 109
Candragomin ........................................................................................................................................................... 121
Candrakīrti................................................................................................................................................................ 125
Ḍākinī ......................................................................................................................................................................... 132
Devadatta .................................................................................................................................................................. 141
Dharmakīrti .............................................................................................................................................................. 156
Dharmapāla .............................................................................................................................................................. 168
Dharmottara............................................................................................................................................................. 173
Dignāga ...................................................................................................................................................................... 179
Early Sarvāstivāda Masters ................................................................................................................................... 186
Gavampati in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................................................... 191
Gopadatta ................................................................................................................................................................. 196
Guṇaprabha.............................................................................................................................................................. 198
Haribhadra................................................................................................................................................................ 204
Haribhaṭṭa ................................................................................................................................................................. 209
Harivarman............................................................................................................................................................... 211
Harṣa .......................................................................................................................................................................... 214
Hayagrīva................................................................................................................................................................... 218
Indian Tantric Authors: Overview ...................................................................................................................... 228
Jñānagarbha ............................................................................................................................................................. 261
Jñānapāda ................................................................................................................................................................. 264

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vi Contents

Jñānaśrīmitra ........................................................................................................................................................... 269

Kamalaśīla ................................................................................................................................................................ 272
Karuṇāmaya ............................................................................................................................................................. 279
Kṣemendra ................................................................................................................................................................ 286
Kumāralāta ............................................................................................................................................................... 293
Mahādeva.................................................................................................................................................................. 298
Maitreya..................................................................................................................................................................... 302
Mārīcī ......................................................................................................................................................................... 325
Mātṛceṭa .................................................................................................................................................................... 332
Nāgārjuna .................................................................................................................................................................. 335
Paccekabuddhas/Pratyekabuddhas in Indic Sources ................................................................................... 348
Phra Malai in Thailand and Southeast Asia..................................................................................................... 357
Prajñākaragupta ...................................................................................................................................................... 363
Ratnākaraśānti......................................................................................................................................................... 366
Ratnakīrti .................................................................................................................................................................. 371
Saṅghabhadra .......................................................................................................................................................... 374
Śaṅkaranandana ..................................................................................................................................................... 378
Śaṅkarasvāmin ........................................................................................................................................................ 382
Śāntarakṣita .............................................................................................................................................................. 383
Śāntideva ................................................................................................................................................................... 391
Sarasvatī/Benzaiten................................................................................................................................................ 398
Śāriputra .................................................................................................................................................................... 409
Scholars of Premodern Pali Buddhism ............................................................................................................. 420
Seers (ṛṣi/isi) and Brāhmaṇas in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................ 437
Siddhas....................................................................................................................................................................... 443
Śrīlāta ......................................................................................................................................................................... 452
Sthiramati ................................................................................................................................................................. 456
Śubhagupta............................................................................................................................................................... 458
Tantric Buddhist Deities in Southeast Asia ..................................................................................................... 463
Thera/Therī in Pali and Southeast Asian Buddhism ..................................................................................... 474
Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin .......................................................................................................................................... 479
Upagupta ................................................................................................................................................................... 481
Vāgīśvarakīrti ........................................................................................................................................................... 490
Vasubandhu .............................................................................................................................................................. 492
Vināyaka .................................................................................................................................................................... 507
Yama and Hell Beings in Indian Buddhism ..................................................................................................... 513

East Asia:
Ākāśagarbha in East Asia ...................................................................................................................................... 521
Arhats in East Asian Buddhism .......................................................................................................................... 529
Aśvaghoṣa (East Asian Aspects) ......................................................................................................................... 540
Avalokiteśvara in East Asia................................................................................................................................... 546
Dizang/Jizō ............................................................................................................................................................... 562
Jianzhen (Ganjin) ................................................................................................................................................... 571
Mahākāla in East Asia............................................................................................................................................ 576
Mahākāśyapa in Chan-inspired Traditions...................................................................................................... 586
Mañjuśrī in East Asia ............................................................................................................................................. 591
Maudgalyāyana (Mulian)...................................................................................................................................... 600
Musang (Wuxiang) ................................................................................................................................................. 608
Tejaprabhā ................................................................................................................................................................ 612
Yinyuan Longqi (Ingen) ........................................................................................................................................ 616

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 Contents vii

China:
Amoghavajra ............................................................................................................................................................ 623
An Shigao .................................................................................................................................................................. 630
Chengguan ................................................................................................................................................................ 642
Daoxuan .................................................................................................................................................................... 648
Falin ............................................................................................................................................................................ 653
Faxian ......................................................................................................................................................................... 657
Fazun .......................................................................................................................................................................... 662
Hanshan Deqing ..................................................................................................................................................... 668
Hongzhi Zhengjue .................................................................................................................................................. 673
Huihong (see Juefan Huihong)
Huineng (see Shenxiu)
Huiyuan (see Lushan Huiyuan)
Jigong.......................................................................................................................................................................... 679
Juefan Huihong ....................................................................................................................................................... 684
Liang Wudi................................................................................................................................................................ 689
Lokakṣema ................................................................................................................................................................ 700
Luo Qing .................................................................................................................................................................... 707
Lushan Huiyuan ...................................................................................................................................................... 711
Mazu Daoyi............................................................................................................................................................... 722
Mingben (see Zhongfeng Mingben)
Nāgārjuna in China ................................................................................................................................................ 727
Nenghai...................................................................................................................................................................... 735
Ouyang Jingwu ........................................................................................................................................................ 741
Ouyi Zhixu ................................................................................................................................................................ 748
Paramārtha ............................................................................................................................................................... 752
Qian Qianyi............................................................................................................................................................... 759
Qisong ........................................................................................................................................................................ 764
Shenhui (see Shenxiu)
Shenxiu, Huineng, and Shenhui ......................................................................................................................... 768
Śubhākarasiṃha...................................................................................................................................................... 777
Wumen ...................................................................................................................................................................... 782
Wuxiang (see East Asia: Musang)
Wuzhu ........................................................................................................................................................................ 787
Xiao Ziliang............................................................................................................................................................... 791
Yinshun...................................................................................................................................................................... 795
Yixing ......................................................................................................................................................................... 800
Yuan Hongdao ......................................................................................................................................................... 806
Yuanwu Keqin .......................................................................................................................................................... 810
Zhanran ..................................................................................................................................................................... 814
Zhi Qian ..................................................................................................................................................................... 818
Zhili............................................................................................................................................................................. 826
Zhixu (see Ouyang Zhixu)
Zhiyi............................................................................................................................................................................ 833
Zhongfeng Mingben............................................................................................................................................... 839
Zhuhong .................................................................................................................................................................... 844

Korea:
Chinul......................................................................................................................................................................... 853
Hyujŏng ..................................................................................................................................................................... 860
Ich’adon ..................................................................................................................................................................... 864

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viii Contents

Kihwa ......................................................................................................................................................................... 869

Kim Sisŭp .................................................................................................................................................................. 873
Kyŏnghŏ..................................................................................................................................................................... 877
Kyunyŏ ....................................................................................................................................................................... 882
Muhak Chach’o ........................................................................................................................................................ 887
Musang (see East Asia)
Pou .............................................................................................................................................................................. 891
Tosŏn .......................................................................................................................................................................... 895
Ŭich’ŏn ....................................................................................................................................................................... 900
Ŭisang ........................................................................................................................................................................ 903
Wŏnch’ŭk .................................................................................................................................................................. 908
Wŏnhyo...................................................................................................................................................................... 913
Yi Nŭnghwa .............................................................................................................................................................. 918

Japan:
Amaterasu Ōmikami .............................................................................................................................................. 923
Annen......................................................................................................................................................................... 930
Benzaiten (see South and Southeast Asia: Sarasvatī)
Dōgen ......................................................................................................................................................................... 933
Dōhan......................................................................................................................................................................... 941
Eisai (see Yōsai)
Eison ........................................................................................................................................................................... 944
En no Gyōja .............................................................................................................................................................. 951
Enchin ........................................................................................................................................................................ 956
Ennin .......................................................................................................................................................................... 961
Ganjin (see East Asia: Jianzhen)
Genshin ..................................................................................................................................................................... 967
Hachiman ................................................................................................................................................................. 971
Hakuin ....................................................................................................................................................................... 976
Hōnen ........................................................................................................................................................................ 980
Ikkyū Sōjun ............................................................................................................................................................... 987
Ingen (see East Asia: Yinyuan Longqi)
Ippen Chishin .......................................................................................................................................................... 991
Jakushō ...................................................................................................................................................................... 995
Jiun Sonja .................................................................................................................................................................. 998
Jizō (see East Asia: Dizang)
Jōjin............................................................................................................................................................................. 1002
Jōkei ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1006
Kakuban .................................................................................................................................................................... 1011
Keizan Jōkin ............................................................................................................................................................. 1016
Kōmyō ........................................................................................................................................................................ 1020
Kūkai .......................................................................................................................................................................... 1026
Kūya ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1036
Menzan Zuihō ......................................................................................................................................................... 1041
Monkan ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1047
Mugai Nyodai ........................................................................................................................................................... 1057
Mujaku Dōchū ......................................................................................................................................................... 1062
Musō Soseki .............................................................................................................................................................. 1066
Myōe ........................................................................................................................................................................... 1071
Nichiren ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1076
Nōnin.......................................................................................................................................................................... 1088

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 Contents ix
Raiyu........................................................................................................................................................................... 1094
Ryōgen........................................................................................................................................................................ 1097
Saichō ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1102
Saigyō ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1107
Shinran....................................................................................................................................................................... 1111
Shōtoku Taishi ......................................................................................................................................................... 1117
Tenjin ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1122
Tenkai ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1128
Yōsai/Eisai ................................................................................................................................................................. 1134
Zaō .............................................................................................................................................................................. 1139

Tibetan Cultural Sphere

Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters ................................................................................................................ 1145
Ge sar of Gling ......................................................................................................................................................... 1159
Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers ............................................................................................. 1165
Gtsang smyon Heruka ........................................................................................................................................... 1171
Lcang skya Rol pa’i Rdo rje ................................................................................................................................... 1175
Mi la ras pa................................................................................................................................................................ 1181
The Mongolian Jebdzundamba Khutugtu Lineage ....................................................................................... 1191
Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism ............................................................................................................ 1197
The Sa skya School’s Five Forefathers................................................................................................................ 1213
Spirits of the Soil, Land, and Locality in Tibet ................................................................................................ 1226
Ston pa Gshen rab: The Bön Buddha ................................................................................................................. 1233
Tibet's Crazy Yogins ................................................................................................................................................ 1239
Tsong kha pa and his Immediate Successors .................................................................................................. 1246
Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet ..................................................................................................................... 1254

Appendix To Volume I:
Buddhist Narrative Literature in Japan ............................................................................................................. 1269
Poetry: Japan ............................................................................................................................................................ 1286
Korean Sŏn Literature............................................................................................................................................ 1294

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 Āryadeva
Āryadeva (Tib. ’Phags pa lha, Chn. Tipo pusa [提婆
菩薩 = Deva Bodhisattva], Tian [天 = Deva]; for
other names and nicknames, see below) was a direct
disciple of →Nāgārjuna, regarded as the founder of
the Madhyamaka school. Whereas his Catuḥśataka
strongly influenced the development of Madhya-
maka in India and Tibet, the *Śataka, together
with Nāgārjuna’s Mūlamadhyamakakārikā and the
Dvādaśamukhaśāstra (all of them translated by
Kumārajīva [鳩摩羅什]) in the 4th century, pro-
vided the foundation for what would later become
the “Three Treatises” (Sanlun [三論]) tradition in
East Asia. Most of Nāgārjuna’s arguments target-
ted fellow Buddhist dogmatic traditions. Āryadeva
is to be credited with applying his master’s philo-
sophical method to non-Buddhist schools such as
the Sāṅkhya and the Vaiśeṣika, for the early phases
of which his works are important sources. Chinese
and Tibetan sources, while differing in details, extol
Āryadeva’s impressive intellectual abilities, his mas-
tery of Buddhist and non-Buddhist philosophy, and
his skill in debate and in winning converts to Bud-
dhism. They portray him as a compassionate bod-
hisattva, willing even to part with one of his eyes,
and to use any means (disguises and even magical
powers) to convert others to the Buddha’s truth.
Āryadeva’s major work, the Catuḥśataka, provides
evidence that confirms this portrait.
The chronology of Āryadeva is uncertain and
depends on the dates of Nāgārjuna. Most of the Indic,
Chinese, and Tibetan sources agree that  Āryadeva
was born in the island of Siṃhala (see below). Some
scholars associate this island with Sri Lanka and
suggest that Āryadeva is the thera Deva mentioned
in the Sinhalese chronicles, the Mahāvaṃsa (XXXV,
29, ed. Malalasekera, 1937, 346) and the Dīpavaṃsa
(XXII, 41, ed. Law, 1957–1958, 123). Lamotte, who
placed Āryadeva in Sri Lanka during the latter half
of the 3rd century CE, believed that he left the
island at the time of the Vetullavāda heresy (that is,
the Mahāyāna), came to India as an already accom-
plished scholar, became an advocate of Madhya-
maka under Nāgārjuna’s tutelage, and published
his own works after his master’s death in the first
years of the 4th century CE (Lamotte, 1970, 1373n;
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May, 1979, 479a). The problem of dating Āryadeva is
linked with the difficulties of determining the date
of his teacher (Seyfort Ruegg, 1981, 4–5). Lamotte,
relying on Chinese sources, calculates 3rd-century
birthdates for Nāgārjuna (243 CE) and Āryadeva,
and for the composition of →Harivarman’s *Tat-
tvasiddhi (253 CE; Lamotte, 1962, 75–76; 1970, liii; de
Jong, 1971, 107). But Harivarman quotes Catuḥśataka
2.8, which makes Lamotte’s 253 CE dates for this
text’s composition incompatible with a birthdate
of 243 CE for Nāgārjuna and an even later date for
Āryadeva’s birth. If Kumārajīva’s information on
the mid-3rd-century date of the *Tattvasiddhi is
accurate, Āryadeva must have been active earlier,
flourishing sometime between the middle of the
2nd and 3rd centuries CE. Other Chinese sources,
such as Sengzhao (僧肇; 374–414), who says in his
preface to the Bailun (百論) that Āryadeva lived
800 years after the nirvāṇa of the Buddha (T. 1569
[XXX] 167c15, trans. Robinson, 1967, 210; Young, 2015,
31, likely the earliest extant biography of Āryadeva,
written around 404; Lamotte, 1962, 75), and Hui-
yuan (慧遠; 334–416), who says in his preface to his
abridged version of the Great Perfection of Wisdom
Treatise (T. 2145 [LV] 75b27–29, trans. Robinson,
1967, 200–205; Lamotte, 1962, 75) that Nāgārjuna
lived in the 9th century after the nirvāṇa, also place
both Madhyamaka scholars in the 3rd century CE
(Robinson, 1967, 22). This information, along with
the probable association of Nāgārjuna, and per-
haps Āryadeva also, with one of the Sātavāhana
kings, whose dynasty ended in the mid-3rd-century
CE (Lamotte, 1949, xii–xiii), favors the hypothesis
of dating Āryadeva’s literary activity between the
years 225 and 250 CE. Although there is no conclu-
sive evidence to support the identification of the
thera Deva with Āryadeva (Yamakami, 1912, 190–191;
Lamotte, 1970, 1373n), these dates are compatible
with the theory that he left Sri Lanka for India when
King Vohārikatissa (209–231 CE [Deegalle, 2004,
47–48], or 214–236 CE [Mori, 1988, 152]) suppressed
the innovative ideas of the Vetullavādins (Bareau,
1955, 254–255).
Āryadeva’s life is known to us through legend-
ary accounts found in Indic, Chinese, and Tibetan
BEB, vol. II
 Āryadeva
sources (Lamotte, 1970, 1373n; Lang, 1986, 7–8;
Sonam & Sonam, 2008, 10–15; Young, 2015, 265–282).
Besides materials found in T. 1569, T. 2145 (see
above), T. 2048, and T. 2058 (see below), one of the
earliest biographical references is to be found in
the introduction of →Candrakīrti’s Bodhisattvayo-
gācāracatuḥśatakaṭīkā (D 3865, dbu ma, ya, 31b4–5,
ed. Suzuki, 1994, 434:19–25). Here we learn that the
ācārya Āryadeva was born in Siṃhaladvīpa (Tib. si
nga la’i gling, generally identified with Srī Laṅkā,
but see Dutt, 1934, 137–142; Sastri, 1955, 196ff.) as the
son of the local king. Declining the succession, he
was ordained a Buddhist monk, and, having trav-
eled to the South of India, became a disciple of
ācārya Nāgārjuna. Xuanzang (玄奘; 602–664) also
reports that Deva Bodhisattva (提婆菩薩) came
from Siṃhala (執師子國) to visit Nāgārjuna (T. 2087
[LI] 929a27–28, trans. Li, 1996, 272). Nāgārjuna
tested him by filling a bowl with water and offer-
ing it to him. The water signified Nāgārjuna’s vast
knowledge, and the needle Āryadeva dropped into
it, his capacity to penetrate its depths. Nāgārjuna
told him that he was glad to meet a brilliant scholar
to whom he could transmit uninterrupted the lamp
of the Buddha’s teachings. Nāgārjuna took him as
his disciple shortly before retiring to Śrīparvata
(T. 2087 [LI] 912c, trans. Li, 1996, 204). As we have
seen above, Theravāda chronicles report on a monk
named Deva who was active at the time of the
Vetullavāda “heresy” and was treated supportively
by Kings Vohārikatissa (214–236, see above) and
Saṃghatissa (293–297).
According to Bu ston (1290–1364; Chos ’byung, ed.
Gangs ljongs shes rig gi nying bcud, 1988, 149:16–17;
trans. Obermiller, 1932, 129), Āryadeva was miracu-
lously born of a lotus and adopted by the king of
Siṃhaladvīpa, a story Tāranātha (1575–1634) regards
as a mere Tibetan invention (Chos ’byung, ed. Schief-
ner, 1868, 66:14–22; trans. Chimpa & Chattopadhy-
aya, 1970, 124) preferring the one told by Candrakīrti.
According to Tāranatha, the name of the king was
Pañcaśṛṅga, whereas Āryadeva’s first Buddhist pre-
ceptor (upādhyāya) was Hemadeva. As was to be
expected from the very nature of Āryadeva’s writings,
all sources strongly insist on the philosopher’s dia-
lectical activities. Xuanzang tells of two victorious
debates, one with a non-Buddhist brahmin (外道婆
羅門) in a monastery south of Prayāga (T. 2087 [LI]
897b2–13, trans. Li, 1996, 136–137; this would be the
place where he composed his *Śataśāstravaipulya
[廣百論]), the other with “the heretics of
Pāṭaliputra” (T. 2087 [LI] 912c17–913a20, trans.
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61
Li, 1996, 204–205). Hearing that the heretics had
defeated all the monks in Pāṭaliputra and obtained
from the king a promise that the bell announcing
debates would never be struck again, Āryadeva
asked Nāgārjuna permission to travel north and
to debate against these scholars. The latter helped
Āryadeva prepare to debate. Since the king forbade
any foreign monk from entering the city, Āryadeva
entered in disguise and, having reached the monas-
tery, was able to strike the forbidden bell. Within 20
days, he was able to vanquish all the non-Buddhists
(Cabezón, 2008, 76). Bu ston and Tāranātha are
unanimous in making the not yet converted Śaiva
brahmin →Mātṛceṭa (also known as Durdharṣakāla
in Tāranātha, who equates them in his Chos ’byung,
ed. Schiefner, 1868, 71:3–4, trans. Chimpa & Chatto-
padhyaya, 1970, 131) the main opponent of Āryadeva
(Chos ’byung, ed. Gangs ljongs shes rig gi nying
bcud, 149:18–150,2, trans. Obermiller, 1932, 129; Chos
’byung, ed. Schiefner, 1868, 67:8–68:5, trans. Chimpa
& Chattopadhyaya, 1970, 124–126). Mātṛceṭa had
received from Maheśvara the boon that he could
not be defeated in debate by anyone born from a
womb. After numerous victories in debate, he came
to challenge the monks of Nālandā, who sent a mes-
sage to Nāgārjuna (Bu ston) or to Āryadeva directly
(Tāranātha, according to whom the monks’ offer-
ings to Mahākāla magically created a crow to whose
neck the letter was tied), inviting him to come and
subdue their opponent. In both accounts, Āryadeva
resolved to go. On his way to Nālandā, Āryadeva met
a tree goddess (Bu ston) or a non-Buddhist woman
(Tāranātha) who asked for one of his eyes (accord-
ing to Tāranātha, she needed a monk’s eye to com-
plete a siddhi), which he gave her (hence Āryadeva’s
other names Kāṇadeva, Nīlanetra, Piṅgalanetra, etc.;
Lamotte, 1970, 1373n). Āryadeva defeated Mātṛceṭa,
according to Tāranātha, not without resorting to
magic. Maheśvara had taken the form of a talking
parrot and his consort the form of Mātṛceṭa’s eru-
dite sister to provide Mātṛceṭa with the answers
and an unfair advantage. Aware of this subter-
fuge, Āryadeva  brought with him a cat to devour
the parrot, a brazen layman who exposed himself
to the sister and prompted her to leave, and oil
which, poured on the ground, prevented Mātṛceṭa
from using his magic chalk. Deprived of help, the
defeated Mātṛceṭa was confined in a temple library
and converted by the Buddha’s word (Cabezón,
2008, 77). Āryadeva had also recourse to magic
in order to arrest Mātṛceṭa who had attempted
to escape through the sky. In Bu ston’s narrative,
62 Āryadeva
Āryadeva is reported to have uttered the following
stanza after vanquishing his opponent: “The ter-
rific One, though he has three eyes, cannot perceive
the absolute truth; Indra, though endowed with
1000 eyes, is likewise unable to see it. But Āryadeva,
who has only one eye, has the intuition of the true
essence of all the three spheres of exisence” (Chos
’byung, ed. Gangs ljongs shes rig gi nying bcud,
149:24–150,1, trans. Obermiller, 1932, 129). Mātṛceṭa
converted to Buddhism and became a brilliant
scholar (for a prophecy concerning his nirvāṇa,
see Takakusu, 1896, 156–157). As for Āryadeva, after
staying a long time in Nālandā, he went back to the
south and entrusted Rāhulabhadra with the respon-
sibility of the Law. As testified by the episodes of the
woman begging his eye or the debate, Tāranātha’s
narrative abounds in magic and/or tantric ele-
ments, which are no doubt motivated by the numer-
ous tantric works ascribed to Āryadeva (see below).
Thus it is that he received numerous magical pow-
ers (Tib. dngos grub, Skt. siddhi), including alchemy
(Tib. bcud len, Skt. rasāyana) from Nāgārjuna (Chos
’byung, ed. Schiefner, trans. Chimpa & Chattopa-
dhyaya, 1970, 124).
Fifth-century hagiographies, the Fu fazang
yinyuan zhuan (付法藏因緣傳, T. 2058), which deals
with Āryadeva in the context of patriarchal succes-
sion, and the Tipo pusa zhuan (提婆菩薩傳, T. 2048,
ed. Young, 2015, 280–282; Jpn. trans. Hasuzawa, 1936;
ET Choudhuri, 2008, 25–31; Young, 2015, 274–280),
traditionally attributed to Kumārajīva (344–413, but
see Young, 2015, 265n1, 268–269; Yamano, 2009, 92),
describe in greater detail Āryadeva’s skill in debate
and his success in making converts. As Young points
out (2015, 266), the fact that the Tipo pusa zhuan
“was composed, frequently cited, and reproduced
in numerous editions of the Buddhist canon attests
the unique and enduring importance of Āryadeva
in medieval China.” Since, according to Young (2015,
265), both match one another scene for scene and
often word for word, they can be considered as a
unity. In these hagiographies’ first episode Āryadeva
entered a temple of Maheśvara, whose golden
image the faithful believed to be so awe-inspiring
that none dared look at it directly. The image’s crys-
tal eyes blazed at him but, undeterred, Āryadeva
gouged out the image’s left eye. He explained to
the astounded crowd that the god’s essence is
independent of its form. That night the one-eyed
Maheśvara appeared to Āryadeva and requested
that he replace his eye with one of Āryadeva’s own.
In return, Maheśvara granted Āryadeva’s wish that
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people would understand and accept Āryadeva’s
teachings. Āryadeva’s debating skill enabled him
to convert a South Indian king and the kingdom’s
best debaters. When the king asked him who he
was, and then challenged him to prove that he
was omniscient with a question about the gods’
activities, Āryadeva responded that the gods were
at war with the asuras. To prove that this was not
an empty assertion designed to win the debate, he
provided visual proof of weapons and body parts
falling from the sky. The king bowed in submission.
Āryadeva challenged the best debaters to refute his
assertions that the Buddha was the best teacher, his
teachings the truest, and his community the finest.
If he lost, he would sever his own head. After their
defeat, he demanded their conversion rather than
their heads. The defeated debaters' embittered dis-
ciple followed Āryadeva to a forest retreat, where he
had composed the Śataka and the Catuḥśataka, and
killed him. Āryadeva felt compassion for his killer,
advised him to flee before his disciples returned,
and warned of consequences of anger and attach-
ment to false views. When his disciples returned,
Āryadeva told them the man injured only himself
through his actions and that they should not weep,
since grief will increase the seeds of their own suf-
fering. Without regret, Āryadeva relinquished his
body (Young, 2015, 92–95, 274–280).
These hagiographies’ first episode highlights sev-
eral themes found in Āryadeva’s works: a thing’s real
essence is not identical with its apparent form, the
importance of bodhisattva’s selfless generosity and
nonattachment to the illusion of a self (Lang, 1995),
and the superiority of Buddhist insight over mind-
less devotion to a Hindu god. Subsequent episodes
depict Āryadeva as a skillful debater and compas-
sionate bodhisattva. Both the Śataka and the last
half of the Catuḥśataka attest to Āryadeva’s expert
refutation of the false views of his non-Buddhist
opponents. The importance of converting kings to
Buddhist ideas, is found in the fourth chapter of
Catuḥśataka (Lang, 1992, 2003, 88–108 and 186–208)
and the fifth chapter emphasizes the cultivation of
great compassion and the skillful means required
for converting and liberating others.
If Bu ston ascribed four Madhyamaka treatises
and six Tantric works to Āryadeva (plus a doubtful
commentary on the Pradīpoddyotana; Chos ’byung,
ed. Gangs ljongs shes rig gi nying bcud, 150:5–12
trans. Obermiller, 1932, 129–130), the texts attributed
to him either as Āryadeva or as ’Phags pa lha in the
Tanjur are much more numerous: more than 20
 Āryadeva
works in the Rgyud ’grel (Tantra commentary) sec-
tion of the Peking Tanjur (but 15 in the Rgyud [Tan-
tra] section of the Derge Tanjur), eight works in the
Dbu ma (Madhyamaka) section, and one work in
the Ngo mtshar bstan bcos (miscellaneous treatises)
section. In addition to this, several works are listed
under his name in the Chinese Buddhist canon (see
below). In spite of traditional claims to unity of
authorship for most if not all of these works, two or
three Āryadevas have to be distinguished: the 3rd-
century Mādhyamika author whose legendary biog-
raphies have been examined above, an 8th-century
doxographer, and at least one Tantric Āryadeva(-
pāda) (9th–10th cent.?), the disciple of the Tantric
Nāgārjuna-pāda (the alleged founder of the Ārya
“school”) and a noted specialist of Guhyasamāja exe-
gesis. Neither traditional nor modern scholarship is
inclined to credit this Tantric Āryadeva-pāda with
all the Tantric works ascribed to Āryadeva/’Phags pa
lha. Wedemeyer (1999, 201–205) regards four Tantric
items as authentic works of Āryadevapāda:
1) the Caryāmelāpakapradīpa (D 1803, P 2668;
Skt. ed. Wedemeyer, 2007; 11 chapters; trans.
Wedemeyer, 1999, 232–356);
2) the Cittaviśuddhiprakaraṇa (D 1804, P 2669;
134 stanzas; ed. Patel, 1933, 1949; trans. Wede-
meyer, 1999, 357–382; see La Vallée Poussin,
1930–1932);
3) the Svādhiṣṭhāna(krama)prabheda (D 1805,
P 2670; 60 stanzas; trans. Wedemeyer, 1999,
383–391);
4) the Abhibodhikramopadeśa (D 1806, P 2671;
trans. Wedemeyer, 1999, 392–398);
the latter three being companion works to the
first and describing stages 2–4 of the Tantric path.
This Tantric Āryadeva is possibly to be credited
with three other Tantric works: the Śmaśānavidhi
(D 1807), which deals with the rite of cremation of
the dead, the Niṣpannakramāntaka (D 1808, P 2673),
on the consommation of the Perfection Stage, and
a commentary on the Tantric Candrakīrti(-pāda)’s
Pradīpoddyotana, the Pradīpoddyotana-nāma-ṭīkā
(D 1794, P 2659). Nothing can be said at present of
the remaining works listed in the Rgyud (’grel) sec-
tion of the Tanjur, that is, Śrīcaturpīṭhayogatantras
ādhana (D 1610, P 2481), Jñāneśvarīsādhana (D 1612,
P 2483), Śrīcaturpīṭhatantrarājamaṇḍalavidhisā-
rasamuccaya (D 1613, P 2484), Śrīcatuḥpīṭhagūḍhā-
rthanirdeśo-ekadrumapañjikā (D 1614, P 2485),
Vajraghaṇṭapūjāsādhanakrama (D 1615, P 2486),
Marahomavidhi (P 2672), Śrīguhyasamājaniṣpanna-
kramāntaka (D 1808, P 2673), Nirvikalpaprakaraṇa
(D 2279, P 3126), Pratipattisāraśataka (D 2334,
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63
P  4695), Atiguhyācintya-nāma-pañcaviṣamārga
(D 2457, P 3285), Bhagavanmañjughoṣaprakaraṇa
(P 3526), Nairātmāpañcadaśadevīstotra (P 4707),
Krodhabhayanāśanīsādhana (P 5005), Bhayaśūli-
nīsādhana (P 5006), Pralayābhiṣekavidhi (P 5007),
Krodhabhayanāśanīsamayaguhyasādhana (P 5008),
Krodhabhayanāśanīhomavidhi (P 5009), and Mahā-
devatrayasādhana (P 5011).
The following eight items are listed under
Āryadeva’s/’Phags pa lha’s name in the Madhyamaka
section of the Tanjur, four of which are directly con-
nected with the Hastavālaprakaraṇa (items 1 and
2 being translated by Śraddhākaravarman and Rin
chen bzang po, whereas items 5 and 6 were trans-
lated by Dānaśīla, Dpal ’byor snying po, and Dpal
brtsegs rakṣita):
1) Hastavāla-nāma-prakaraṇa (D 3844, P 5244)
2) Hastavāla-nāma-prakaraṇavṛtti (D 3845,
P 5245)
3) Catuḥśatakaśāstrakārikā (D 3846, P 5246)
4) Skhalitapramathanayuktihetusiddhi (D 3847,
P 5247)
5) Hastavālaprakaraṇakārikā (D 3848, P 5248)
6) Hastavālavṛtti (D 3849, P 5249)
7) Madhyamakabhramaghāta (D 3850, P 5250)
8) Jñānasārasamuccaya (D 3851, P 5251)
Seven titles are associated with Āryadeva in the
Taishō edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon:
1) *Śata(ka)śāstra, Bailun (百論, T. 1569)
2) Guang bailun ben (廣百論本, T. 1570), Xuan-
zang’s translation of vv. 201–400 of the
Catuḥśataka
3) Dasheng Guang bailun shi lun (大乘廣百論
釋論, T. 1571), Xuanzang’s translation of vv.
201–400 of the Catuḥśataka together with
Dharmapāla’s commentary
4) Akṣaraśataka, Baizi lun (百字論, T. 1572),
which corresponds to D 3834, 3835/P 5234,
5235, which are attributed to Nāgārjuna
5) *Mahāpuruṣaśāstra, Dazhangfu lun (大丈夫
論, T. 1577)
6) Tipo pusa po Lengqie jing zhong waidao
xiaosheng sizong lun (提婆菩薩破楞伽經中外
道小乘四宗論, T. 1639)
7) Tipo pusa shi Lengqie jing zhong waidao
xiaosheng niepan lun (提婆菩薩釋楞伽經中
外道小乘涅槃論, T. 1640)
The Catuḥśataka is by far Āryadeva’s most impor-
tant work; it has already been briefly analyzed in
→BEB I, 596a (see also Seyfort Ruegg, 1981, 51–53;
Lang, 1986, esp. 16–21; Potter, 1999, 198–215 [Lang];
64 Āryadeva
for previous [pre-1986] editions and translations,
see Lang, 1986, 21–24). Xuanzang’s Chinese transla-
tion (T. 1570) covers only stanzas 201–400 (Ita. trans.
Tucci, 1925; Jpn. trans. Endō, 1932a), that is, the sec-
ond part of the work, which was commented upon
by Dharmapāla in the Guang bailun shi lun (廣百論
釋論, T. 1571; Jpn. trans. Endō, 1932b), who thus sepa-
rated, as Candrakīrti says in the introduction of his
Ṭīkā (D 3865, dbu ma, ya, 31b1–2, Suzuki, 1994, 8–15),
the “didactic” (chos bstan pa) part dedicated to the
accumulation of merit from the “dialectical” (rtsod
pa) part dedicated to the accumulation of knowl-
edge. Candrakīrti’s commentary (Catuḥśatakaṭīkā,
D 3865, P 5266, Skt. fragments and Tib. ed. Suzuki,
1994) covers the whole work. Chapters 1–8 are close
in intent to Nāgārjuna’s two epistles and deal, as an
ethical “preparation of those who practise the path”
(Lang, 1986, 52), with the elimination of the four
misconceptions of permanence, pleasure, purity,
and egotism (chs. 1–4; ET Lang, 2003; Jpn. trans.
Uryūzu, 1973–1979; Jpn. trans. ch. 1 Suzuki, 1988,
1989); these four chapters dispel the four wrong
notions (viparyāsa) and explain the nature of mun-
dane things so that they may be abandoned and
buddhahood may be achieved (Seyfort Ruegg, 1981,
52; Lang, 1986, 16) and contain interesting consider-
ations on the body, women, and kings; the bodhisat-
tva practice (ch. 5; Lang, 1980; Jpn. trans. Sasaki,
1982–1987); the elimination of the defilements
(ch. 6); the attachment to the enjoyment of sensory
objects (ch. 7, trans. Bhattacharya, 1928, 866–870),
which causes the defilements to arise and increase
(Seyfort Ruegg, 1981, 52); and the practice of the
disciple (ch. 8). Chapters 9–16 are “a defense of the
Madhyamaka philosophy of emptiness against its
detractors” (Lang, 1986, 52) and negate permanent
things (ch. 9; trans. May, 1980–1984); the self (ch. 10;
Jpn. trans. Ogawa, 1976); time (ch. 11; Jpn. trans.
Ogawa, 1988); false views (ch. 12; trans. Tillemans,
1990, I, 87–134); the sense organs and their objects
(ch. 13; trans. Tillemans, 1990, I, 135–199); the belief
in extremities (ch. 14; ET Lang, 1976; Jpn. trans.
Katano, 1980), that is, existence, nonexistence,
both, and neither (Seyfort Ruegg, 1981, 52); and con-
ditioned things (ch. 15); chapter 16 addresses logical
and epistemological issues related to the doctrine
of emptiness; in conformity with Nāgārjuna’s (?)
Vigrahavyāvartanī 29–30, this final section shows
that “he who does not maintain a thesis (pakṣa)
based on the positions of existence (sat), non-exis-
tence (asat), and both cannot be attacked in logic
by an opponent” (Seyfort Ruegg, 1981, 52).
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The *Śata(ka)śāstra or Bailun (百論, ET Tucci,
1929; part. French trans. La Vallée Poussin, 1931–
1932, 128–130; summary by Lang in Potter, 1999,
215–222 [Lang]) is extant only in Kumārajīva’s Chi-
nese translation of 404 CE, which includes a com-
mentary by a certain Vasu (婆藪), whose identity
with (a)  Vasubandhu is debated (references in
Seyfort Ruegg, 1981, 51n143), and whose acquain-
tance with the pseudo-Nāgārjuna’s Mahāprajñā-
pāramitopadeśa (T. 1509) has been suggested
(Tucci, 1929, xiv). The treatise’s ten chapters deal
with (Seyfort Ruegg, 1981, 51): (1) renunciation of sin
and demerit, (2) refutation of the self, (3), refutation
of unity, (4) refutation of diversity, (5) refutation of
sense perceptions, (6) refutation of their objects,
(7) refutation of the existence of the effect in the
cause (satkāryavāda), (8) refutation of the nonex-
istence of the effect in the cause, (9) refutation of
permanence, and (10) critique of the empty. It is
well-known that the subject matter of chapters 2–10
is roughly the same as that of the second part of the
Catuḥśataka (see above). According to Sengzhao’s
preface to the Śataka (T. 1569 [XXX] 168a12–14; trans.
Robinson, 1967, 211), Kumārajīva translated only the
first ten chapters of an original that had 20 chapters
of five verses each, hence 100 verses in total (Young,
2015, 28; 267), allegedly leaving out the second half
of the text “because it was not considered to be very
useful in China” (Tucci, 1929, xiv). This raises the
question of the identity of the original text partially
translated by Kumārajīva: was it an independent
Śata(ka)śāstra, or (a version of) the Catuḥśataka?
J.W. de Jong (1971, 110) points out that all nine of the
17 quotations from Āryadeva in Chinese Buddhist
scriptures identified by Ui (1924, 277–281) were from
the Catuḥśataka. Moreover, Candrakīrti’s quotation
of the Catuḥśataka in the Prasannapadā under the
abbreviated form Śataka (e.g., La Vallée Poussin,
1903–1913, 173, 351, 372, 378, 396, 505, 506, 552) is fur-
ther evidence that the Śataka and the Catuḥśataka
were not separate works. Candrakīrti notes in the
Catuḥśatakaṭīkā (D 3865, dbu ma, ya, 31b7; Suzuki,
1994, 434–435) that the catuḥ is sometimes omitted
(Seyfort Ruegg, 1981, 51). Even a short comparison
of the Śataka and the Catuḥśataka indicates that
these texts treat many of the same topics in much
the same fashion (Tucci, 1929, xiv; Lamotte, 1970,
1372n). But the arrangement of these topics and the
arguments advanced against the opponents’ theses
differ. The Śataka contains materials not found in
the Catuḥśataka; much of the discussion in Śataka
1 on merit and demerit has no direct parallels in
 Āryadeva
the Catuḥśataka. Most of the examples and logi-
cal reasons employed in the Śataka do not occur
in the Catuḥśataka, though the frequent use of
examples in the Śataka may reflect Kumārajīva’s
editing of the material to make it more intelligible
to a Chinese audience unfamiliar with Indian phi-
losphical arguments. The extent to which he may
have altered the wording of an original Sanskrit
text, or even whether or not the Śataka is a rear-
ranged and abridged version of the Catuḥśataka,
simply cannot be determined in the absence of any
Sanskrit manuscripts or existing Tibetan transla-
tions of the Śataka. On stylistic grounds, however,
the two works differ. The Catuḥśataka is written in
anuṣṭubh meter; but Kumārajīva’s translation of the
Śataka seems to be that of a text written in sūtras
of varying length. The Tipo pusa zhuan (提婆菩薩
傳, see above) clearly says that Āryadeva wrote two
works: “He composed the Śataka in twenty chap-
ters and the Catuḥśataka to refute heterodox views”
(T. 2048 [L] 187c3; Lang, 1986, 14n23; Young, 2015,
278). An entry in the Ldan/Lhan dkar catalogue’s
list of texts,  extant during Khri srong lde btsan’s
reign (775–797 CE), may confirm this statement. In
a section entitled “Miscellaneous Mahāyāna trea-
tises” (theg pa chen po’i bstan bcos sna tshogs), the
cataloguers Dpal brtsegs and Nam mkha’i snying po
seem to list a translation of the Śataka: “The Śataka
was composed by Āryadeva; it contains one hun-
dred ślokas” (Hermann-Pfandt, 2008, 377–378 [no.
677]). Unfortunately, this text was not among those
later collected and incorporated into the Tanjur and
no longer survives.
Included in the Tanjur is the Akṣaraśataka (Ed.
Yamaguchi, 1930; ET Gokhale, 1930; Jpn. trans. Hat-
ani, 1932; remarks, Ōtomo, 1935; summary in Sey-
fort Ruegg, 1981, 53; Lang in Potter, 1999, 222–228),
here attributed, along with its commentary, to
Nāgārjuna. The Chinese translation of this text
and the Dunhuang Tibetan translation by Chos
’grub (Facheng [法成], 9th cent. CE, Stein Tib.
588; Ueyama, 1990, 148–150) from the Chinese give
Āryadeva as its author (while in the Tanjur trans.
of Ānanda and Grags ’byor shes rab it is attrib-
uted to Nāgārjuna). Both translations of the com-
mentary open with a verse praising Āryadeva, an
indication that another, unnamed person wrote
the commentary. The topics that the Akṣaraśataka
considers follow the same order as those in Śataka
2–10. The Akṣaraśataka begins with the statement
that things are neither identical nor different. The
commentator explains that this criticism attacks
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65
Sāṅkhya and Vaiśeṣika theses. The Akṣaraśataka
says that things cannot be established from causes
that either preexist in their effect or do not exist
in their effects; nor can things arise without some
cause because things exist in a relation of depen-
dence. Moreoever, it is inappropriate to cite the
tenets of one’s own school as proof. The text then
attacks the notion that the five sense cognitions
(vijñāna) apprehend their respective objects; since
visible form exists only as a name, perception has
no real nature of its own. No conditioned thing has
a real  nature  of its own, the Akṣaraśataka claims,
now concerned with the Ābhidhārmikas’ views;
unconditioned things, for example space, likewise
have no nature of their own. Since all things are like
dreams, their marks have no nature of their own,
the text concludes. Because both the Akṣaraśataka’s
choice of the subject matter and the manner of its
treatment resemble Āryadeva’s work in the Śataka
and the Catuḥśataka, the Tibetan ascription of the
text to Nāgārjuna should be rejected. The commen-
tary’s organization of the topics, as well as its spe-
cific objections and responses, suggest that either
the author was familiar with Vasu’s commentary on
the Śataka or that both commentaries are the work
of the same person.
The Skhalitapramathanayuktihetusiddhi (trans.
Clark & Jamspal, 1979) is a short versified treatise
which discusses nine basic forms of error (many of
which stem from the Brahmajālasūtra) and ends
with a brief outline of Buddhism. At the beginning
of the treatise, the author explains that he is “[going
to] explain the path in order to benefit the sentient
beings [who are suffering] in this world of the five
corruptions. Because they view the path in a wrong
way, Māra and those who side with Māra swerve
from the truth on account of their own views,
accept an erroneous path as the [right] path, [and]
wrongly object to the correct [path. The following]
is to be said in order to refute them” (D 3847, dbu
ma, tsha, 19b2, P 5247, dbu ma, tsha, 20b3–4). The
ten items discussed are: (1) mistaking the existent
for the nonexistent, in which hedonistic material-
ism, fatalism, and diverse forms of determinism are
criticized; (2) committing errors regarding imper-
manence, for example, by believing in the eternality
of existential status, friends, and relatives; (3) mis-
taking the nonexistent for the existent by adhering
to the notions of a permanent self, of eternal great
elements, of creator gods such as Śiva, Brahmā, and
Viṣṇu, etc.; (4) the error of permanence as, for exam-
ple, when one believes in the fixity of eschatological
66 Āryadeva
retribution in the form of gatis, or in retributions
according to external determinations rather than
merit and demerit; (5) erring further due to being
deceived by these errors, for example, by striving for
rebirth as Brahmā, Śiva, Indra, or Viṣṇu in order to
get their strengths and pleasures; (6) making errors
through being deceived, as is the case with brah-
manical rites and religious observances; (7) erring
with respect to the real, which amounts to the tra-
ditional 62 false views; (8) erring with respect to the
cause, in which ideas about time as the principle of
everything, Sāṅkhya, and “fortuitism” are criticized;
(9) erring with respect to three evil destinies, which
consists in a brief exposition of the three evil gatis
of animals, hungry ghosts, hell; and (10) that which
is free from error, that is, dependent origination as
taught by the Buddha.
Although it is ascribed to Āryadeva by the Indian
and Tibetan traditions, the Hastavālaprakaraṇa is
attributed to →Dignāga by the Chinese tradition,
which, as Frauwallner (1959, 127–130 and 152–156),
Hattori (1968, 7) and Seyfort Ruegg (1981, 53) have
suggested, is likely to be right (for an overview of
opinions, see Tola & Dragonetti, 1980, 20; Lang, 1986,
15n26). For an overview →Dignāga.
The Madhyamakabhramaghāta likewise can-
not be a genuine work of Āryadeva. Although the
work has not been studied to date, it seems to
consist in a compilation of selected excerpts from
→Bhāviveka’s Madhyamakahṛdayatarkajvālā (see
Lindtner, 1982b, 173n21). More specifically, the trea-
tise closely parallels the Tarkajvālā’s explanation of
Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā vv. 3.251–256 (ed. Lindt-
ner, 2001), which it quotes (at D 3856, dbu ma, dza,
117a4–118b6, P 5256, dbu ma, dza, 126a4–127b8). The
treatise starts with a quotation of the initial three
verses of the Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā. More can-
not be said at present about this short tract.
Similarly, the Jñānasārasamuccaya (D 3851, P
5251; Tib. ed. Yamaguchi, 1944, 263–345; part. Tib.
and Skt. ed. Mimaki, 1976, 186–188; 2000, 237–241;
Jpn. trans. Yamaguchi, 1944, 263–345; part. trans.
Mimaki, 1976, 187–189 [French]; 2000, 237–241
[English]) is a work of a second Āryadeva who
likely was active during the 8th century (Mimaki,
1987, 2000, 235). Composed of 38 verses, the
Jñānasārasamuccaya is a doxographical work
(siddhānta) exposing the doctrines of Buddhist
(Vaibhāṣika, Sautrāntika, Yogācāra, Madhyamaka)
and non-Buddhist schools. It has been commented
upon by Bodhibhadra (10–11th cent.?) in his
Jñānasārasamuccayanibandhana (D 3852, P 5252;
For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV
part. Tib. ed. Mimaki, 1976, 190–206; part. trans.
Mimaki, 1976, 191–207).
Āryadeva is credited with two additional works
in the Chinese Buddhist canon, the Tipo pusa po
Lengqie jing zhong waidao xiaosheng sizong lun
(提婆菩薩破楞伽經中外道小乘四宗論, Treatise on
the Refutation of Heterodox and Hīnayāna The-
ses in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra) and the Tipo pusa
shi Lengqie jing zhong waidao xiaosheng niepan
lun (提婆菩薩釋楞伽經中外道小乘涅槃論, Trea-
tise  on the Explanation of Nirvāṇa by Heterodox
and Hīnayāna Teachers in the Laṅkāvatārasūtra;
French trans. Tucci, 1926; see Nakamura, 1955, 1983,
I, 165–180). These short treatises go back to two 6th-
century translations by Bodhiruci, the Po waidao
sizong lun (破外道四宗論) and the Po waidao niepan
lun (外道小乘涅槃論). Whereas the first of these
two translations was ascribed to Āryadeva as late
as 730 by Zhisheng (智昇; fl. 700–786, T. 2154 [LV]
541a26), the second apparently was not connected
with Āryadeva before Zhizhou (智周; 678–733 or
688–723, T. 1833 [XLIII] 832a16–17). Both works’
attribution to Āryadeva is thus dubious (in spite of
G. Tucci’s opinion that there are “no good reasons to
deny the attribution of these treatises to Āryadeva”
[Tucci, 1926, 16]). In addition, there is no reason
to believe that Āryadeva was acquainted with the
Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, a sūtra on which the two texts
are “partial commentaries” (Tucci, 1926, 16), and
which expounds Yogācāra ideas, some of which even
presuppose →Vasubandhu’s Triṃśikā (Schmithau-
sen, 1992). T. 1639 consists in a Mādhyamika critique
of four religio-philosophical schools: the Sāṅkhya,
the Vaiśeṣika, the Nirgranthas, and Jñātiputra (sic).
The classification system underlying the work is
borrowed from the Laṅkāvatārasūtra and based on
the four koṭis or antas of unity, diversity, unity and
diversity, neither unity nor diversity (Tucci, 1926,
19). T. 1640 expands upon a curious passage of the
Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra in which the most important
among the non-Buddhist conceptions of nirvāṇa
are expounded (Nanjio, 1923, 183). The 20 schools
whose views on liberation are criticized as fancies
(parikalpita), but without any ad hoc arguments,
include Hīnayānists, advocates of the Veda, Jainas,
various types of Śaivas (Pāśupatas, Māheśvaras),
(pre-/non-theistic) Vaiśeṣikas, Sāṅkhyas, “Fortuit-
ists” (ahetuvādin), Vaiṣṇava devotees of Nārāyaṇa,
and several unidentifiable doctrinal and ascetic
groups.
Āryadeva has been credited by some scholars with
the famous Zhonglun (中論, T. 1564), a commentary
 Āryadeva
on Nāgārjuna’s Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, on the
grounds that the name traditionally associated with
it, Pinqieluo (賓伽羅 [confusingly, also transmit-
ted as Pinqieluo (賓伽羅), Robinson, 1967, 29], the
meaning of which in India Sengrui [僧睿] says to be
Qingmu [青目], that is, Piṅgala[netra], “Blue Eyes,”
T. 1564 [XXX] 1a27; Robinson, 1967, 29 and 207), was
an epithet of Āryadeva (Lamotte, 1970, 1373n; Sey-
fort Ruegg, 1981, 50). The attribution is rejected by
Robinson (1967, 28–30), who proposes Vimalākṣa as
the author’s name (and Kumārajīva as a co-author/
reviser, as Sengrui’s preface to T. 1564 makes clear),
and de Jong (1971, 109), in whose opinion “both
the Akutobhayā and the commentary  attributed
to Pin-lo-chieh [=Pinqieluo] have been written by
authors who knew Āryadeva’s works.”
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