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Epithermal Environments - Introduction DRC 2017
Epithermal Environments - Introduction DRC 2017
gold deposits of the circum‐Pacific –
Characteristics, genesis and exploration
David R Cooke, Noel C White, Zhaoshan Chang and Lejun Zhang
Yueyang IS epithermal Ag breccia vein, Zijinshan, China
Epithermal gold deposits
Lihir gold mine, PNG
These gold deposits are very important economically
• They can be very large:
• Lihir (LS), PNG ‐ 57 Moz Au
• Pascua‐Lama (HS), Chile and Argentina 15.39 Moz Au @ 1.47 g/t
• They can be very rich:
• Hishikari (LS), Japan – 6.2 Moz Au @ 49 g/t
• El Indio (HS), Chile – 5.4 Moz @ 5.4 g/t
Epithermal gold deposits
Epithermal deposits show a variety of
deposit styles
They are not all the same…
The different deposit classes are not
fully characterized nor fully understood
We are still learning…
Not all epithermal deposits contain
economic gold
Some are dominated by other metals,
notably Ag, Zn, Pb, Cu, Sn
Some are closely related to intrusions,
some are not
The related intrusions need not be porphyry
copper‐related intrusions
Terminology is very confused!
Epithermal quartz‐fluorite cemented breccia, Baijiantan, China
Epithermal deposit classification
Gold is the dominant economic metal in:
1. Deposits associated with neutral pH,
dominantly meteoric fluids (low‐
sulfidation)
• In most aspects intermediate‐sulfidation
deposits are very similar to low‐sulfidation
2. Deposits associated with acid pH,
dominantly magmatic fluids (high‐
sulfidation)
Pyrite‐cemented adularia‐altered breccia, Lihir, PNG
Sulfur speciation
Epithermal fluids
Low and intermediate sulfidation:
• Reducing conditions stabilise
aqueous sulfide species and
reduced gases:
• H2S (aq) • H2S(g)
• HS‐ (aq)
High sulfidation:
• Oxidising conditions stabilise
aqueous sulfate species and
oxidised gases
• SO42‐(aq) • SO2(g)
• HSO4‐(aq)
Pyrite‐marcasite‐gold cemented breccia, Lihir gold mine, PNG
Gold solubilities: pH and redox
anhy
n
l
oxidised 300°C
calcite
‐ 0.5 wt % NaCl
HSO4‐ ‐6 HSO4 ‐6
oxidised 0.004 m S
‐28 ‐28
Hematite H2S AuCl2‐ (aq)
‐5 ‐5
‐30 reduced ‐30 10 ppb
SO42‐
H2 S ‐4 SO42‐ ‐4
‐32 oxidised ‐32 AuHS (aq) H2S
RH
H2 S
log fO2
Pyrite
HS‐ ‐3
HS‐ ‐3
‐34 ‐34
Magnetite 1 ppb
‐2 reduced ‐2
‐36 Pyrrhotite reduced ‐36
Au(HS)2‐ (aq)
AuCl2‐ (aq)
‐1 ‐1
‐38 ‐38
300°C 0.1 ppb Au
kaol
ms
ms
0.5 wt % NaCl
HS‐
Kf
pH pH
Modified from Cooke and Simmons (2000)
Epithermal textures and minerals
In epithermal deposits, simple observations can
tell us a lot
It is important to recognise key minerals and
textures, and understand what produces them
From those we can interpret where we are in the
system, and the likely direction towards ore
Key tools for effective exploration:
• Hammer, handlens
Key knowledge: products, processes, how to
interpret them, and the diversity of real deposits
THESE ARE THE KEY THINGS TO
FOCUS ON
Low‐sulfidation vein, Waihi, New Zealand
Characteristic textures
White and Hedenquist (1995)
Waihi,
New Zealand
Low sulfidation High sulfidation
Neutral‐pH, meteoric Acid‐pH, magmatic
• Banded veins • ‘Vuggy quartz’
• Breccia veins • Massive quartz
• Drusy cavities • Massive sulfide veins
• Crustiform veins • Crudely banded veins
• Lattice texture • Wormy‐patchy (gusano) textures
Gusano and vuggy quartz textures, La Zanja, Peru
“Classical”
Epithermal
Model
Buchanan (1981)
This enduring model
was produced before
the distinction between
HS and LS deposit types
was recognised.
Forms of deposits
Low sulfidation
Waihi, New Zealand
Serujan deposit, Mt
Muro, Indonesia
Form of deposits
Low sulfidation
Stockwork, Golden Cross Vein, La Guitarra
Vein, Hishikari Vein, Golden Cross
Forms of deposits
Low and intermediate sulfidation
Stockwork ore, Guanajuato, Mexico
Breccia‐hosted ore, Kelian, Indonesia Banded vein ore, Hishikari, Japan
Examples of LS – IS epithermal deposits
Vein swarms characterise many mineralized districts
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
N
N 0 1 2 3 4 5
Lihir, Papua
Cerro Vanguardia, Argentina: New Guinea:
147 Mt @ 2.7 g/t Au
15.9 Mt @ 8.3 g/t Au, 102 g/t Ag 41 Moz Au
4.3 Moz Au
La Coipa
Akeshi
Sulfide vein, El Indio
Ore minerals in Au‐rich ores
Frequency of occurrence (abundance)
Low‐Sulfidation High‐Sulfidation
Pyrite ubiquitous (abundant) ubiquitous (abundant)
Sphalerite common (variable) common (very minor)
Galena common (variable) common (very minor)
Chalcopyrite common (very minor) common (minor)
Enargite‐Luzonite rare (very minor) ubiquitous (variable)
Tennantite‐Tetrahedrite common (very minor) common (variable)
Covellite uncommon (very minor) common (minor)
Stibnite uncommon (very minor) rare (very minor)
Orpiment rare (very minor) rare (very minor)
Realgar rare (very minor) rare (very minor)
Arsenopyrite common (minor) rare (very minor)
Cinnabar uncommon (minor) rare (very minor)
Electrum uncommon (variable common (minor)
Native Gold common (very minor) common (minor)
Tellurides‐Selenides common (very minor) uncommon (variable)
Ore mineralogy
Low and intermediate sulfidation epithermal deposits
Free gold, Porgera, PNG (Corbett and Leach, 1998) Silver sulfosalts, Mt Muro, Indonesia
Metallic minerals include: electrum, acanthite, Ag‐sulfosalts, sphalerite, galena,
tetrahedrite‐tennantite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, selenides, tellurides
Ore mineralogy
High sulfidation epithermal deposits
• Oxidation state determines how much Fe can substitute for Zn in
sphalerite
• Pale‐coloured sphalerite indicates oxidised conditions
HS or some IS deposits
• Dark‐coloured sphalerite indicates reduced conditions
LS or some IS deposits
Gangue mineralogy
Frequency of occurrence (abundance)
Low‐Sulfidation High‐Sulfidation
Quartz ubiquitous (abundant) ubiquitous (abundant)
Chalcedony common (variable) uncommon (minor)
Calcite common (variable) absent (except overprint)
Adularia common (variable) absent
Illite common (abundant) uncommon (minor)
Kaolinite rare (except overprint) common (minor)
Pyrophyllite‐ absent (except overprint) common (variable)
Diaspore
Alunite absent (except overprint) common (minor)
Barite common (very minor) common (minor)
White and Hedenquist (1995)
LS and IS deposits
Gangue mineralogy
• SiO2 polymorphs
• Quartz, chalcedony, amethyst,
cristobalite, amorphous silica
• Adularia
• Illite, muscovite
• Montmorillonite
• Chlorite
• Carbonates
• Calcite, rhodochrosite
• Barite and fluorite
Bimurra, Australia
Golden Cross, New Zealand Guanajuato, Mexico
quartz, chalcedony, adularia quartz, chalcedony, amethyst
McLaughlin, Victoria, Philippines
California
quartz, chalcedony Quartz
Kelian, Indonesia Acupan, Philippines
ADU
KAO
PYR
Gosowong, Indonesia Cracow, Australia
quartz, adularia
Gosowong, Indonesia quartz, adularia
Bladed calcite and lattice texture
Calcite scale, geothermal bore, New Zealand
Quartz after bladed calcite, Bimurra, Queensland
Lattice calcite, Martha, New Zealand
Manganese minerals in epithermal veins
Rhodochrosite, Capillitas, Argentina
• Some epithermal veins contain
manganese minerals
• e.g., rhodochrosite , manganoan calcite or
rhodonite (look for pink colour)
• This is a typical feature of intermediate
sulfidation deposits
• They typically contain moderate levels of
base metals and commonly have high Ag
• Mn minerals weather to black oxides that
cause hydrogen peroxide solution to fizz
Mn‐oxide vein, Magma, Arizona
HS gangue mineralogy
frequency of occurrence (abundance)
Quartz‐alunite‐altered rhyolite, La Coipa, Chile
Quartz ubiquitous (abundant)
Chalcedony uncommon (minor)
Calcite absent (except overprint)
Adularia absent
Illite uncommon (minor)
Kaolinite common (minor)
Pyrophyllite‐Diaspore common (variable)
Alunite common (minor)
Barite common (minor)
after White and Hedenquist, 1995
Silicic alteration – Vuggy quartz
Pierina, Peru
Silicic alteration – Massive quartz
Penelope, Argentina
Quartz textures in silicic alteration
– Veladero, Argentina
rutile
Qtz II Qtz III
Qtz II
Qtz II
Qtz II
Qtz IV
rutile
Type V Type VI
replacement veins
DDH84‐75 m: massive quartz and
vuggy quartz clasts cemented by quartz
DDH40‐16 m DDH82‐336 m
Qtz III
Qtz I
Qtz II Qtz IV
Qtz V
Qtz I
Qtz VI
Qtz V
Qtz III
500 μm 500 μm
CL image CL image
DDH82‐19 m DDH71‐405 m
Qtz III
Qtz III
Qtz III
Qtz VI Qtz VI
Qtz IV
Qtz II
Qtz III
500 μm 500 μm
CL image CL image
Residual (vuggy) quartz in Hypogene alunite in
ignimbrite protolith, ignimbrite protolith,
Pierina, Peru Pierina, Peru
Residual (vuggy) quartz in
andesite protolith,
Pierina, Peru
Residual (massive) quartz in andesite protolith , Temora, NSW
Alunite
– an extremely useful mineral in HS environments
Steam‐heated waters,
LS, IS, HS possible
2. STEAM‐HEATED
(HCl, SO2)
1. MAGMATIC
Any sulfide‐rich setting
3. WEATHERING
Sillitoe, 1993
Hydrothermal alteration
White and Hedenquist (1995)
Low Sulfidation High Sulfidation
Associated with ores near‐neutral pH acid (pH <1 to >3)
Mineral assemblage illite (sericite) interstratified Quartz, alunite, kaolinite,
clays (illite‐smectite) pyrophyllite, diaspore
Chlorite
Illite
calcite
chlorite
epidote
calcite
pyrite
epidote
quartz, chalcedony, quartz residual quartz Quartz, illite / chlorite
adularia, pyrite, adularia (vuggy & massive), alunite, alunite
base metal sulfides, illite sulfides, sulfosalts, Au‐Cu‐
carbonates, Au‐Ag pyrite (Ag)
1 ‐ 10 m
Modified from Sillitoe (1993)
Geochemical associations
White and Hedenquist (1995)
Low Sulfidation High Sulfidation
Vuggy quartz, Tantahuatay, Peru
As‐Sb sulfides with Au, Osorezan, Japan
Metal zoning
Low sulfidation
Silicification
Quartz-illite
± adularia Breccia
zones
Quartz- Au Ag As Sb Tl Hg
chlorite
Berger and Eimon (1983)
Metal zoning – high sulfidation deposits
Au Ag As Sb Bi Cu Pb Zn Te Se Hg Mo W Sn
Levels 0.00X ‐ 0.X ‐ X00 ‐ X0 ‐ X ‐ X0 ‐ X ‐ X ‐ X ‐ X ‐ 0.0X ‐ X X X ‐
(ppm) X00 X00 X0,000 X0,000 X00 X0,000 X0,000 X00 X00 X00 X000 X000
based on unpublished data by N.C. White
Phreatic breccias
• Hydrothermal steam explosions can occur in shallow crustal
environments
• If the surface is
breached, the
resultant eruption
deposits (ejecta
rim) have low
aspect ratios
Eruption of Waimungu Geyser, 1904 (Sillitoe, 1985)
Phreatic breccias
Porkchop Geyser, post‐eruption,
1992, Yellowstone
Grand Prismatic Spring, Yellowstone
Mechanisms for triggering phreatic brecciation
• Seismic rupture
• Overpressuring and failure of
hydrothermal seal
• Instantaneous unloading
(landslip, draining of lake)
• Temperature increase (magma‐
water interaction)
0°C 100°C 200°C
2,317 m
Surface of glacially‐
dammed lake
2,256 m
2,195 m Surface level
after draining of
Hydrothermal eruption crater, Pocket Basin, lake
Yellowstone. Fragments of lake sediments were
deposited in a low aspect ratio ejecta apron after 2,134 m
draining of glacially‐dammed lake 20‐25,000yr ago
Solution collapse breccias
Epithermal environments
Corrosion & collapse of siliceous sinter due to acid sulfate water, Yellowstone, USA
Solution collapse
breccias
Lihir, PNG
Alkalic epithermal deposit
4 m cavity
Ragged to angular clasts of residual (massive)
quartz cut by pyrite veins, Temora, NSW
Genesis of epithermal gold deposits
– what we do and don’t know
Photo courtesy of Phil White
Fluid chemistry
Insights from vein and alteration mineralogy
• Diagnostic alteration assemblages in LS – IS and HS
deposits are discriminated in terms of the pH of
hydrothermal fluids
• Adularia – carbonate alteration assemblages form
under near‐neutral to alkaline conditions (pH > 5.5)
• Hypogene silicic and advanced argillic alteration
assemblages form under strongly acidic conditions
(pH < 3)
• Redox conditions:
• HS deposits: oxidising (sulfate minerals stable)
• LS – IS deposits: reducing (sulfate minerals not stable)
Rhodochrosite cement, phreatic
breccia, Kelian, Indonesis
Oxygen and deuterium isotope data
High sulfidation deposits
0
Volcanic vapors
Ro
‐20 Ro PV
Pueblo Viejo Iw
Rodalquiliar Felsic magmas
‐40 Nevados del Famatina Ka
D (‰, SMOW)
Nansatsu
‐60
Lepanto
Lepanto ‐ alunite
‐80
Acidic fluids in high La Mejicana ‐ quartz
sulfidation deposits
La Mejicana ‐ sericite
‐100
Alunite alteration stage
‐120 Ore mineralization stage
Alteration / mineralisation
‐140
‐20 ‐15 ‐10 ‐5 0 5 10 15 20
18O (‰, SMOW)
Modified after Arribas (1995)
Oxygen and deuterium isotope data
Low and intermediate sulfidation deposits
0
White Island Volcanic vapors
‐20
D (‰, SMOW) Felsic magmas
‐40 Broadlands‐Ohaaki
‐60 McLaughlin
Great Valley
Antamok ‐ Acupan sequences
‐80
Antamok‐Acupan
‐100 Broadlands‐Ohaaki
Comstock Comstock
‐120 McLaughlin
Tayoltita
‐140
18O (‰, SMOW)
Champagne Pool, New Zealand
Cooke and Simmons (2000)
Gold transport
Epithermal fluids
Gold speciation:
• Reduced, dilute, S‐rich waters
• Au(HS)2‐ (aq) or AuHS (aq)
• High‐T brines:
• AuCl2‐ (aq)
• Gases:
• AuS(g) (?)
Gold transport
• Gold transported as hydrosulfide complexes
in LS ‐ IS deposits
• How is gold transported in HS deposits?
Old Faithful Geyser, Yellowstone, USA
HS epithermal deposits
Genetic models
ALTERATION ORE DEPOSITION
A Fumaroles B1 B2
0
Cool meteoric
(km) water Ores
Alteration Mixing with
envelope shallow meteoric
Acid sulfate water
with low Au solubility
water
Absorption of high‐P Meteoric water
vapor produces transports gold
reduced, acid as AuHS(aq)??
Heated ground‐
low salinity water Heated
1 water with high Au
ground‐water
solubilities as
AuHS(aq) convective cell
Magmatic vapors Alteration Heated
(incl. SO, HCl) ground‐water
2
Vuggy quartz
Acid brine
Alunite
Gas phase transports gold
Kaolinite metal transport as AuCl2‐ ??
Magmatic Sericite Magmatic
2 brine
brine
K‐silicate
Modified after Arribas, 1995; Heinrich et al., 2004; White, 1991
Gold deposition by boiling
Porgera, Zone 7, PNG Sleeper, Nevada
Co‐existing L‐ and V‐rich fluid
Hydrothermal eruption breccia, Yellowstone, USA inclusions, Acupan, Philippines
McLaughlin LS deposit, California
Fluid inclusion data
0 10 n=34
Gas partial n=66 9
100 25
pressures require n=137
5
n=22
up to lithostatic 300
Lithostatic
values 10 n=21
400
(Sherlock et al, 1995)
500 10 n=27
600
700
800 5 n=26
Hydrostatic
Crustiform banded low sulfidation vein, McLaughlin gold deposit
Gold deposition
Low and intermediate sulfidation deposits
• Boiling is the principal mechanism
• Mixing may occur during collapse of the
hydrothermal system
High sulfidation deposits
• Unequivocal evidence for fluid mixing at some
deposits
• Boiling is a viable mechanism for deposits where
gold is transported as a bisulfide complex
Electrum, tellurides and base metal sulfides,
Acupan, Philippines
Refractory gold in pyrite – examples from Lihir, PNG
Reflective light image of etched pyrite, and corresponding LA‐ICP‐MS images for trace elements (Sykora, 2017)
Epithermal – porphyry relationships
Acupan epithermal veins:
Ampucao porphyry Au, Ag, As, Te, Zn, Sb, Hg
Cu‐Au prospect:
anomalous Cu, Mo (Au)
Not zoning, superimposing…
Potassic and propylitic alteration – Batu Hijau
Batu Hijau
Map modified from Garwin (2000)
Late stage alteration ‐ Batu Hijau
From Garwin, 2000
From Holiday and Cooke (2007), with inspiration from
Sillitoe and Thompson (2006)