CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Heavy metals are among the serious pollutants in the human environment

because of toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation characteristics (Annao et

al., 2008; Nriagu et al., 1997). Elevated concentration of these metals in

children has been linked to human activities (Aliyu et al., 2009; UNICEF,

1997).

Heavy metals occurs naturally in the earth's crust, in soils and rocks with a

subsequent range of natural background concentrations in the soils, sediments,

waters and in organisms (Alloway and Ayres, 2002). Human activities are

majorly responsible for higher concentrations of the metals relative to the

normal background values (Alloway and Ayres, 2002). The most important

anthropogenic releases of heavy metals to the environment come from smelting,

agricultural materials (pesticides and fertilizers), irrigation, application of

sewage water and fossil fuel combustion (Ljung et al., 2006; Horsefall et al.,

2013). Heavy metals will tend to accumulate in the environment and can be

transported from one environment compartment to another (Huox et al., 2007;

Chukuma,1996). Lead has no confirmed biological role (Emsley, 2011). Lead

salts are very efficiently absorbed by the body (Luckey and Venugopal, 1979).

A small amount of lead (1%) is stored in bones; the rest is excreted in urine and

faeces within a few weeks of exposure (Toxic Substance Portal, 2011), only

1
about a third of lead is excreted by a child, continual exposure may result in the

bioaccumulation of lead (Toxic Substance Portal, 2011). Moreover, Cadmium

has no known function in higher organisms (Hogac, 2010), but a Cadmium-

dependent carbonic anhydrase has been found in some marine diatoms (Lane et

al., 2005). Cadmium makes up about 0.1ppm of Earth crust, it is much rarer

than Zinc, which makes up about 65ppm (Wedepohl, 1995). In 2009, 86% of

cadmium was used in batteries, predominantly in rechargeable nickel-cadmium

batteries (Krishnamurthy, 2013). The highest concentration of cadmium is

absorbed in the kidneys of humans, and up to about 30mg of cadmium is

commonly inhaled throughout human childhood and adolescence (Perry, 1976).

Cadmium is under preliminary research for its toxicity in humans, potentially

affecting mechanisms and risks of cancer, cardiovascular disease and

osteoporosis (Luevano and Damodaran, 2014; Rahim et al., 2013; Tellez et al.,

2013; James and Meliker, 2013). Cadmium and Lead are chosen to be examined

in this study, because they are toxic heavy metals, which are listed also in the

World Health Organisation's list of 10 chemicals of major public concern

(Wikipedia, 20/8/2018). More so, lead is the most prevalent heavy metal

contaminant (Di maio, 2010) and also because of long pollution history

accumulated from cadmium which can represent a very strong ecological risk to

both ecosystem and human health. (Granero et al., 2002). Whether the source of

heavy metals is natural or anthropogenic, the concentrations in children

playgrounds constitute a potential hazard due to their bio-accumulative

2
characteristics and consequent toxicity (Horsefall, 2011). The extent of

adsorption depends on the metal, the absorbent, the physico-chemical

characteristics of the environment, pH and concentrations of other metals and

complex chemicals present in the soil (Horsefall, 2011). Children are exposed to

soil contamination through three different pathways; inhalation, ingestion and

dermal contact (skin exposure) (Horsefall, 2011). School pupils spend most of

their free time in playgrounds, and they are frequently exposed to soil (Poggio

et al., 2009). Therefore, playground according to Longman Dictionary of

Contemporary English is an area for children to play, especially at school, or in

a park, that often has special equipment for climbing on, riding on (Longman

dictionary, 2009). They can ingest a significant amount of soil between 39 and

270 mg/kg due to their typical hand to mouth behaviour, especially up to the

age of six (Poggio et al., 2009; Ljung et al., 2007).

Typical response includes inhibition of growth, suppression of oxygen

consumption and impairment of reproduction and tissue repair (Biasioli et al.,

2007), a child nervous and digestive systems are still developing and so are

susceptible to intake (Biasioli et al., 2007). Children and infant are particularly

susceptible to neuro-toxicological damage from metal exposure throughout their

on-going intellectual development (Mielke, 2004). Many factors aggravate

metal toxicity particularly in children (Mielke, 2004; Bearer, 1995). Children

are at risk of exposure to the toxic metals than adults (Granero et al., 2002).

3
Soil is contaminated by lead from different sources. Lead particles are deposited

in soil from flaking lead paints from incinerators and from motor vehicles that

use leaded gasoline (American Academy of Paediatrics, 1987). Waste disposal

is also a factor. Urban environments in generals have received higher

depositions of lead from vehicular emissions than have rural areas (American

Academy of Paediatrics, 1987). Wide variation in soil lead levels has been

reported, ranging from less than 100ppm to well over 11,000ppm (National

Research Council, 1987). Natural levels of lead in surface soils are usually

below 50ppm (Chaney, 1984; Reagen and Sibergeld, 1989). Soils adjacent to

houses with exterior lead-based paints may have lead levels of >10,000mcg/g

(EPA, 1986). In the soil, paints is a major contributor to soil lead contamination

(EPA, 1986), the accumulation of lead in soil is primarily a function of the rate

of deposition from the atmosphere (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1987).

The remediation of exterior lead-based paint hazards are critical if further

contamination is to be avoided (Buider and Matte, 1992).

Cadmium and Lead are chosen to be examined in this study, because they are

toxic heavy metal, which are listed also in the World Health Organisation's list

of 10 chemicals of major public concern (Wikipedia, 2018). Moreso, lead is the

most prevalent heavy metals contaminant (Di-maio, 2010) and also because of

long pollution history accumulated from cadmium which can represent a very

strong ecological risk to both ecosystem and human health. (Granero et al.,

2002).

4
1.2 Statement of Research Problem

The soil contamination by heavy metals can transfer to food and ultimately to

consumers. For instance, plants accumulate heavy metals from contaminated

soil without physical changes or visible indication, which could cause a

potential risk for human and animal (Osma et al., 2012). Based on its persistent

and cumulative nature, as well as the probability of potential toxicity effects of

heavy metals as a result of ingestion soil on a playground where children play,

there is a need to assess the levels of cadmium and lead contamination on a

playground soil in Gwako Primary School Gwagwalada Federal Capital

Territory, Abuja.

1.3 Justification of the Study

Playground or play area is a place specifically designed to enable children to

play there. It is typically outdoor area where children can play and where they

are frequently exposed to soil and heavy metals present in the soil by dermal

contact, inhalation and ingestion. Playgrounds enable children to develop

physical coordination, strength, and flexibility, as well as providing recreation

and enjoyment and supporting social and emotional development. Therefore it

is essential to assess the playground soil of Gwako Primary School to evaluate

the potential risks for residents especially children. Also to suggest the need to

establish measures to deal with toxicity that may arise from gradual

5
accumulation of heavy metals in children's body as a result of metal

concentrations in playgrounds.

1.4 Aim of the Study

The main aim of this study is to assess the levels of cadmium and lead

contamination on a playground soil in Gwako Primary School Gwagwalada

Federal Capital Territory, Abuja.

1.5 Objectives of the Study

I) To determine the concentrations of Cadmium and Lead in the soil sampled

collected from Gwako Primary School Gwagwalada Federal Capital Territory,

Abuja.

II) To compare the measured concentration of these elements with standard

permissible limit.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

Soil is a physical basis for settlements as a result of a dynamic human activity

(Davidson et al., 1998), one of the most important components of the living

environments is the soil. Heavy metals are reactive and undergo various

chemical transformations in the contaminated soil (Hu et al., 2013; Su et al.,

2014). Numerous studies have shown that the major sources of heavy metal

pollution in the soils include emissions from traffic (exhaust, tire wear debris

particles, particles formed by weathering street), industrial wastes (from power

plants, coal combustion, (Hu et al., 2013; Su et al., 2014), metallurgical

industry, automobile repair plants, chemical plants), household garbage building

and weathered particles of sidewalk and precipitation in the atmosphere, lead-

acid batteries, cadmium batteries and paints (Hu et al., 2013; Su et al., 2014).

The content of heavy metals in the soils can vary widely, even in

uncontaminated soils (Qayyum et al., 2015). All inorganic pollutants are

considered to be the most common and potentially harmful substances in soil in

area affected by anthropogenic pollution (EC, 2013).Heavy metals may react

with particular species, change oxidation states and precipitate (Dube et al.,

2001).

7
Lead (Pb) is the most prevalent heavy metal contaminant (Di Maio, 2001).

Tetraethyl lead (CH3CH2)4Pb, is one of the most significant heavy metal

contaminant in recent use (Wright, 2002). Pb can also be used in toys as a

stabilizer, colour enhancer, or in anti-corrosive agent. As a component of

tetraethyl lead, it was used extensively in gasoline during the 1930s-1970s.

Although the use of leaded gasoline was largely phased out in North America

by 1996, soil next to roads built before this time retains high Lead

concentrations. Lead from lead (II) azide or lead styphnate used in firearms

gradually accumulates at firearms training grounds containing the local

environment and exposing range employees to a risk of lead poisoning

(Houlton, 2014), water sources (ground water, lakes, streams and rivers) can be

polluted by heavy metals leaching from industrial and consumer waste; acid

rain can exacerbate this process by releasing heavy metals trapped in soils

(Worsztynowicz and Mill, 1995). More so, the Biogeochemistry of cadmium

and its release to the environment has been the subject of review, as has the

speciation of cadmium in the environment (Cullen et al., 2013; Crea et al.,

2013). Individuals and organisations have been reviewing cadmium's

bioinorganic aspects for its toxicity (Maret et al., 2013). The most dangerous

form of occupational exposure to cadmium is inhalation of fine dust and fumes,

or ingestion of highly soluble cadmium compounds (Morrow, 2010).

8
Contamination according to Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English is

the act of making a place or substance dirty or harmful by putting something

such as chemicals or poison in it.

According to Oxford Advance Learners Dictionary, contamination is the act of

making a substance or place dirty or no longer pure by adding a substance that

is dangerous or carries disease.

2.2 Contaminants' Description

2.2.1 Cadmium (Cd)

Cadmium is a chemical element with symbol Cd and atomic number of 48. This

soft, bluish- white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in

group 12, namely Zinc Mercury (Ohia et al., 2005). Also, Cd is found in the

second row of transition series (Ohia et al., 2005). Like Zinc, it demonstrates

oxidate state +2 in most of its compounds and like mercury; it has a lower

melting point than the transition metals in group 3 through 11(Ohia et al.,

2005). The average concentration of cadmium in Earth's crust is between 0.1

and 0.5 parts per million (PPM) and it was discovered in 1817 simultaneously

by Stromeyer and Hermann, both in Germany, as an impurity in Zinc carbonate

(Wikipedia, 2018). Cadmium (Cd) exposure is a phenomenon of the early 20th

Century, and onwards. In June 2010 Cd was detected in paint used on

promotional drinking glasses for the movie Shrek Forever After, sold by

McDonald's Restaurants, triggering a recall of 12 million glasses (Mulvihill &

Pritchard, 2010).

9
General Properties of Cd

As a bulk metal (Heavy metal), Cd is insoluble in water and it is not flammable;

however, in its powdered form it may burn and release toxic fumes (Holleman

et al., 1985). It is silvery bluish- grey metallic, and it is a post- transition metal

alternatively considered a transition metal. Cd has a melting point of 594.22k

(321.07 0C, 609.930f). Boiling point of 1040k (7670C, 14130f) (Wikipedia,

2018).

Also, Cd was used for a long time as a corrosion-resistant planting on steel, and

Cd-compounds are used as red, orange and yellow pigments, to colour glass,

and to stabilise plastic. But cadmium use is generally decreasing because it is

toxic (it is specifically listed in the European Restriction of Hazardous

Substances (Morrow, 2010), and nickel-cadmium batteries have been replaced

with nickel metal hydride and Lithium-ion batteries (Wikipedia, 2018).

2.2.2 Lead (Pb)

Lead is found in group IVA of the periodic table with Atomic number of 82,

Relative Atomic mass of 207.19. Lead (Pb) can form tetracovalent compounds,

example; Pb (C2H5)4 (Ohia et al., 2005). Also Pb has been known since ancient

times, it was used by Romans in making water pipes. The main ore of Pb is

galena (Pbs) from which is extracted, other ores of Lead are anglesite (PbSO 4)

and cerusstie (PbCO3) (Ohia et al., 2005).

In addition, the adverse effects of lead (Pb) were known to the ancients. In the

2nd century BC the Greek botanist Nicander described the colic and paralysis

10
seen in lead-poisoned people (Pearce, 2007; Needleman,2004) Dioscorides, a

Greek Physician who is thought to have lived in the 1st Century CE, (Rogers,

2000) wrote that lead "makes the mind give ways". Lead (Pb) was used

extensively in Roman aqueducts from about 500BC to 300AD (Gilbert &

Weiss, 2006). Julius Caesar’s engineer, Vitruvius, reported, water is much more

wholesome from earthenware pipes than from lead pipes. For it seems to be

made injurious by lead, because white lead is produced by it, and this is said to

be harmful to the human body (Prioreschi, 1998) in 2013, World Health

Organisation estimated that lead poisoning resulted in 143,000 deaths and

"contribute[d] to 600,000 new cases of children with intellectual disabilities"

each year (WHO,2013). In general, lead can cause severe damage to the brain

and kidneys, and ultimately death by mimicking calcium (Rudolph et al., 2013).

In pregnant women also, high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage,

chronic, high level exposure has been shown to reduce fertility in males (Sokol,

2005). In child's developing brain, lead interferes with synapse formation in the

cerebral cortex, neurochemical development (including that of

neurotransmitters, and the organisation ion channels (Mycyk et al., 2005). High

blood lead levels are associated with delayed puberty in girls (Schoeters et al.,

2008).

General Properties of Lead

11
Lead is a soft grey-white metal, it is ductile and melleable; has a density of

11.34, the melting point of 3270C, boiling point of 1,7550C (Ohia et al., 2005).

Pb is a good conductor of heat and electricity, and Lead ore is found in Jos,

Bauchi, Kaduna, and Abakaliki (Ohia et al., 2005). Pb also has a stable

oxidation state (2), 4(Ohia et al., 2005).

Lead (pb) from the Latin plumbum is a heavy metal that is denser than most

common materials (Meija et al., 2016). When freshly cut lead is silvery with a

hint of blue; it tarnishes to a dull grey colour when exposed to the air (Meija et

al., 2016). Lead has the highest atomic number of any stable element and three

of its isotopes each conclude a major decay chain of heavier element (Wikipedia

2018). Lead is a relatively unreactive post-transition metal; its weak metallic

character is illustrated by its amphoteric nature; lead and lead oxides react with

acids and bases (Wikipedia, 2018).

Playground according to Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English is an

area for children to play, especially at school, or in a park, that often has special

equipment for climbing on, riding on (Longman dictionary, 2009).

It also worth to mention that heavy metals accumulate mainly in the most

superficial part of the soil; these that have a direct contact with children residing

in playgrounds (Lidsky and Schneider, 2003). The children's behaviour itself

also promotes a contact with harmful substances, there are many uncontrolled

behaviours such as putting dirty hands and toys into the mouth (Lidsky and

12
Schneider, 2003), their curiosity of the surrounding world and often

hyperactivity increase risk of entering toxic compounds into their bodies

(Lidsky and Schneider, 2003).

2.2.3 The Effect of These Heavy Metals in Body.

The intake of dust particles seems to be the major way of exposure to the metals

in the playground soil, causing greater health risks. In essence, the relative

contributor of ingestion exposure to hazard index ranges from 99.1% for

cadmium (Ljung et al., 2007; Jafaru et al., 2015; Anonymous, 1997). Health

risks are higher in children as compared to adults, this is because their immune

systems are immature, meaning that children are likely to face greater dangers

as a result of exposure to the soil which leads to ingestion of a significant

amount of soil between 39 and 270mg/kg due to their typical hand to mouth

behaviour, especially up to the age of six (Poggio et al., 2009; Ljung et al.,

2007; Osman, 1998).

In fact, as for Lead and Zinc, the ingestion of these particles tends to be the

major cause of exposure to the heavy metals (Osman, 1998).

Conversely Cadmium is related to dermal adsorption which tends to be the main

exposure way for the heavy metals found in dust particles from the playground

soil thereby, resulting in higher health risks (Osman, 1998). Also, high levels of

heavy metals might build up in our bodies' fatty tissues thereby affecting the

Central Nervous System (CNS) (Jaradat et al., 1999; Alloway, 1995). They

13
might also settle down in our bodies' circulatory system. More so, heavy metals

can cause pains in bones, mutagenic, neurological disorders, especially in

children which can lead to behavioural changes and impaired performance in IQ

test (Jaradat et al., 1999; Alloway, 1995). Also, kidneys are the main target

organ for the cumulative toxic metal exposure to Cd (De Burbure et al., 2003).

2.2.4 Detrimental or Toxic Effects These Heavy Metals (Cd and Pb).

These heavy metals can bind to vital cellular components, such as structural

proteins, enzymes and nucleic acids and interfere with their functioning (Landis

et al., 2000), Symptoms and effects can vary according to the dose involved.

Broadly, long-term exposure to toxic heavy metals can have carcinogenic,

central and peripheral nervous system and circulatory effects. For humans,

typical presentations associated with exposure to any of the "classical" toxic

heavy metals (Nielen and Marvin, 2008).

Element:

Acute exposure; usually a day or less, Chronic exposure; often months or year.

For Cadmium (Cd): Inhalation of cadmium fumes can result initially in metal

fume fever, (Hayes, 2007) but may progress to chemical Pneumonitis (Lung

inflammation), Lung cancer, Osteomalacial (softening of bones), Proteinuria

(excess protein in urine; possible kidney damage), and eventually death (Nielen

and Marving, 2008).

14
Also, Lead (Pb) is a highly poisonous metal (whether inhaled or swallowed),

affecting almost every organ and system in the human body (United States Food

and Drug Administration, 2015). At airborne levels of 100mg/m3, it is

immediately dangerous to life and health (National Institute for Occupational

Safety and Health, 2016). Most ingested lead is absorbed into the blood stream

(Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2017). The primary cause of

its toxicity is its predilection for interfering with the proper functioning of

enzymes, (Rudolph et al., 2013), it does so by binding to sulfhydryl groups

found on many enzymes (Rudolph et al., 2013) or mimicking and displacing

other metals which act as cofactors in many enzymatic reactions (Dart et al.,

2004). The toxicity effects of lead include: Encephalopathy (brain dysfunction),

Nausea, Vomiting, Anaemia, Foot drop/wrist drop (palsy), Nephropathy (kidney

disease).

2.2.5 Remediation of Heavy Metals in the Body and Soils.

A metal EDTA anion, lead (Pb) displaces Ca in Na 2 [CaETDA] to give Na2 [Pb

EDTA], which is passed out of the body in urine (Csuros, 1997). Moreover, in

humans, heavy metal poisoning is generally treated by the administration of

chelating agents (Balasurbramanian et al., 2009). These are chemical

compounds such as (calcium disodium ethylene diamine tetra-acetate) that

convert heavy metals to chemically inert forms that can be excreted without

further interaction with the body. Chelates are not without side effects and can

15
also remove beneficial metals from the body. Vitamin and Mineral Supplements

are sometimes co-administered for this reason (American cancer society, 2008).

Furthermore, Soils contaminated by heavy metals can be remediated one or

more of the following technologies;

Isolation: It involves the use of caps, membranes or below ground barriers in an

attempt to quarantine the contaminated soil.

Immobilisafion: This aims to alter the properties of the soils as to hinder the

mobility of the heavy contaminants.

Toxicity Reduction: this attempt to oxidize or reduce the toxic heavy metal ions

via chemical or biological means into less toxic or mobile forms.

Physical Separation: It involves the removal of the contaminated soil and the

separation of the metal contaminants by mechanical means.

Extraction: This is an or off-site process that uses chemical, high temperature

volatization, or electrolysis to extract contaminants from the soils. The process

or processes used will vary according to contaminant and the characteristics of

the site (Evanko & Dzombak, 1997).

16
 CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Materials

3.1.1 Description of Study Area

The study area is L.E.A Primary School, Gwako Gwagwalada Federal Capital

Territory (F.C.T) Abuja, Nigeria. Abuja is the capital city of Nigeria located in

the centre of Nigeria (Elleh, 2001), bounded by latitude 09° 05'N and longitude

07° 30'E and 07° 32'E (Ishaya, 2013). Gwagwalada is one of the six local

government area councils of the Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria, together

with Abaji, Kuje, Bwari, Kwali and the Abuja Municipal Area council

(AMAC), (Wikipedia, 2018). Gwagwalada is also the name of the main town in

the Local Government Area which has an area of 1,043KM2 and a population

of 157,770 at the 2006 census (Wikipedia, 2018). Gwagwalada has a postal

code of 902101 (NIPOST, 2009) with a cordinates of 8° 56 "21"N 7° 04 "43"

E/8.939 3°N 7.0787°E (Wikipedia, 2018) and it has an area of 1069.589Km 2

(Awowole-Browne, 2007).

17
Figure 1: Map of FCT Showing Study Area, Gwagwalada.

Source: Wikipedia, 2018

18
3.1.2 Sample Collection

Top soil samples were collected May 2021 in Gwako public school's

playground along major road connecting Giri in Gwagwalada to the main

Airport expressway in Abuja, Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Nigeria. Surface

soil samples at 0-5cm depth were collected from each sampling location within

the measured grid of 40m by 40m sides, with distance of 20m apart each across

the length and breadth within the sampling locations making a total of 9

samples. The surface layer of ground is most commonly collected for this type

of research, because this will give the best evidence of anthropogenic impact

and it is the part of the land that children have direct access on playground

(Wragg et al., 2013). Samples were collected from playground into a small clip

sealed bags with a soil Auger and labelled in order it were collected, all samples

were been transported to laboratory for further preparation.

The samples were taken to Biological laboratory of the Department of

Biological Sciences at Uniabuja Gwagwalada FCT - Abuja, Nigeria to assess

the level of contamination of Cd and Pb in soil of Giri primary school

playground.

19
 A1 A2 A3

B1 B2 B3

C1 C2 C3

Fig 2: Modified Sampling Grid Showing Sampling Locations 20m Apart

(Adapted from Anibasa, 2016) But Sampling Locations Are Original To This
Study.40m × 40m 20m between sampling locations

20
3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Sample Preparation.

The weight of each fresh soil samples was taken and all samples weight ranges

from 47.3-64.2g. Each sample was dried in the oven at 100°c for 48hrs and

grinded in porcelain mortar with pestle. The soil samples were pooled together,

treated to coning and quartering to obtain a small laboratory sample (Verla et

al., 2012). The samples were sieved through a 250µm sieve in order to

normalise variations in grain size distributions that is readily adhere to

children's hand and available for incidental ingestion. Fine soil samples were

kept in seal bag nylon proper storage before further analysis (Princewill et al.,

2011).

3.2.2 Sample Digestion

One gram of the soil samples was digested in conical flask using 10ml of nitric

acid for digestion and heated with a hot plate 1hr at 70°c, then the temperature

was increased to 105°c for 8hrs, 5ml of HNO3 acid was added periodically into

the flask for three times to keep the liquid of the digested sample remain. The

sample was allowed to cool under room temperature, add 5ml of the dissolved

1% nitric acid before filtered into a volumetric flask with a filter paper and the

flask filled with distilled water to 25ml (Needleman, 1987; Jarosinska et al.,

2006). The total heavy metal concentration in the soil samples was determined

21
by the use of Atomic Absorption Spectrometer (AAS) machine (Jarosinska et

al., 2006). Quantification was carried out using appropriate calibration curves

prepared in the same acid matrix with standard metal solution for Atomic

Absorption Spectrometer (Zhu et al., 2008).

3.3 Statistical Analyses

The statistical software SPSS version 20 for windows was used to analyse data

to obtain the mean concentration of Cd and Pb, standard deviation including the

standard error mean and was used to compare with the U.S EPA limit for Cd

and Pb in children playground soil.

22
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

The soils present in Gwako L.E.A Primary school playground are of two types

(sandy and loamy soil) with their physical characteristics. Some part of the

playground is made up of loamy soil with a coarse texture while the soil at the

entrance of the playground is sandy.

The concentration of cadmium was 3.5 ± 9.90 when compared to US EPA limit

85mg/kg (US EPA, 2004). Also the mean concentration of lead was 23. 8 ±

12.47 when compared to US EPA limit 400mg/kg US EPA (2004).

23
Table 1: Comparison of Pb and Cd concentrations and the US EPA

limit in the playground of Gwako L.E.A Primary School.

Sample point Concentration (mg/kg)

Gwako L. E. A Pri. School ME SEM

Cadmium (Cd) 3.5 ± 9.90

Lead (Pb) 23.82 ± 12.47

US EPA Limit

Cd 85

Pb 400

Key: ME, Mean. SEM, Standard Error of Mean

24
 30.00

25.00
Cd and Pb concentration in mg/kg

20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
Cd Pb

Figure 3: Comparison of the mean Cd and Pb concentration of soil of LEA

Primary school, Gwako Error bars represent 2 standard errors on the

mean.

25
 CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Discussion

The cadmium concentration in the samples is lower than lead concentration.

The concentration is far below the acceptable limit in the soil which is 85mg/kg

and lead which has the highest concentration in the soil with values of 23.82 ±

12.47, these concentrations could be attributed to vicinity of the playground and

the proximity of the playground to the road, car parking lots and probably due

to the systematic exchange of this material on playground. Possible cadmium

sources on playground soil include tobacco smoke, burning of plastics

automobile wastes, and cadmium batteries. More so, possible source of lead in

playground include auto exhaust, airborne lead fallout, battery, other sources are

wear out of tyres, leakage of oils, corrosion of batteries and metallic parts, waste

disposal and eroded materials are also factors. Generally, the result showed that

the soils of the playground could be marked as slightly to medium contaminated

by determined heavy metals (Cd and Pb). The concentration of Cd and Pb

investigated indicates that their concentration occurred from various

anthropogenic activities in the children's playground environment, the presence

of Cd and Pb which are heavy metals in the soils represent a significant

environmental hazard, and one of the most difficult contamination problems to

solve. There are two main reasons: Firstly, due to chemical character of heavy

26
metals; they are not subjected to biodegradation processes, and they accumulate

in the environment. Secondly, due to the complexity of the soil matrix

(Sapcanin et al., 2016).

Special attention should be paid to Pb concentrations because of its potential

influence on human health (Ljung et al., 2007). The ingestion of contaminated

soil or dust represents the main originating environmental source of Pb levels in

the blood of children (Poggio et al., 2009: Ljung et al., 2007), monitoring of Pb

content in the soil is of great importance because of its negative effects on

children's central nervous systems and its contributions to developmental

disorders, especially during long periods of exposure (Lidsky and Schneider,

2003: Nielen and Marvin, 2008). Lead interferes with synape formation in the

cerebral cortex, neurochemical development and the organisation of ion

channels (Mycyk et al., 2005).

Harmful effects on blood, development, behaviour, and intellectual functioning

can be noticed as well as a result of ingestion of small quantities of Pb from dust

or soil (Lidsky and Schneider, 2003), increased risk of cancer development has

also been associated to chronic lead exposure (Lidsky and Schneider, 2003).

Inhalation of cadmium fumes can result initially in metal fume fever, but may

progress to chemical pneumonitis, lung cancer and kidney damage (Hayes,

2007; Nielen and Marving, 2008), kidneys are the main target organ for the

cumulative toxic metal exposure to cadmium (De Burbure et al., 2003).

27
Generally, their effects also include binding to vital cellular components such

as, structural proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids and interfere with their

functioning (Landis et al., 2000). However, Cd and Pb have been reported in a

research of Heavy metals pollution children playgrounds - an environmental

modelling and statistical analysis in Sarajevo (2016) to be 0.91-2.15 and 26.69-

118.97 in relation to this work that has 3.5±9.90 and 23.82±12.47 mg/kg

concentration. Generally, these results can be used for prediction of heavy metal

distribution in the playground soil and the soil may pose a significant health risk

in children in term of elements analysed.

5.2 Conclusion

In conclusion, playground soil metals in this study may constitute pollution by

heavy metals, but contamination is certainly on an increase. Obtained maximum

values have not exceeded the values which may require intervention in form of

remediation; nevertheless, the obtained values do not exclude risks which may

be posed to the ecosystem and humans, especially children.

5.3 Recommendations

i. Based on the result of this study, the accumulation of these metals (Cd and

Pb) in playground soil is a call for concern with regards to the health of the

children.

28
ii. Further investigation is deemed necessary to study the sites that may require

urgent attention. Periodic studies are recommended in order to procure enough

data for this sensitive issue.

iii. There is need to establish measures to deal with toxicity that may arise from

gradual accumulation of heavy metals concentrations in children playground,

comprehensive information about these metals are of primary importance to

detect unusual concentrations, predict outbreaks and formulate preventive

measures.

29
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 APENDICES

APENDIX I
c ANALYSIS Cd in soil
Sample mass(g D Conc
S/N identity ) F Conc mg/L mg/kg  
  RBLK1 1 25 0.0934 2.34  
RBLK2 1 25 0.0861 2.15  
  Standard 1 1 25 4.0000 4.00  
  Standard 2 1 25 6.0000 6.00  
  Standard 3 1 25 8.0000 8.00  
  GA1 1 25 0.0990 2.48  
  GA2 1 25 0.1088 2.72  
  GB1 1 25 0.0955 2.39  
  GB2 1 25 0.0782 1.96  
  GC1 1 25 0.3183 7.96  
  GC2 1 25 0.6241 15.60  
  GA1D 1 25 0.0925 2.31  
  GB2D 1 25 0.0902 2.26  
             
             
             
             

BLANK
CORRECTIO
N  
mg/kg
SAMPLE Cd

RBLK 1 2.34

RBLK 2 2.15

Mean 2.24

Std 0.13

µ 0.00

SEM 0.09

mean-µ 2.24

t-test 24.52

T-TAB. 6.314 df(n-1)

two tailed test 1 significant

41
 P<0.05 at 95% confidence interval

Sample GA1D GB2D MEDIAN

X 2.48 1.96  

x2 2.31 2.26  

Mean 2.39 2.11  

x1-x2 0.16 -0.30  

(x1-x2)% 6.79 14.25 10.5

Median=1s
d
precision=2s
d  

10.5*2=21  

42
 Blank
correcte
ANALYSIS Pb in soil d
Sample mass(g D Conc
S/N identity ) F Conc mg/L mg/kg B
2
  RBLK1 1 5 -0.4696 -11.74  
2
RBLK2 1 5 -0.0969 -2.42  
2
  Standard 1 1 5 4.0000 4.00  
2
  Standard 2 1 5 6.0000 6.00  
2
  Standard 3 1 5 8.0000 8.00  
2
  GA1 1 5 0.1441 3.60 10.68
2
  GA2 1 5 1.9595 48.99 56.07
2
  GB1 1 5 0.4198 10.50 17.58
2
  GB2 1 5 0.3330 8.33 15.41
2
  GC1 1 5 0.4906 12.27 19.35
2
  GC2 1 5 0.5554 13.89 20.97
2
  GA1D 1 5 0.4843 12.11 19.19
2
  GB2D 1 5 2.9118 72.80 79.88
             

43
             
             
             

BLANK
CORRECTIO
N  
mg/kg
SAMPLE Pb
RBLK 1 -11.74
RBLK 2 -2.42
mean -7.08
std 6.59
µ 0.00
SEM 4.67
mean-µ -7.08
t-test -1.52
T-TAB. 6.314 df(n-1)
two tailed test 1 significant
P<0.05 at 95% confidence interval

Sample GA1D GB2D MEDIAN

x 10.68 15.41  
x2 19.19 79.88  
Mean 14.94 47.64  
x1-x2 -8.51 -64.47  
(x1-x2)% 56.95 135.33 96.1
Median=1s
d
precision=2s
d  
96.1*2=192.
2  

44
APENDIX II

T-Test

Group Statistics
Metals N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Concentrations Cd in soil 6 5.5000 5.64801 2.30579
Pb in soil 6 23.3333 16.37885 6.68664

Independent Samples Test

Levene's Test for t-test for Equality of Means
Equality of Variances

45
 95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error
F Sig. t df tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper
Concentrat Equal variances 1.905 .198 -2.521 10 .030 -17.83333 7.07303 -33.59303 -2.07364
ions assumed
Equal variances -2.521 6.173 .044 -17.83333 7.07303 -35.02382 -.64284
not assumed

NPAR TESTS
/K-S(NORMAL)=Concentrations
/MISSING ANALYSIS.

APENDIX III

Case Processing Summary

Cases
Valid Missing Total
Metals N Percent N Percent N Percent
Concentrations Ca in soil 6 100.0% 0 0.0% 6 100.0%
Pb in soil 6 100.0% 0 0.0% 6 100.0%

Descriptives

46
 Metals Statistic Std. Error
Concentrations Ca in soil Mean 198.1667 43.43763
95% Confidence Interval for Lower Bound 86.5067
Mean Upper Bound 309.8267
5% Trimmed Mean 190.7963
Median 161.0000
Variance 11320.967
Std. Deviation 106.40003
Minimum 125.00
Maximum 404.00
Range 279.00
Interquartile Range 134.25
Skewness 1.936 .845
Kurtosis 3.914 1.741
Pb in soil Mean 38.6667 3.29309
95% Confidence Interval for Lower Bound 30.2015
Mean Upper Bound 47.1318
5% Trimmed Mean 39.0185
Median 40.5000
Variance 65.067
Std. Deviation 8.06639
Minimum 25.00
Maximum 46.00
Range 21.00
Interquartile Range 12.75
Skewness -1.033 .845
Kurtosis .427 1.741

47