Evaporation Notes

CP402: UNIT OPERATIONS II
SEPARATION PROICESSES INVOLVING HEAT AND MASS

TRANSFER
EVAPORATION
Prof. S.V. Manyele

Department of Chemical and Mining Engineering,
University of Dar es Salaam
Table of Contents
A. INTRODUCTION
B. HEAT TRANSFER IN EVAPORATORS
C. SIMULATION OF EVAPORATION
PROCESS
D. FOOD EVAPORATION
E. ENERGY SAVING IN EVAPORATORS
03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 2

PART A: INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION
Evaporation is the removal of
solvent so as to concentrate a
solution by use of heat.
Evaporators
• HX employing steam as a heating medium
• Reboilers with special provision for liquid-
vapor separation
• enough freeboard provided for disengaging
the vapor
Transport mechanisms
• Heat Transfer- a problem to be solved

• Mass transfer - not a problem if
enough vapor space is provided
Thus, Evaporation is controlled by heat

transfer mechanism, and not by mass
transfer

Reboilers’ orientations
(a) Kettle reboiler
o o
S
t
e
am@
1
9
0C V
a
po
r
@16
0
C
V
S
F B
o
1
9
0CF
ee
d
@1
o
4
0
C P
r
o
duc
t
@1
o
6
5
C
(b) Horizontal thermosiphon
B + V (25% vap)
o
160 C
S o
190 C
Steam @190 oC
F B
Feed @ 140 oC Product @165 oC

(c) Vertical thermosiphon
o
B
(
25
%v
ap
)1
50
C
S
o
S
t
ea
m@1
9
0C
For the same work load

o
1
9
0C
o
F F e
e
d@1
4
0C
Choosing a Heat Exchanger
{Performance parameters}
• Heat transfer rate, Q (W/m2)

• Mean temperature difference, DTm (deg-C)
• Overall h.t. coefficient, U (W/m2.K)
• Heat transfer area, A (m2), $/m2

• Tube length, L (m), cost$$$
• Running costs, profit making

Choosing a Heat Exchanger
{Tubes, liquid flow and circulation}
• Tube arrangements
– Vertical • Liquid flow
– Horizontal – inside tube
– outside
– long tube
– short tube (3-5 ft)
• Liquid circulation
– natural (gravity, popular, cheap)
03-Dec-18 – forced (pump)
Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 10
Compare performance
parameters for reboilers
Parameter (a) (b) (c )
Rated area (m2) 930 930 480
Tube length, L (m) 6.1 6.1 4.9
Tube O.D. (mm) 19 19 -
Tube O.D. (mm) - - 21.2
Vaporization (%) 30 25 25
H.t. coeff., U (w/m2.K) 674 674 928
D T m, (deg-C) 25 44.8 44.8
Calculated area, A (m2) 866 483 350
Calculated Q (kW/m2) 16.8 30.2 41.2
50
Kettle
40
Horizontal
30 Vertical
20
10
0
Tube length, L Tube O.D. (mm) Tube O.D. (mm) Calculated Q
(m) (kW/m2)

1000
800
Kettle
Horizontal
600
Vertical
400
200
H.t. coeff., U Calculated area, A Rated area (m2)
(w/m2.K) (m2)

50
Vaporization (%)
40 DTm, (deg-C)
30
20
Kettle Horizontal Vertical

Liquid circulation in the
evaporators
• Forced Circulation
– uses pumps and propellers
– expensive
• Natural circulation
– popular, cheap to run and
maintain
– not for viscous and fouling
liquids/solutions
Characteristics of Evaporating Liquids
This makes h.t. problems to be an art
• High concentration - high (Cp, r, m) and

crystals may form leading to clogging
• Foaming- strong foam may accompany the
vapor outside leading to heavy entrainment
and loss of material (frothing).
• Temperature sensitivity - fine chemicals,
foods, pharmaceuticals, etc. may be damaged.
• Scaling - deposition of solute on h.t. surface,
lowers U.
• Corrosivity - materials of construction; steel
vs. SS.
Utilities & Instrumentation used
in Evaporator systems
Instrumentation
Utilities – Control Valves
• Steam – Pressure gauges
• Vacuum – Pressure controllers
• Electricity
– Temperature gauges
• Water – Temperature controllers
– Flow meters, etc.
Special Cases of Evaporation
• Evaporation of sea water - potable water

from condensing vapors
• Evaporation of mineral water - solid free
water, boiler feed water, potable water.
• Concentration of solutions - thick liquor

Modes of Operation for Evaporators
Circulation
• pool of liquid kept within
Once through equipment
• single pass • mixed with incoming feed
• must agitate • partial evaporation per pass
• uses m-effects • forced circulation
• low P • climbing film evap.
• high DT • For high conc., high Cp
• high heat flux • not for heat sensitive soln.
• flexible conc. ranges
How to improve the Operations
Entrainment/frothing
• increase vapor space
• use baffles
Foaming/bubbles
• baffles
• steam jet @ surface
• antifoam agents
Low efficiency
• m-effect
• vapor recompression
03-Dec-18 • use low Prof.
T, low P CME
S.V. Manyele, 20
Falling & Rising Film Evaporators
(1) RISING FILM
• Solution flows upwards
• Long-tube type
• Vertical
(1) FALLING FILM • Excellent liquid-vapor

• Solution flows separation Short
downwards contact time
• Hydrostatic head = 0 • For heat sensitive
solutions (milk, blood,
• BPR = 0
juice, etc).
• Excellent U
Swenson Double-Effect, LTV Rising-Film Evaporator

Rising-Film Evaporator
with Vertical-Tube Surface Condenser

Typical Fluid-Temperature Profile of
Rising-Film Evaporator
A typical fluid-temperature profile taken with a traveling

thermocouple for a rising-film evaporator is shown above.
The maximum temperature occurred at a point eight feet
above the bottom tube-sheet where the boiling began.
More information ….
(1) Most useful evap. = vertical, long tube

(2) Design data
• pipe dim = 19 – 63 mm
• Pipe length = 12 – 30 ft (long)
(3) Special case: calandria (see Perry’s)
(4) Short tube evaporators
• L = 3 – 5 ft, forced flow, built in propellers

Thermal Economy
T.E. = total kg H2O evaporated

kg. steam entering the system
• A very important factor
• Improved by series arrangement
• Usually with decreasing P
• Vapor from one effect heats solution in
the next effect
• Use P1 > P2 > P3 etc.
Thermal economy versus
number of effects
3
$
Thermal Economy
2
$$
1 $$$
0
1 2 3
Number of effects

UTILITIES REQUIRED PER ONE TON OF
SODIUM CARBONATE MONOHYDRATE
(Based upon $6 per 1,000 lb steam & $0.05 per kwh power)
Triple Recompression
Effect Evaporator
Power, kwh
Compressor 0 46.7
Circ. Pumps 9.07 12.9
Total 9.07 59.6
Steam, lb 1,580 636
Condenser H2O, gpm 75.3 0
Steam & Power cost $9.93 $6.80
Parts of the Evaporator
1. In the centre of the cylinder there is a
steam heating section, with pipes passing
through it in which the evaporating liquors
rise.
2. At the top of the cylinder, there are baffles,
which allow the vapours to escape but
check liquid droplets that may accompany
the vapours from the liquid surface.
3. A diagram of this type of evaporator, which
may be called the conventional evaporator,
is given in Fig. 8.1.
1.
T E E
H F V
E F A
E P
S C O
I T R
N A
G T
L O
E R

Heat exchanger section (calandria)
• Steam condenses in the outer jacket and the
liquid being evaporated boils on the inside of
the tubes and in the space above the upper tube
plate.
• The resistance to heat flow is imposed by the
steam and liquid film coefficients and by the
material of the tube walls.
• The circulation of the liquid greatly affects
evaporation rates, but circulation rates and
patterns are very difficult to predict in any detail.

Heat exchange section …
• Values of overall heat transfer coefficients that
have been reported for evaporators are of the
order of 1800-5000 J m-2 s-1 °C-1 for the
evaporation of distilled water in a vertical-tube
evaporator with heat supplied by condensing
steam.
• However, with dissolved solids in increasing
quantities as evaporation proceeds leading to
increased viscosity and poorer circulation,
heat transfer coefficients in practice may be
much lower than this.

Complications ---1
• As evaporation proceeds, the
remaining liquors become more
concentrated
• Thus, the boiling temperatures rise
• The rise in the temperature of boiling
reduces the available temperature
difference, assuming no change in
the heat source
• Thus, the total rate of heat transfer
will drop accordingly.
Complications …2
• Also, with increasing solute
concentration, the viscosity of the liquid
will increase
• This affects circulation and the heat
transfer coefficients leading again to
lower rates of boiling
• Yet another complication is that
measured, overall, heat transfer
coefficients have been found to vary with
the actual temperature difference
Vacuum Evaporation
• For the evaporation of liquids that are
adversely affected by high
temperatures, it may be necessary to
reduce the temperature of boiling by
operating under reduced pressure.
• The relationship between vapour
pressure and boiling temperature, for
water, is shown in Fig. 2.4.

Fig. 2.4: Vapour pressure/temperature curve
for water
1. Boiling occurs when the
vapour pressure of the
water is equal to the total
pressure on the water
surface.
2. The boiling point at
atmospheric pressure is of
course 100°C.
3. At pressures above or
below atmospheric, water
boils at the corresponding
temperatures above or
below 100°C, as shown in
Fig. 2.4 for temperatures
below 100°C.
B: HEAT TRANSFER IN
EVAPORATORS

B.1: THE SINGLE EFFECT
EVAPORATOR
The typical evaporator is made up of three
functional sections:
1. The heat exchanger
2. The evaporating section, where the liquid
boils and evaporates,
3. The separator in which the vapour leaves
the liquid and passes off to the
condenser or to other equipment.
In many evaporators, all three sections are
contained in a single vertical cylinder.

B1: Basic Heat transfer Equation
• Basic equation: Q = U.A.DT
• Challenge: DT = Ts - TB
Ts = steam temperature in the chest
TB = boiling point of the solution
• TB = Tsat of top vapor  TB = Tapp = Ta
DT = DTa, U = Ua approximate
• TB = determined after implementing BPR
= f( solution conc.)
DT = DTa – BPR = DTs, U = Us Correct

B2: Duhring Rule
• Pure water will
Boiling point of a solutioon

boil at Ta
increasing
• Due to solute, at concentration
n%, it will boil at
TBS
BPR = TBS – Ta
• To read Duhring
chart use Ta, n%,
then TBS
Boiling point of water

B3: Single Effect Evaporator (1-E)
Mass and Energy balance F = Feed (kg soln/h)
V
Tv = Tsat(Po) XF = solute conc. (kg
F hV solute/kg soln)
XF Po
hF = 0 V = Vapor (kg H2)/h)
TF = Tref
XV = 0, no solids ion vapor.
S B
Ts XB B = product or concentrate
hS hB (kg soln/h)
Psf TB XB = solids conc. in
product (kg solute/kg
S
soln)
Ts
hws
Important balances for 1-E
Material balances:
F=B+V
F.XF = B.XB
Energy balance:
S.l + F.hF = V.hV + B.hB
 Cp of the feed solution and l(T, P)
 Cp of vapor if super heated, otherwise assume it at l

2 V=? Practical example
Us = 852 W/m K
Tv = ?
xF = 0.05 kg/kg Destination

Po = 1.013 bar
F = 11400 kg
Tf = 21 C Qtot
A=
Us x DTs
Ps = 2.414 bar gauge
Ts = ?
B=?
xB = 0.20 kg/kg
Procedure:
(1) Get Ps in bar absolute: Ts (5) Total and solute balances: V, B
(2) Get Tsat @ Po = 1.013 bar: 100 C (6) QSH = F x CpL x (Tdh - Tf)
(3) Read Tdh @ 20% NaOH (7) QL = V x l
(4) DTs = Ts - Tdh (8) Qtot = QSH + QL
Heat Transfer in Evaporators
• Heat transfer in evaporators is governed by
– the equations for heat transfer to boiling liquids
– the convection and conduction equations.
• The heat must be provided from a
source at a suitable temperature and
this is condensing steam in most
cases.
• The steam comes either directly from a boiler
or from a previous stage of evaporation in
another evaporator.
Heat transfer Coefficients
Q = UADT
U = overall heat transfer coefficient
(W/m2K)
A = heat transfer area, m2
DT = Temperature difference = Ts – Tb
U is determined experimentally
Overall thermal resistance
1/U = 1/hs + x/l + 1/hi + FR
hs = h.t.c. for steam side

hi = h.t.c. for evaporation side
x/l = thermal resistance of the evaporator
wall
x = thickness of the metal wall or pipe
l = thermal conductivity of the metal
material
Typical values of U
Type of Liquid food U (Wm2/K)
evaporator
FFE, tubular Fruit juices, 12-65 Brix 2000-600
FFE, plate Milk, 10-30% TS 2500-1500
RFE, tubular Milk, 10-35% TS 2000-1200
Forced Sugar syrups, 15-65 Brix 2500-1500

circulation
Agitated film Fruit/Vegetable pulp 1500-700

Factors affecting U

Fouling in Evaporators
• Means formation of deposits on heat transfer
surface
• Leads to over-sizing of plants to take care of
the additional heat transfer resistance
• Energy losses
• High maintenance costs
• Cost of production during shutdown for
cleaning

Components of Fouling
• Scaling (precipitation of inorganic salts of Ca)
• Particulate fouling (precipitation of proteins)
• Corrosion fouling
• Biological fouling (attachment of microbes)
• Solidification fouling (high melting point solids)

Causes of fouling in food
evaporators
• Adsorption and denaturation of
food bio-molecules like:
– proteins,
– pectins,
– starch, etc.,
on heated surfaces

EXAMPLE 2.2: Single effect evaporator: steam
usage and heat transfer surface
• A single effect evaporator is required to concentrate a solution
from 10% solids to 30% solids at the rate of 250 kg of feed per
hour. If the pressure in the evaporator is 77 kPa absolute, and if
steam is available at 200 kPa gauge, calculate the quantity of
steam required per hour and the area of heat transfer surface if
the overall heat transfer coefficient is 1700 J m-2 s-1 °C-1.
Assume that the temperature of the feed is 18°C and that the
boiling point of the solution under the pressure of 77 kPa
absolute is 91°C. Assume, also, that the specific heat of the
solution is the same as for water, that is 4.186 x 103 J kg-1°C-1,
and the latent heat of vaporization of the solution is the same as
that for water under the same conditions.

From steam tables
• The condensing temperature of
steam at 200 kPa (gauge)[300 kPa
absolute] is 134°C ; Latent heat
2164 kJ kg-1
Pabs = Pg + Patm
• The condensing temperature at 77
kPa (abs.) is 91°C and latent heat is
2281 kJ kg-1.
-1
Mass balance (kg h )
Solids Liquids Total
Feed 25 225 250
Product 25 58 83
Evaporation 167

Heat balance
• Heat available per kg of steam
= latent heat + sensible heat in cooling to 91°C
= 2.164 x 106 + 4.186 x 103(134 - 91)
= 2.164 x 106 + 1.8 x 105
= 2.34 x 106 J
Heat required by the solution
= latent heat + sensible heat in heating from 18°C to
91°C
= 2281 x 103 x 167 + 250 x 4.186 x 103 x (91 - 18)
= 3.81 x 108 + 7.6 x 107
= 4.57 x 108 J h-1

Solution …
• Now, heat from steam = heat required by
the solution,
• Therefore quantity of steam required per

hour = (4.57 x 108)/(2.34 x 106) = 195 kg h-1
Quantity of steam/kg of water evaporated

= 195/167
= 1.17 kg steam/kg water.
Heat-transfer area
• Temperature of condensing steam = 134°C.
• Temperature difference across the
evaporator = (134 - 91) = 43°C.
• Writing the heat transfer equation for q in
joules/sec,
q = UA DT
(4.57 x 108)/3600 = 1700 x A x 43
A = 1.74 m2
• Area of heat transfer surface = 1.74 m2
03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME svm - 60

Evaporator arrangements
1. Evaporators without heat recovery
– High steam consumption
2. Evaporators with heat recovery
– Low steam consumption
– HX between V and F not used
– 15-20% saving achieved
3. Multiple effect Evaporators
– Vapors from one unit heats solution in next unit
– Final effect at even lower pressure: P1 > P2 > P3.
– Feed forward or backward feed.

Sample calculations
1-E
EVAP.EXE, a FORTRAN Code
Request by e-mail: smanyele@hotmail.com
m-E
Perform mass and energy balances across
each effect and solve for all unknowns

Fig. 2.2: Single-effect evaporator (1-E)

Fig. 2.3: Single-effect evaporator (1-E)

Boiling point rise (BPR)
• As evaporation proceeds, the liquor
remaining in the evaporator becomes more
concentrated and its boiling point will rise.
• The extent of the boiling-point elevation
depends upon the nature of the material
being evaporated and upon the
concentration changes that are produced.
• The extent of the rise can be predicted by
Raoult's Law, which leads to: DT = kx

Boiling point Elevation
• Caused by solute/water interaction
• Undesirable in evaporators
• DT (driving force) is lowered
• Q required is increased
• Time is required for heat transfer is increased
• Low for liquid foods
• High for concentrated aqueous solutions like
NaOH, up to 30C

BPE for Sugar Solutions
BPE = 0.33exp(4X)
Where X = mass fraction of the
sugar
Thus, the BPE of the fruit juice
will increase from 0.7 C (20
Brix) to 4.4 C (65 Brix)

Fig. 2.5: Duhring plot for boiling point of sodium chloride solutions

Fig. 2.6: Duhring plot for boiling point of sodium
hydroxide solutions

Example 2.5. Duhring Plot for sodium chloride
solutions
• It is found that a saturated solution of sodium chloride
in water boils under atmospheric pressure at 109°C.
Under an absolute pressure of 25.4 kPa, water boils at
65.6°C and saturated sodium chloride at 73.3°C. From
these, draw a Duhring plot for saturated salt solution.
Knowing the vapour P-T relationship for water from Fig.
2.4, find the boiling temperature of saturated salt
solution under a total pressure of 33.3kPa
• From the line, and using Fig. 7.2 again, it is found that:
the boiling point of water under a pressure of 33.3 kPa
is 71.7°C, we can read off the corresponding boiling
temperature for saturated salt solution as 79.4°C.

Heat Requirements for Vaporization
• The energy, which must be supplied to
vaporize the water at any temperature,
depends upon this temperature.
• The quantity of energy required per kg
of water is called the latent heat of
vaporization, if it is from a liquid

Steam tables
• The heat energy required to vaporize
water under any given set of conditions
can be calculated from the latent heats
given in the steam table (Given), as
steam and water vapour are the same
thing.

Temperature Table
Enthalpy Specific
Temperature Pressure (sat. vap.) Latent heat volume
(°C) (kPa) (kJ kg-1) (kJ kg-1) (m3 kg-1)
0 0.611 2501 2501 206

1 0.66 2503 2499 193
2 0.71 2505 2497 180
4 0.81 2509 2492 157
6 0.93 2512 2487 138
8 1.07 2516 2483 121
10 1.23 2520

Pressure table
Enthalpy Specific
Pressure Temperature (sat. vap.) Latent heat volume
(kPa) (°C) (kJ kg-1) (kJ kg-1) (m3 kg-1)
7 1 2514 2485 129

9.7 1.2 2519 2479 109
12 1.4 2523 2473 93.9
14 1.6 2527 2468 82.8
15.8 1.8 2531 2464 74
17.5 2 2534 2460 67
21.1 2.5 2540 2452 54.3
24.1 3 2546 2445 45.7
29 4 2554 2433 34.8
32.9 5 2562 2424 28.2
40.3 7.5 2575 2406 19.2
45.8
03-Dec-18
10 2585
Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME
2393 14.7 74
C: SIMULATION OF EVAPORATOR
OPERATING CONDITIONS AND
DESIGN FEATURES

Modeling of Industrial Evaporators
• Complex installations
• m-effects
• Different feed styles
• Series or parallel interconnections
• M.b. and e.b. for each unit remain the same
• You must isolate:
– Steam chest and vapor space
– H.t. surface
– Solution holdup
Evaporator Rapid Design
• The evaporation processes are used in
the different branches of industry (from
food industry to chemical technology,
in which evaporation is one of basic
process).
• Calculating single-stage or multi-stage
evaporator is very time-consuming.

Evaporator Rapid Design …..
• This work includes the decision on equations of
mass and heat balance, the calculations of heat
transfer, which requires the use of graphical-
analytical method, the determining of parameters of
steam, condensate and solution under conditions
of process that requires the interpolation
(sometimes extrapolation) in the tables of
properties. Got one of those?
• As for multiple-effect evaporators, the difficulty of
estimation increases many times due to necessity
to perform mentioned above routines in each step
of the iterative procedure.

Why simulate – complex setups –
manual calculations becomes time consuming
FFE

Basic factors that affect the rate
of evaporation
• Rate at which heat can be transferred to the
liquid, Q
• The quantity of heat required to evaporate
each kg of water
• Cp of the liquid
• Maximum allowable temperature of the liquid,
• Pressure at which the evaporation takes place,
• Changes that may occur in the foodstuff
during the course of the evaporation process.

Simulation Results for 1-E Evaporator
(kg/h) (kg/h) (kg/h) (kW) (kW) (m2)

F B V Qvap Qtot Area
6000 1500 4500 2798.75 3366.8 127.06
7000 1750 5250 3265.21 3927.9 148.24
8000 2000 6000 3731.67 4489.0 169.42
9000 2250 6750 4198.13 5050.2 190.59
10000 2500 7500 4664.58 5611.3 211.77
11000 2750 8250 5131.04 6172.6 232.95
12000 3000 9000 5597.5 6733.6 254.12
13000 3250 9750 6063.96 7294.7 275.3
14000 3500 10500 6530.42 7855.8 296.48

Effect of feed flow rate on the required
heat transfer area
600
Area
500
400
300
200
100
0 Feed flow rate , F

0 10000 20000 30000

Effect of feed flow rate
20000
B
15000 V
Qvap
Qtot
10000
5000
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Feed flow rate, F (kg/h)

Effect of changing solute
concentration
(%) (kg/h) (kg/h) (kW) (kW) (m2)
XF B V Qvap Qtot Area
0.04 2280 9120 5672.13 6751.42 254.8
0.05 2850 8550 5317.63 6396.92 241.42
0.06 3420 7980 4963.12 6042.41 228.04
0.07 3990 7410 4608.61 5687.9 214.66
0.08 4560 6840 4254.1 5333.39 201.28
0.09 5130 6270 3899.59 4978.88 187.9
0.1 5700 5700 3545.08 4624.38 174.52
0.11 6270 5130 3190.58 4269.87 161.14
0.12 6840 4560 2836.07 3915.36 147.76

Effect of changing solute
concentration ………
0.17 9690 1710 1063.53 2142.82 80.87

0.18 10260 1140 709.02 1788.31 67.49
0.19 10830 570 354.51 1433.8 54.11
0.2 11400 0 0 1079.29 40.73
0.21 11970 -570 -354.51 724.78 27.35
0.22 12540 -1140 -709.02 370.27 13.97
0.23 13110 -1710 -1063.53 15.77 0.59

Effect of solute concentration in the feed
12000
10000
8000 B
V
6000
Qvap
Qtot
4000
Area
2000
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
-2000
Solute concentration in the feed, XF

(kg/h) (kg/h) (kg/h) (kW) (kW) (m2)
F B V Qvap Qtot Area
6000 1500 4500 2798.75 3366.8 127.06
7000 1750 5250 3265.21 3927.93 148.24
8000 2000 6000 3731.67 4489.06 169.42
9000 2250 6750 4198.13 5050.2 190.59
10000 2500 7500 4664.58 5611.33 211.77
11000 2750 8250 5131.04 6172.46 232.95
12000 3000 9000 5597.5 6733.6 254.12
13000 3250 9750 6063.96 7294.73 275.3
14000 3500 10500 6530.42 7855.86 296.48
15000 3750 11250 6996.88 8417 317.66
16000 4000 12000 7463.33 8978.13 338.83
17000 4250 12750 7929.79 9539.26 360.01
18000 4500 13500 8396.25 10100.39 381.19
19000 4750 14250 8862.71 10661.53 402.36
20000 5000 15000 9329.17 11222.66 423.54
21000 5250 15750 9795.63 11783.79 444.72
22000 5500 16500 10262.08 12344.93 465.9
23000 5750 17250 10728.54 12906.06 487.07
24000 6000 18000 11195 13467.19 508.25
25000 6250 18750 11661.46 14028.33 529.43
Effect of increasing feed for 1-
E
20000 B
18000
V
16000
Qvap
14000
12000 Qtot
10000 Area
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
Program output
(%) (kg/h) (kg/h) (kW) (kW) (m2)
xF B V Qvap Qtot Area
0.04 2280 9120 5672.13 6751.42 254.8
0.05 2850 8550 5317.63 6396.92 241.42
0.06 3420 7980 4963.12 6042.41 228.04
0.07 3990 7410 4608.61 5687.9 214.66
0.08 4560 6840 4254.1 5333.39 201.28
0.09 5130 6270 3899.59 4978.88 187.9
0.1 5700 5700 3545.08 4624.38 174.52
0.11 6270 5130 3190.58 4269.87 161.14
0.12 6840 4560 2836.07 3915.36 147.76
0.13 7410 3990 2481.56 3560.85 134.39
0.14 7980 3420 2127.05 3206.34 121.01
0.15 8550 2850 1772.54 2851.83 107.63
0.16 9120 2280 1418.03 2497.32 94.25
0.17 9690 1710 1063.53 2142.82 80.87
0.18 10260 1140 709.02 1788.31 67.49
0.19 10830 570 354.51 1433.8 54.11
0.2 11400 0 0 1079.29 40.73
Effect of increasing xF
12000 B
V
10000 Qvap
Qtot
8000 Area
6000
4000
2000
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
Effect of xF on Area required
300
Area
250
200 Concentrate
150
d solution
Very
100 dilute
solution
50
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2

The need for simulation
V=?
F1 = 1000 kg F2 = 900 kg EVAPORATOR F5 = ? F6 = ?
xs1 = 0.12 kg/kg xs2 = 0.12 kg/kg xs5 = 0.8 kg/kg xs6 = ?
F3 = 1000 kg
xs3 = 0.12 kg/kg
BEST BALANCES:
# of unknowns = 4 (1) Solute balance across evaporator: F5
# of balances = 6 (2) Total mass balance across evaporator: V
(3) Overall system mass balance: F6
(4) Overall system solids balance: xs6

The need for simulation
V1 V2 V3 = 1 - V1 - V2
hV1 = 2729 hV2 = 2704 hV2 = 2704
137 C 118.5 C 100 C
Ps = 5.5 bar Dt = 18.5 C B1 = 1.15 - V1 Dt = 18.5 C B2 = 1.15 - V1 - V2 Dt = 18.5 C

x = 0.98 hB1 = 532 hB1 = 454.6
hs = 2711
Ts = 155.5 C
Tf = 10 C
F = 1.15 kg V1 V2
hF = 0
Tws = 155.5 C Tw1 = 137 C Tw2 = 118.5 C
hws = 616
hw1 = 537 hw2 = 458
Hints: Proble 1.3(c) Hints: Problem 1.3(d)

(1) DTtot = Ts - TB3 (4) Preheating feed changes hF for E-1
(2) Dti = DTtot/3 (5) Write heat balance for E-1
(3) Write h-bal. for each effect: S (3) Use same values for V1 and V2: S

D: FOOD EVAPORATION
EQUIPMENT
D1: Food properties vs. evaporation
• Frequently in the food industry a raw

material or a potential foodstuff contains
more water than is required in the final
product.
• When the foodstuff is a liquid, the easiest
method of removing the water, in general,
is to apply heat to evaporate it.
• Evaporation is thus a process that is often
used by the food processors.
Definition
• Evaporation is a physical separation
process, which removes a volatile
component from a liquid solution or
mixture by vaporization, obtaining a
concentrated product of the non-volatile
components
• For liquid foods, Evaporation removes
most of the water
• Further processing may involve drying
• Offers pre-concentration
Applications of Evaporation
• Concentration of fruits and vegetable juices,
milk, coffee extracts,
• Concentration of liquid foods
• Refining of sugar
• Production of salt from sea water
• Concentration of solutions in chemical
industry, e.g., NaOH in water
• Offers pre-concentration of skim milk, and
soluble coffee
NB: Does not replace freeze concentration,
reverse osmosis Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME
03-Dec-18 98
Uses ….
• Concentrating liquid wastes
• Recovering useful by-products
• Reducing the discharges of food plants
to the environment

Transfer mechanisms in
Evaporators
• The evaporator has two principal
functions, to exchange heat and to
separate the vapour that is formed from
the liquid.
• Transfer mechanism are:
– heat transfer,
– mass transfer and
– momentum transfer

D2: Important practical considerations in evaporators
• Maximum allowable temperature, which

may be substantially below 100°C
• Promotion of circulation of the liquid
across the heat transfer surfaces, to attain
reasonably high heat transfer coefficients
and to prevent any local overheating
• Viscosity of the fluid which will often
increase substantially as the
concentration of the dissolved materials
increases
• Tendency to foam which makes
separation of liquid and vapour difficult
Practical considerations …
• Thermal efficiency is higher for
evaporators (90%) than that of driers
(60%)
• Energy savings are considerably higher
for evaporators than for normal driers
• Evaporation should preserve the quality
of heat-sensitive products
• Evaporation equipment should conform to
the hygienic requirements of cleaning and
good manufacturing practices (GMP)
Engineering Design
• Based on efficient transfer of heat from
heating medium (steam) to the liquid
product
• Effective vapour-liquid separation
• Utilization of energy

D3: HEAT TRANSFER RATE AND FOOD QUALITY IN
EVAPORATORS
• Heat is transferred from the heating medium
to the boiling liquid
• Resistance occurs in the films on the
heating medium (lower) and in the boiling
liquid (highest)
• Q = heat transfer rate (kW, W, MW, kJ/s)
• Q is determined from M.B. and E.B. around
each evaporator unit and on the whole
system

Heat reaches the evaporator by
three methods of heat transfer
1. Thermal Conduction: is the flow of thermal energy
through a substance molecule to molecule from a
higher to a lower temperature region.
2. Thermal Convection:
These two are more important in evaporator

Resistance to heat flow
Q
Saturated
Boiling liquid (food)
team
Film (R1) Film (R2)
Metal (pipe wall or plate)

R2 >> R1
thickness = t
If R2 >> R1, then
• Focus attention on R2
• That is on food side
• R2 depends on thermo-physical
properties of the food and on flow
pattern
• Important consideration when
determining heat transfer coefficients

D4: Physical properties of the liquid
(food)
m = Viscosity
k = thermal conductivity
r = density
Cp = sp. heat capacity
BPE = Boiling point elevation/rise

D5: Food quality considerations
• Minimize undesirable changes in

quality and nutritive value of heat
sensitive food materials
• Keep organoleptic quality intact (flavor,
aroma, and color)
• Losses of vitamins minimized
• Production of undesirable compounds
avoided (browning, caramelization)
Restoration of aroma during evaporation
of fruit juice
• Aroma recovery in the distillate
• Add-back of fresh juice (cutback) or
bypass method
• To avoid losses of food quality:
– Evaporate at low temperature (vacuum
evaporation)
– Use high-=temperature-short-time
evaporation (also called: TASTE, Thermal
Accelerated Short Time Evaporator)
D6: Food-Specific Evaporators
• Different evaporator designs are

available, but most useful are the
Falling and Rising film evaporators
(FFE or RFE)
• Advantages of FFE or RFE
– Simplicity of operation
– Low operating and equipment capital
costs
Principles of FFE and RFE

Falling Film Evaporators -
FFE
• Irrigation rate for FFE
= (flow rate)/(length) = Q (kg/m.s)
 = viscosity (mPa.s)
S = specific gravity of the solution
s = surface tension of the liquid (dyn/cm)
For water at 80C,  = 0.356. s = 68
Qmin = 0.08 kg/m.s
Heat transfer coefficients in
FFE
• Re = 4 x Q/
• Heat transfer coefficient is higher under
turbulent flow, Re > 2100
• For a turbulent water film
• For a falling film in turbulent flow

Pr = C /k
p

RFE
FFE

E: ENERGY SAVING
EVAPORATION SYSTEM

E1: Two or more effects in series
• An evaporator is essentially a heat

exchanger in which a liquid is boiled to give
a vapour, so that it is also, simultaneously, a
low pressure steam generator.
• It may be possible to make use of this, to
treat an evaporator as a low pressure boiler,
and to make use of the steam thus produced
for further heating in another following
evaporator called another effect.

E2: MULTIPLE EFFECT EVAPORATORS
If liquid is to be evaporated in each effect,
and if the boiling point of this liquid is
unaffected by the solute concentration,
then writing a heat balance for the first
evaporator:
q1 = U1A1(Ts - T1) = U1A1 DT1

q1 = U1A1(Ts - T1) = U1A1 DT1
where
q1 = rate of heat transfer,
U1 = overall heat transfer coefficient in
evaporator 1, A1 = heat-transfer area in
evaporator 1,
Ts = temperature of condensing steam from the
boiler, T1 = boiling temperature of the liquid in
evaporator 1
DT1 = temperature difference in evaporator 1,
= (Ts - T1).
Connecting m-E
• Consider two evaporators connected
so that the vapour line from one is
connected to the steam chest of the
other as shown in Fig. 1.7, making up a
two effect evaporator.

Fig. 1.7: Double effect evaporator

Fig. 1.8: Double effect evaporator (2-E)
Forward feed

Fig. 1.9: A lab-scale double effect evaporator

2-E
• In the 2-E, the "steam" in the second is
the vapour from the first evaporator
• This vapour will condense at
approximately the same temperature
as it boiled, since pressure changes
are small,
q2 = U2A2(T1 - T2) = U2A2 DT2
in which the subscripts 2 indicate the
conditions in the second evaporator.
2-E in Balanced mode
• If the evaporators are working in balance,
then all of the vapours from the first effect
are condensing
• The condensing vapours in turn evaporates
vapours in the second effect
• Assuming negligible heat losses there is no
appreciable boiling-point elevation of the
more concentrated solution, and the feed is
supplied at its boiling point,
q1 = q2

2-E in Balanced mode …
• Further, if the evaporators are so
constructed that A1 = A2, then
U2/U1 = DT1/DT2
• That is, the temperature differences are
inversely proportional to the overall heat
transfer coefficients in the two effects
• This analysis may be extended to any
number of effects operated in series, in the
same way.

Advantages of m-E
• At first sight, it may seem that the multiple
effect evaporator has all the advantages,
• The heat is used over and over again and we
appear to be getting the evaporation in the
second and subsequent effects for nothing in
terms of energy costs
• Closer examination shows, however, that there
is a price to be paid for the heat economy

E3: Feeding of Multiple Effect
Evaporators
• In a 2-E, the temperature in the steam chest
is higher in the first than in the second effect
T1 > T2
• For the E-2 contents to boil, the boiling
temperature in the second effect must be
lower and so that effect must be under lower
pressure
P1 > P2 > P3
• Often, many of the later effects are under vacuum

Fig. 1.10: Triple effect evaporator

Forward feed evaporators (FF –E)
• Under these conditions, the liquid feed

progress is simplest if it passes from
effect one to effect two, to effect three,
and so on, as in these circumstances
the feed will flow without pumping.
• The most concentrated liquids will
occur in the last effect

Backward Feed Evaporators (BF-E)
• The feed pass in the reverse direction, starting in the
last effect and proceeding to the first,
• The liquid has to be pumped from one effect to the
next against the pressure drops.
• The concentrated viscous liquids can be handled at
the highest temperatures in the first effects
• It offers larger evaporation capacity than forward
feed systems
• It is disadvantageous from the viewpoint of product
quality and energy consumption

Advantages of m-E …
• In the first effect, q1 = U1A1DT1
• In the second effect, q2 = U2A2DT2
Consider a 1-E evaporator, working
under the same pressure as the
first effect
qs = UsAsDTs
Where subscript s indicates the single-effect
evaporator
Since the overall conditions are the same,
DTs = DT1+ DT2
as the overall temperature drop is between the steam-
condensing temperature in the first effect and the
evaporating temperature in the second effect.
Each successive steam chest in the multiple-effect
evaporator condenses at the same temperature as that
at which the previous effect is evaporating.
• Now, consider the case in which U1 = U2 = Us, and A1 = A2
• The problem then becomes to find As for the single-effect
evaporator that will evaporate the same quantity as the two
effects

• From the given conditions and from eqn. (8.2),
DT1 = DT2 and DTs= DT1 + DT2 = 2DT1
DT1 = 0.5DTs
• Now q1 + q2 = U1A1DT1 + U2A2DT2
= U1(A1+ A2) DTs/2
but q1 + q2 = qs and qs = UAsDTs
so that (A1 + A2)/2 = 2A1/2 = As
That is A1 = A2 = As
The analysis shows that if the same total quantity is to be
evaporated, then the heat transfer surface of each of the two
effects must be the same as that for a single effect evaporator
working between the same overall conditions

E4: Steam Economy
• In multiple effect evaporators, steam
economy has to be paid for by increased
capital costs of the evaporators
• Since the heat transfer areas are generally
equal in the various effects and since in a
sense what you are buying in an evaporator
is suitable heat transfer surface, the n effects
will cost approximately n times as much as a
single effect

m-E Analysis
• Comparative costs of the auxiliary equipment do not
follow the same pattern.
• Condenser requirements are less for multiple effect
evaporators, distributed between the steam chests of
the effects, except for the first one, and so condenser
and cooling water requirements will be less.
• The optimum design of evaporation plant must then
be based on a balance between operating costs which
are lower for m-E because of their reduced steam
consumption, and capital charges which will be lower
for fewer evaporators.

Advantages of Multiple Effect Evaporators
Steam consumption Total running cost

Number of effects (kg steam/kg water (relative to a single-
evaporated) effect evaporator)
One 1.1 1
Two 0.57 0.52
Three 0.40 0.37

Steam Economy (SE) of Evaporator Systems
Evaporator Systems SE, (kg water evaporated/kg

steam used)
1-E 0.9-0.98
2-E 1.70-2.0
3-E 2.4-2.8
6-E 4.6-4.9
Thermocompressor, 3-E 4-8
Mechanical vapour 10-30
recompression

Example 2.2: Triple effect evaporators:
steam usage and heat transfer surface
Estimate the requirements of steam and heat transfer
surface, and the evaporating temperatures in each
effect, for a triple effect evaporator evaporating 500
kgh-1 of a 10% solution up to a 30% solution. Steam is
available at 200 kPa gauge and the pressure in the
evaporation space in the final effect is 60 kPa absolute.
Assume that the overall heat transfer coefficients are
2270, 2000 and 1420 J m-2s-1°C-1 in the first, second and
third effects, respectively. Neglect sensible heat effects
and assume no boiling-point elevation, and assume
equal heat transfer in each effect.

Solution
Mass balance (kg h-1)
Solids Liquids Total
Feed 50 450 500
Product 50 117 167
Evaporation 333

Heat balance
• From steam tables, the condensing
temperature of steam at 200 kPa (g) is
134°C and the latent heat is 2164 kJ kg -1.
• Evaporating temperature in final effect
under pressure of 60 kPa (abs.) is 86°C,
as there is no boiling-point rise and
latent heat is 2294 kJ kg-1.

• Equating the heat transfer in each effect:
q1 = q2 = q3
U1A1DT1 = U2A2 DT2 = U3A3DT3
And DT1 + DT2 + DT3 = (134 - 86) = 48°C.
• Now, if A1 = A2 = A3
then DT2 = U1DT1 /U2 and DT3 = U1DT1 /U3
so that DT1(1 + U1/U2 + U1/U3) = 48,
 DT1 x [1 + (2270/2000) + (2270/1420)] = 48
3.73DT1 = 48
DT1 = 12.9°C,
• DT2 = DT1 x (2270/2000) = 14.6°C
and DT3 = DT1 x (2270/1420) = 20.6°C

And so the evaporating temperature:
in first effect is (134 - 12.9) = 121°C;
ls = latent heat = 2200 kJ kg-1 in second effect is (121 -
14.6) = 106.5°C
latent heat 2240 kJ kg-1 in the third effect is (106.5 - 20.6) =
86°C, latent heat 2294 kJ kg-1
Equating the quantities evaporated in each effect and
neglecting the sensible heat changes, if w1, w2, w3 are
the respective quantities evaporated in effects 1,2 and
3, and ws is the quantity of steam condensed per hour
in effect 1, then
w1 x 2200 x 103 = w2 x 2240 x 103 = w3 x 2294 x 103
= ws x 2164 x 103

The sum of the quantities evaporated in each
effect must equal the total evaporated in all
three effects so that:
w1 + w2 + w3 = 333 and solving as above,
w1 = 113 kg h-1 w2 = 111kg h-1 w3 = 108kg h-1
ws = 115 kg h-1
Steam consumption
It required 115 kg steam (ws) to evaporate a
total of 333 kg water, that is
0.35kg steam/kg water evaporated.
Heat exchanger surface.
Writing a heat balance on the first effect:
(113 x 2200 x 1000)/3600 = 2270 x A1 x 12.9
A1 = 2.4 m2 = A2 = A3
total area = A1 + A2 + A3 = 7.2 m2
• Note that the conditions of this example are

considerably simplified, in that sensible heat
and feed heating effects are neglected, and
no boiling-point rise occurs.

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CP402: UNIT OPERATIONS II

SEPARATION PROICESSES INVOLVING HEAT AND MASS

Prof. S.V. Manyele

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 2

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 3

• Heat Transfer- a problem to be solved

Thus, Evaporation is controlled by heat

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 5

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 7

For the same work load

• Heat transfer rate, Q (W/m2)

• Heat transfer area, A (m2), $/m2

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 9

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 12

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 13

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 14

• High concentration - high (Cp, r, m) and

• Evaporation of sea water - potable water

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 18

(1) FALLING FILM • Excellent liquid-vapor

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 22

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 23

A typical fluid-temperature profile taken with a traveling

(1) Most useful evap. = vertical, long tube

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 25

T.E. = total kg H2O evaporated

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 29

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 33

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 34

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 35

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03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 40

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 41

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 42

Boiling point of a solutioon

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 43

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 45

xF = 0.05 kg/kg Destination

hs = h.t.c. for steam side

Forced Sugar syrups, 15-65 Brix 2500-1500

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 50

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 51

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 52

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 53

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 54

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 55

Solids Liquids Total

Feed 25 225 250

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 57

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 58

• Therefore quantity of steam required per

Quantity of steam/kg of water evaporated

03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME svm - 60

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03-Dec-18 Prof. S.V. Manyele, CME 65