CHAPTER VI THEORY OF EQUATIONS (1) 1. Roots of Equations. Under this heading we consider equations of the type f(z)=0 where f(z) is a polynomial, and ‘ equation ’ will mean an equation of this kind. Tho genoral equation of the nth degree will be written in one of the forms : aM + pat" + pg? +. + Py =O, gr" + a,2"—) +a,0"-? +... +4, ; or, get mayan 4 ED art wea, =0, where binomial coefficients are introduced. ‘The Inst equation is written briefly in the form (4g, a5 dp, «.. ghz, 1)"=0. For the present, we assume that every equation has one root. This is the fundamental theorem of the Theory of Equations, and will be proved in another volume. (1) It follows that every equation of the n-th degree has exactly n roots. For let f(z)=2"+p,2"-"!+...4p, and let « bo a root of f(z)=0. By the Remainder theorem, f(z) is divisible by sa; we may therefore assume that Sz) = (z-a) (29-1 + 9,2"-* +... + Gna) S (Z—-@) . H(z). Let f be a root of $(z)=0; as before, $(2) is divisible by z—f, and we may assume that $(z)=(z—B) (22 +72" +... ty 2) 2. fla) = (ace) (2 - B) (2+ rz" 3+... +449). Proceeding in this way, we can show that S(2) = (2-2) (z-B)...(e- A), where there are n linear factors on the right. Hence f(z)=0 has n roots «, B, y, ---, A, and no others,82 ROOTS AND COEFFICIENTS (2) Imaginary Roots. Let the coofficients of f(z) be real ; then, if «+«B is a root, so is a—2B (Ch. V, 14). Therefore f(z) is divisible by (c-a—1)(z-0 +48), that is, by (2 —a)? +B. Thus a polynomial in x with real coefficients can be resolved into factors tehich are linear or quadratic functions of x with real coefficients. (3) Multiple Roots. If f(z)=(r-a)". $(z) where $(2) is not. divisible by a, a is ealled an r-multiple root of f(1)=0. When r=2, we say that a is a double root. Ji Relations connecting the Roots and Coefficients of an Equation. Theorem. If x, 0, -.- , &n are the roots of the equation a+ pelt pz? + +, =0, then the sums of the products of a, a, 3, --- , &, taken one, two, three, ..., at atime, are respectively equal to ~Piv Px» — Pav ve (“Uw For 284 p,2%-h 4 prt +... + py = (7-04) (2 0e9)...(2 een) mar — Lee, 291 4+ Zoey PF wn) 4 (= M)Peeyetg vos ny ore and, equating coefficients, we have Eas = py Leyeg= Py, a+ yy one ey = (—IY"Pye oeeessvveee(B) Conversely, if cy, ca) ... oy satisfy the equations (B), they are the roots of 2h etl pye"3 + 0. +My =O, For under these circumstances the identity (A) holds. It follows that the result of eliminating cg, es, ... ¢, from equations (B) is af + pay! +... +p,=0. Eel. Ifa, B.y are the roots of 22+ 21 — 2z—1=0, write down the valucs of atBty, By tyatep, eBy. Write tho equation in the form 2° +42! +(-1)x+(-4)=0; co atBty=-}, PytyrteB=-1, ofy=}. 3. Transformation of Equations. Let «, 8, y, ... be the roots of f(z)=0, and suppose that we require the equation whose roots are g(a), $(B), Ply), .-. where ¢(z) is a given function of =.TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS 83 Let y~¢(z) and suppose that from this equation we can find 7 os a single-valued function of y, which we denote by $-"(y). Transforming the equation f(z)=0 by the ‘substitution z= ¢-1(y), we obtain f{$-(y)}=0, which is the equation required. A case in which z is not a single-valued function of y is given in Ex. 2. Ex. If a B, yare the roots of 242-150, find the equation whose roole are i, Ket HY. Hence write down the value of (1 -+2){(1 =a). wang ls, thon 2n824, adit e8-2-10, thn yl gven by . y vol¥ yal yl (3) yri- t= Pep -y+1 40, ‘This ia tho roquired equation. Henco also >, lta 148 147 Toa*i pty which is oquivalont to Ex, 2. Uf ay By y ave the roots of J (z) 294 pz + pax +P 0, find the equation whose roots are a, 63, 97. , Lot v=2), then z=y$ whero 44 donotes any eubo rot of y. ‘Tho required equation is thorofore obtained by rationalising Jo)=y+pw) py) + rs=0; for tho rosult will bo the samo whichever cubo root y$ stands for. ‘To rationaliso the oquation, let y+ ps=l, pyd =m, payb=n, thon L+m+n=0, and therefore + Pen +n? -3lun=0. Hence tho required equation is (y+ ps tpty'+piy -3(y+ pa) - iy - pyyt =0, which is tho namo ns 2+ (PP -3piP2 + 3p) y" + (Py -3P,PsPat3pP)y + P;* =9. 4, Special Cases. The following transformations are often required. Let a, B, y,... be the roots of f(2)=0, then (1) the equation whose roots are —a, —, — .. is f(-2)=0; (2) the equation whose rosts are I/a, 1/B, 1/y, ... is f(1/z)=0; (8) tho equation whose roots are ka, KB, ky,...is f(a/k)=0. This transformation is called ‘ multiplying the roots of f(z) =0 by k.’ (4) The equation whose roots are aI, B-h, y—h is f(z-+h)=0. We find f(z+h) as in Ch. III, 4, and the transtirmation in called ‘ diminishing the roote of f(z) =0 by h.’cy SPECIAL CASES OF TRANSFORMATION (5) Lhe second term of f(z) saz” +0,2"-*+a,2"-9+...40,=0 can be removed by diminishing the roots by —a,/nag. For Seth) =aglz+h)" +a,(z+hyrt+..., 80 that the coefficient of 2" in f(z+h) is nagh+a,, and this is zero when A= -a,/nay. (6) To transform f(z)=0 into an equation in which the coefficient of the first term is 1 and the other coefficients are the least possible integers, proceed a8 follows : Ex. 1, Consider the equation of 72x -Birt445r—- 7=1 Write this o- fet+ Bx-Fy Putting z=y/k and multiplying by 13, the equation becomes 3 5 7 ade aby a or ye Aw +h ly = poal= 0. Tho loast valuo of k which wit make every coofficient an integer is 12, so that the required equation is y-0y+90y-168=0 where y=12r, Ex,2. Transform 2 6z+5z+12=0 into 1-2) 1-6. an equation lacking the second tern We diminish the roota by 6; The reckoning on the right shows that tho resulting equation is -724+8=0, which is tho one required. Ex. 3. If a, B. y are the roots of 2234322 —1=0, find the equation whose roole are 20 +3, 28 +3, 2y +3. ‘The equation whose roots are 2a, 28, 2y is 1-(-3)) 143-2-4 Bon tz ~~ 3+0+e 2.943-T—-g-1=0, of 24328-22-4=0. r+O0-242 =3+9 Tncreasing the roots of this by 3 (as in the margin, whero wo divide successively by 243), the required equation iu 2-628 4+.7242=0. Ex. 4, Uf two roote « and B of f(z)=0 are connected by the relation B=p(a) we can generally find them as follows: The equations f(z)=0 and J{¢(z))=0 have a _ common root, namely a. Therefore z-a is a common factor of f(z) and f(p(z)), and may be found by: tho .0.7. process. If however f(z) and f(¢(z)} are identical, then the method fails.