Module-I

THEORY OF EQUATIONS

Prepared by:

Vinod Kumar P.
Asst. Professor
Dept. of Mathematics
T. M. Govt. College, Tirur.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS

1.0 Introduction
In this module, we will study about polynomial functions and various
methods to find out the roots of polynomial equations. ‘Solving equations’ was an
important problem from the beginning of study of Mathematics itself. The notion of
complex numbers was first introduced because equations like x2 + 1 = 0 has no
solution in the set of real numbers. The “fundamental theorem of algebra” which
states that every polynomial of degree >1 has at least one zero was first proved by
the famous German Mathematician Karl Fredrich Gauss. We shall look at
polynomials in detail and will discuss various methods for solving polynomial
equations.

1.1. Polynomial Functions

Definition:
A function defined by

f ( x ) = a 0 x n + a1 x n −1 + ..... + a n , where a o ≠ 0, n is a non negative

integer and ai (i = 0, 1….,n) are fixed complex numbers is called a polynomial of

degree n in x. Then numbers a o , a1 ,...., a n are called the coefficients of f.

If α is a complex number such that f(α)= 0, then α is called zero of the

polynomial.

1.1.1 Theorem ( Fundamental Theorem of Algebra)

Every polynomial function of degree n > 1 has at least one zero.
Remark:
Fundamental theorem of algebra says that, if f(x) = a 0 x n + a1 x n−1 + ..... + a n ,

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where a 0 ≠ 0 is the given polynomial of degree n > 1, then there exists a complex

number α such that a 0α n + a1α n −1 + ..... + a n = 0 .

We use the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, to prove the following result.

1.1.2 Theorem
Every polynomial of degree n has n and only n zeroes.
Proof:

Let f ( x) = a 0 x n + a1 x n −1 + ..... + a n , where a o ≠ 0, be a polynomial of degree n > 1.

By fundamental theorem of algebra, f(x) has at least one zero, let α1 be that zero.
Then ( x − α 1 ) is a factor of f(x).

Therefore, we can write:

f(x) = ( x − α 1 ) Q1 ( x) , where Q1(x) is a polynomial function of degree n - 1.
If n -1 > 1, again by Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, Q1 (x) has at least one zero,
say α 2 .

Therefore, f ( x) = ( x − α 1 )( x − α 2 )Q2 ( x) where Q2 ( x) is a polynomial function of

degree n - 2.
Repeating the above arguments, we get
f ( x) = ( x − α 1 )( x − α 2 ).....( x − α n )Qn ( x), where Qn (x) is a polynomial function

of degree n - n = 0, i.e., Qn (x) is a constant.

Equating the coefficient of xn on both sides of the above equation, we get

Qn ( x ) = a o .

Therefore, f ( x) = a o ( x − α 1 )( x − α 2 )....( x − α n ) .

If α is any number other than α 1 , α 2 ,....α n , then f (x) ≠ 0 ⇒ α is not a zero of f(x).

Hence f(x) has n and only n zeros, namely α 1 , α 2 ...., α n .

Note:
Let f ( x) = a o x n + a1 x n −1 + ... + a n ; a o ≠ 0 be an nth degree polynomial in x.

Then, a o x n + a1 x n −1 + ... + a n = 0 --------- (1)

is called a polynomial equation in x of degree n.

A number α is called a root of the equation (1) if α is a zero of the polynomial f(x).

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So theorem (1.1.2)can also be stated as : “Every polynomial equation of degree n
has n and only n roots”.
1.1.3 Theorem
If the equation a o x n + a1 x n −1 + .... + a n = 0 , where a o , a1 ,....a n are real numbers

(ao ≠ 0) , has a complex root α + iβ , then it also has a complex root α − iβ . (i.e.,

complex roots occur in conjugate pairs for a polynomial equation with real
coefficients).
Proof:
Let f(x) = a o x n + a1 x n−1 + .... + a n , a o ≠ 0

Given that α + iβ is a root of f(x) = 0.

Consider ( x − (α + iβ ) ( x − (α − iβ ) = ( x − α ) 2 + β 2 .

Divide f(x) by ( x − α ) 2 + β 2 .

Let Q(x) be the quotient and Ax + B be the remainder.

Then, [ ]
f ( x) = ( x − α ) 2 + β 2 Q( x) + Ax + B

= [( x − (α + iβ ))( x − (α − iβ ))]Q( x) + Ax + B
⇒ f (α + iβ) = 0 + A (α + iβ) + B = A (α + iβ) + B = (Aα + B) + iAβ

But f (α + iβ) = 0 .

Equating real and imaginary parts, we see that Aα + B = 0 and Aβ = 0

But β ≠ 0 ⇒ A = 0 and so B = 0

⇒ The remainder Ax + B is zero. i.e., [( x − (α + iβ )) ( x − (α − iβ ))] is a factor of f(x)

i.e., α − iβ is a root of f(x) = 0.

1.1.4. Theorem
In an equation with rational coefficients, the roots which are quadratic surds
occur in conjugate pairs.
Proof:
Let f ( x) = a o x n + a1 x n −1 + ... + a n , a o ≠ 0 , be an nth degree polynomial with

rational coefficients.

Let α + β is a root of f(x) = 0.

[ ]
Divide f(x) by ( x − (α + β ))( x − (α − β )) = ( x − α ) 2 − β .

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Let Q(x) be the quotient and Ax + B be the remainder.
Proceeding exactly as in the above theorem, we get Ax + B = 0.

Thus we conclude that α − β is also a root of f(x) = 0.

1.1.5. Theorem

If the rational number p , a fraction in its lowest terms (so that p, q are
q

integers prime to each other, q ≠ 0) is a root of the equation a o x n + a1 x n−1 ... + a n = 0

where a 0 , a1 ,...., a n are integers and a o ≠ 0, then p is a divisor of a n and q is a

divisor of ao .

Proof:

Since p is a root the given polynomial equation, we have

q
n n −1
a o  p  + a1  p  + ... + a n −1  p  + a n = 0
 q  q  q
Multiplying by qn , we get
a o p n + a1 p n−1 q + .... + a n −1 pq n −1 + a n q n = 0 ------------ (1)

Dividing by p, we have

n −1 n−2 n −1 − an q n
ao p + a1 p q + ... + a n −1q =
p

− an q n
Now, the left side of the above equation is an integer and therefore is also
p
must be an integer. Since p and q have no common factor, p must be a divisor of
an .

Also, from (1),

a1 p n −1 q + .... + a n −1 pq n −1 + a n q n = −a o p n

Dividing this expression by q, we get

n −1 n− 2 n −1 − ao p n
a1 p + .... + a n −1 pq + an q =
q
Since the left side is an integer and since q does not divide p, q must be a
divisor of a 0 . This completes the proof.

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Corollary
Every rational root of the equation x n + a1 x n −1 + .... + a n = 0 ,where each a i is

an integer must be an integer.

Moreover, every such root must be a divisor of the constant a n .

Proof:
This follows from the above theorem, by putting a 0 =1.

Multiple Roots
If a root α of f(x) = 0 repeats r times, then α is called an r-multiple root.
A 2- multiple root is usually called a double root.
For example, consider f(x) = (x - 2)3 (x - 5)2 (x + 1).
Here 2 is a 3 - multiple root, 5 is a double root, and -1 is a single root of the
equation f(x) = 0.

1.1.6. Theorem
If α is an r - multiple root of f(x) = 0 then α is an (r – 1 ) multiple root of
f1 (x) = 0, where f1(x) is the derivative of f(x).
Proof:
Given that α is an r - multiple root of f(x) = 0.

Then f ( x) = ( x − α ) r φ ( x) where φ (α ) ≠ 0.
Now, by applying product rule of differentiation, we obtain:

f 1 ( x) = ( x − α ) r φ 1 ( x) + φ ( x) r.( x − α ) r −1

= ( x − α ) r −1 [( x − α )φ 1 ( x) + rφ ( x)]

When x = α, ( x − α )φ 1 ( x) + rφ ( x) = rφ (α ) ≠ 0

⇒α is an (r – 1) multiple root of f1 (x) = 0.

Remark:
If α is an (r – 1) -multiple root of f1(x) = 0, similarly as above, we can see that α
will be an (r – 2 ) multiple root of f11 (x) = 0 ; (r – 3) - multiple root of f111 (x) = 0,
and so on.

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Solved Problems

1. Solve x 4 − 4 x 2 + 8 x + 35 = 0 , given 2 + i 3 is a root.

Solution :

Given that 2 + i 3 is a root of x 4 − 4 x 2 + 8 x + 35 = 0; since complex roots occurs in

conjugate pairs 2 − i 3 is also a root of it.

⇒ [ x − (2 + i 3 )][ x − (2 − i 3 )] = ( x − 2) 2 + 3 = x 2 − 4 x + 7 is a factor of the given

polynomial.
Dividing the given polynomial by this factor, we obtain the other factor as
x2 + 4x + 5 .

− 4 ± 16 − 20
The roots of x 2 + 4 x + 5 = 0 are given by = −2 ± i .
2

Hence the roots of the given polynomial are 2 + i 3 , 2 − i 3 , − 2 + i and − 2 − i .

2. Solve x4 - 5x3 + 4x2 + 8x – 8 = 0, given that one of the roots is 1 − 5 .

Solution:
Since quadratic surds occur in conjugate pairs as roots of a polynomial equation,

1 + 5 is also a root of the given polynomial.

⇒ [ x − (1 − 5 )][ x − (1 + 5 )] = ( x − 1) 2 − 5 = x 2 − 2 x − 4 is a factor.

Dividing the given polynomial by this factor, we obtain the other factor as x2 – 3x + 2.
Also, x2 – 3x + 2 = (x – 2) (x – 1)

Thus the roots of the given polynomial equation are 1 + 5 ,1 − 5 ,1, 2 .

3. Find a polynomial equation of the lowest degree with rational coefficients

having 3 and 1 – 2i as two of its roots.

Solution:

Since quadratic surds occur in pairs as roots, − 3 is also a root.

Since complex roots occur in conjugate pairs, 1 + 2i is also a root of the required
polynomial equation. Therefore the desired equation is given by

( x − 3 ) ( x + 3 ) ( x − (1 − 2i) (x − (1 + 2i) ) = 0

i.e., x 4 − 2 x 3 + 2 x 2 + 6 x − 15 = 0
4. Solve 4x5 + x3 + x2 – 3x + 1 = 0, given that it has rational roots.
Solution:
Let f(x) = 4x5 + x3 + x2 – 3x + 1.
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By theorem (1.1.5.), any rational root p (in its lowest terms) must satisfy the
q
condition that, p is divisor of 1 and q is positive divisor of 4.
So the possible rational roots are ± 1, ± ½ , ± ¼.
Note that f(-1) = 0, f (½ ) = 0. But f(1) ≠ 0, f( -½) ≠ 0, f(¼) ≠ 0 and f(-1/4) ≠ 0.
Since f(-1) = 0 and f (½) = 0, we see that (x + 1) and (x – ½) are factors of the given
polynomial. Also by factorizing , we find that
f(x) = (x – ½) (x + 1) (4x3 – 2x2 + 4x – 2)
Note that x = ½ is a root of the third factor, if we divide 4x3 – 2x2 + 4x – 2 by x – ½,
we obtain f(x) = (x – ½)2 (x + 1) (4x2 + 4)
= 4 (x – ½)2 (x + 1) (x2 + 1)
Hence the roots of f(x) = 0, are ½, ½, -1, ± i.
5. Solve x3 – x2 – 8x + 12 = 0, given that has a double root.
Solution:
Let f(x) = x3 – x2 – 8x + 12
Differentiating, we obtain:
f1(x) = 3x2 – 2x – 8.
Since the multiple roots of f(x) = 0 are also the roots of f1(x) = 0, the product of the
factors corresponding to these roots will be the g.c.d of f(x) and f1(x). Let us find the
g.c.d of f(x) and f1(x).

3x 3x2 – 2x – 8 x3 – x2 – 8x + 12
3x2 – 6x 3
4 4x – 8 3x3 – 3x2 – 24x + 36 x
4x – 8 3x3 – 2x2 – 8x
0 0 - x2 – 16x + 36
3
- 3x2 – 48x + 108 - 1
- 3x2 + 2x + 8
-50 – 50x + 100
x–2
Therefore, g.c.d = (x – 2)
⇒ f(x) has a factor (x – 2)2.

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Also, f(x) = (x – 2)2 (x + 3)
Thus the roots are 2, 2, - 3 .
6. Show that the equation x3 + qx + r = 0 has two equal roots if 27r2 + 4q3 = 0.
Solution:
Let f(x) = x3 + qx + r -------------- (1)
Differentiating, we obtain: f1(x) = 3x2 + q ------------------ (2)
Given that f(x) = 0 has two equal roots, i.e., it has a double root, say α .
Then α is a root of both f(x) = 0 and f1(x) = 0.
From the 2nd equation, we obtain α 2 = -q /3
Now the first equation can be written as: α ( α 2 + q) + r = 0
− 3r
i.e., α (-q /3 + q) + r = 0 ⇒ α=
2q
Squaring and simplifying, we obtain: 27r2 + 4q3 = 0
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1.2. Relation between the Roots and Coefficients of a Polynomial Equation

Consider the polynomial function f(x) = aoxn + a1xn-1 + …..+ an, a 0 ≠ 0

Let α1 , α 2 ,....., α n be the roots of f(x) = 0.

Then we can write f ( x) = a o ( x − α 1 )( x − α 2 )....( x − α n )

Equating the two expressions for f(x), we obtain:

a o x n + a1 x n −1 + .... + a n = a o ( x − α 1 ) ( x − α 2 )...( x − α n )

Dividing both sides by a 0 ,

a  a 
x n +  1  x n−1 + .... +  n  = ( x − α 1 ) ( x − α 2 )....( x − α n )
 ao   ao 
= x n − S1 x n −1 + S 2 x n− 2 − .... + (−1) n S n

where Sr stands for the sum of the products of the roots α1 , ...., α n taken r at a

time.
Comparing the coefficients on both sides , we see that
− a1 a a
S1 = , S 2 = 2 ,.... S n = (−1) n n .
ao ao ao

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Special Cases
−b c
If α and β are the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, (a ≠ 0) , then α + β = and αβ =
a a
−b
If α and β and γ are the roots of ax3+ bx2+cx +d = 0, (a ≠ 0) , then α + β + γ = ,
a
c −d
and αβ + βγ + αγ = and αβγ = .
a a
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Illustrative Examples:

1. If the roots of the equation x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0 are in arithmetic progression,

show that 2p3 – 9 pq + 27r = 0.
Solution:
Let the roots of the given equation be a – d, a, a + d.
−p
Then S1 = a – d + a + a + d = 3a = -p ⇒ a =
3
Since a is a root, it satisfies the given polynomial

⇒  − p  + p. − p  + q. − p  + r = 0
3 2

 3  3  3

On simplification, we obtain 2p3 – 9pq + 27r = 0.

2. Solve 27x3 + 42x2 – 28x – 8 = 0, given that its roots are in geometric progression.
Solution:
a
Let the roots be , a, ar
r
a 8 2
Then , .a.ar = a 3 = ⇒a=
r 27 3
2  2
Since a = is a root,  x −  is a factor. On division, the other factor of the
3  3
polynomial is 27x2 + 60x + 12.

− 60 ± 60 2 − 4 × 27 × 12 − 2
Its roots are = or − 2
2 × 27 9
−2 2
Hence the roots of the given polynomial eqution are , − 2, .
9 3
3. Solve the equation 15x3 – 23x2 + 9x – 1 = 0 whose roots are in harmonic
progression.

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Solution:
[Recall that if a, b, c are in harmonic progression, then 1/a, 1/b, 1/c are in arithmetic
2ac
progression and hence b = ]
a+c
Let α, β, γ be the roots of the given polynomial.

9
Then αβ + βγ + αγ = ……….. (1)
15
1
αβγ = ………. (2)
15
2αγ
Since α , β , γ are in harmonic progression, β =
α +γ
⇒ αβ + βγ = 2αγ

.9 9
Substitute in (1), 2αγ + αγ = ⇒ 3αγ =
15 15
3
⇒ αγ = .
15
3 1
Substitute in (2), we obtain β=
15 15
1
⇒β = is a root of the given polynomial.
3
1 1
Proceeding as in the above problem, we find that the roots are , 1, .
3 5

4. Show that the roots of the equation ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 are in geometric
progression, then c3a = b3d.
Solution:
k
Suppose the roots are , k , kr
r
k −d
Then .k .kr =
r a
−d
i.e., k 3 =
a
Since k is a root, it satisfies the polynomial equation,
ak3 + bk2 + ck + d = 0

−d 
a  + bk + ck + d = 0
2

 a 

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⇒ bk 2 + ck = 0 ⇒ bk 2 = −ck

⇒ (bk 2 ) 3 = (−ck ) 3 i.e., b 3 k 6 = −c 3 k 3

d2 −d 
⇒ b3 2
= −c 3  
a  a 

b3d
⇒ = c 3 ⇒ b3d = c 3a .
a
5. Solve the equation x3 - 9x2 + 14x + 24 = 0, given that two of whose roots are in
the ratio 3: 2.
Solution:
Let the roots be 3α , 2α , β
Then, 3α + 2α + β = 5α + β = 9 ………………. (1)
3α .2α + 2α . β + 3α . β = 14

i.e., 6α 2 + 5αβ = 14 ……………… (2)

and 3α . 2α . β = 6α 2 β = −24

⇒ α 2 β = −4 ……………… (3)

From (1), β = 9 − 5α . Substituting this in (2), we obtain

6α 2 + 5α (9 − 5α ) = 14

7
i.e., 19α 2 − 45α + 14 = 0 . On solving we get α = 2 or .
19
7 136
When α = , from (1), we get β = . But these values do not satisfy (3).
19 19
So, α = 2 , then from (1), we get β = −1

Therefore, the roots are 4, 6, -1.

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1.3. Symmetric Functions of the Roots

Consider the expressions like α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 , ( β − γ ) 2 + (γ − α ) 2 + (α − β ) 2 ,

( β + γ ) (γ + α ) (α − β ) . Each of these expressions is a function of α , β , γ with the

property that if any two of α , β , γ are interchanged, the function remains

unchanged.
Such functions are called symmetric functions.
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Generally, a function f (α 1 , α 2 ,....., α n ) is said to be a symmetric function of

α 1 , α 2 ,....., α n if it remains unchanged by interchanging any two of α 1 , α 2 ,....., α n .

Remark:
The expressions S1, S2, ….., Sn where Sr is the sum of the products of
α 1 , α 2 ,....., α n taken r at a time, are symmetric functions. These are called elementary
symmetric functions.
Now we discuss some results about the sums of powers of the roots of a given
polynomial equation.
1.3.1. Theorem
The sum of the rth powers of the roots of the equation f(x) = 0 is the
xf ′( x)
coefficient of x–r in the expansion of in descending powers of x.
f ( x)
Proof:
Let f(x) = 0 be the given nth degree equation and let its roots be
α 1 , α 2 ,....., α n then, f(x) = a 0 ( x − α 1 )( x − α 2 )....( x − α n ) where a0 is some constant.
Taking logarithm, we obtain
log f ( x) = log a 0 + log( x − α 1 ) + .... + log( x − α n )

Differentiating w.r.t. x, we have:

f 1 (x ) 1 1
= + ....... +
f ( x ) x − α1 x − αn

Multiplying by x,

x f 1 (x ) x x
= + ....... +
f (x ) x − α1 x − αn
−1 −1
 α1   α 
1 −  + .... + 1 − n 
= x   x 

 α 1 α1 2   αn αn2 
1 + + + ....  + ........ + 1 + + + .... 
 x x 2   x x 2 
=   
−1
( −2 2
)
= n + (∑ α i )x + ∑ α i x + ...... + ......
xf ′( x)
Therefore ∑α i
r
is the coefficient of x–r in the expansion of
f ( x)
in

descending powers of x.

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1.3.2. Theorem (Newton’s Theorem on the Sum of the Powers of the Roots)
If α 1 , α 2 ,....., α n are the roots of the equation x n + P1 x n−1 + P2 x n − 2 + .... + Pn = 0 ,

and S r = α 1r + .... + α nr . Then, S r + S r −1 P1 + ..... + S1 Pr −1 + rPr = 0, if r ≤ n.

and S r + S r −1 P1 + S r − 2 P2 + ... + S r −n Pn = 0 if r > n .

Proof:
We have x n + P1 x n−1 + P2 x n −2 + .... + Pn = ( x − α 1 )( x − α 2 ).....( x − α n )

1
Put x =
y

1 P P 1 1 1
⇒ n
+ n1−1 + n2−2 + .... + Pn = ( − α 1 )( − α 2 ).....( − α n ) ,
y y y y y y

and then multiplying by yn, we obtain:

1 + P1 y + P2 y 2 + .... + Pn y n = (1 − α 1 y )(1 − α 2 y ).....(1 − α n y )

Taking logarithm and differentiating w.r.t y, we get

P1 + 2P2 y +3P3 y 2 + ...... + nPn y n −1 − α1 − α2 − αn
= + + .... +
1 + P1 y + P2 y + ...... + Pn y
2 n
1 − α1 y 1 − α 2 y 1− αn y

=
− α1 (1 − α1 y) −1 − α 2 (1 − α 2 y) −1 − ...... − α n (1 − α n y) −1

=
− α1 (1 + α1 y + α 2 y 2 + ....) − α 2 (1 + α 2 y + α 22 y 2 + ....) −

...... − α n (1 + α n y + α 2n y 2 + ....)

= − S1 − S 2 y − S 3 y 2 − ..... − S r +1 y r − ...

Cross – multiplying, we get

P1 + 2P2 y + 3P3 y 2 + ...... + nPn y n −1 = −(1 + P1 y + P2 y 2 + .... + Pn y n)

[S1 + S 2 y + ..... + S r +1 y r + .....]

Equating coefficients of like powers of y, we see that

P1 = −S1 ⇒ S1 + 1.P1 = 0

2P2 = −S 2 − S1P1 ⇒ S 2 + S1 P1 + 2P2 = 0

3p 3 = −S 3 − S 2 P1 − S1P2 ⇒ S 3 + S 2 P1 + S1 P2 + 3P3 = 0 , and so on .

If r < n, equating coefficients of yr–1 on both sides,

rPr = −S r − S r −1 P1 − S r −2 P2 − ...... − S1 Pr −1

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S r + S r −1 P1 + S r − 2 P2 + ...... + S1 Pr −1 + rPr = 0
⇒

If r > n, then r–1 > n–1.

Equating coefficients of yr–1 on both sides,
0 = −S r − S r −1 P1 − S r − 2 P2 − ...... − S r − n Pn

i.e., S r + S r −1 P1 + S r −2 P2 + ...... + S r −n Pn = 0

Remark:
1
To find the sum of the negative powers of the roots of f(x) = 0, put x =
y
and find the sums of the corresponding positive powers of the roots of the new
equation.

Illustrative Examples

1. If α, β, γ are the roots of the equation x3 + px2 + qx + r = 0, find the value of the

following in terms of the coefficients.

1 1
(i) ∑ (ii) ∑ (iii ) ∑ α 2 β
βγ α

Solution:
Here α + β + γ = − p, αβ + βγ + αγ = q, αβγ = − r
1 1 1 1 α + β +γ −p p
(i) ∑ βγ =
αβ
+
βγ
+
αγ
=
αβγ
=
−r
=
r
1 1 1 1 αβ + βγ + αγ q q
(ii) ∑α =
α
+
β
+
γ
=
αβγ
=
−r
=−
r

(iii) ∑ α 2 β = α 2β + β 2 α + γ 2 α + γ 2β + α 2 γ + β 2 γ

= (αβ + βγ + αγ )(α + β + γ ) − 3αβγ = (q . –p) – 3 (- r ) = 3r – pq .

2. If α is an imaginary root of the equation x 7 − 1 = 0 form the equation whose

roots are α + α 6 , α 2 + α 5 , α 3 + α 4 .

Solution:
Let a = α + α 6 b = α2 + α5 c = α3 + α4

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The required equation is (x – a) (x – b) (x – c) = 0
i.e., x3 – ( a+b+c )x2 + ( ab+bc+ac )x – abc = 0 …………… (1)

α(α 6 − 1) α 7 − α 1 − α
a + b + c = α + α2 + α3 + α4 + α5 + α6 = = = = −1
α −1 α −1 α −1
( Since α is a root of x7 – 1 = 0, we have α 7 =1 )
Similarly we can find that ab + bc + ac = –2, abc = 1.
Thus from (1), the required equation is
x3 + x2 – 2x – 1 = 0
2
3. If α , β, γ are the roots of x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1 = 0, find ∑ α 3 and ∑ α .

Solution:
Here α + β + γ = - 3, αβ + βγ + αγ = 2, αβγ = −1

Using the identity a3+b3+c3 – 3abc = (a+b+c) ( a2+ b2 + c2 – ab – bc – ac ), we find that

∑α 3
[ ]
= (α + β + γ ) α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 − (αβ + βγ + αγ ) + 3αβγ

 
= (α + β + γ ) [(α + β + γ ) 2 − 2 (αβ + βγ + αγ )] − (αβ + βγ + αγ ) + 3αβγ
 
= −3[(9 − 4) − 2] − 3

= −9 − 3 = −12

1 1 1 β 2γ 2 + α 2γ 2 + β 2α 2
Also, ∑α −2
=
α2
+
β2
+
γ2
=
α 2 β 2γ 2

(αβ + βγ + αγ ) 2 − 2 ∑ α 2βγ
= …………….. (1)
α 2β 2 γ 2

We have:
∑ α 2 βγ = (α + β + γ )αβγ = −3 .−1 = 3

2 4 − 2 .3
(1) ⇒ ∑ α = = −2
1

4. Find the sum of the 4th powers of the roots of the equation x4 – 5x3 + x – 1 = 0.
Solution:
Let f(x) = x4 – 5x3 + x – 1 = 0
Then f1 (x) = 4x3 – 15x2 + 1

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xf 1 ( x)
Now, can be evaluated as follows :
f ( x)

4 + 5 + 25 + 122 + 609 +.....

1 − 5 + 0 + 1 − 1 4 − 15 + 0 + 1 + 0
4 − 20 + 0 + 4 − 4
5 +0 − 3 + 4
5 − 25 + 0 + 5 − 5
25 − 3 − 1 + 5
25 − 125 + 0 + 25 − 25
122 − 1 − 20 + 25
122 − 610 + 0 + 122 − 122
609 − 20 − 97 + 122
609 − 3045 + 0 + 609 − 609
............................

Therefore,

xf | ( x ) 5 25 122 609
= 4 + + 2 + 3 + 4 + ......
f (x ) x x x x
Sum of the fourth powers of the roots = coefficient of x–4.
= 609.
5. If α + β + γ = 1, α 2 + β 2 + γ 2 = 2, α 3 + β 3 + γ 3 = 3. Find α 4 + β 4 + γ 4 .

Solution:
Let x3 + P1x2 + P2x + P3 = 0 be the equation whose roots are α, β, γ , then

α + β + γ = −P1 ⇒ P1 = −1
By Newton’s theorem,
S2 + S1P1 + 2P2 = 0
i.e., 2 + 1. (– 1) + 2 P2 = 0 ⇒ P2 = –1/2

Again, by Newton’s theorem

S3 + S2P1 + S1P2 + 3P3 = 0
i.e., 3 + 2. – 1 + 1.–1/2 + 3.P3 = 0
⇒ P3 = –1/6
Also S4 + S3P1 + S2P2 + S1P3 = 0 (By Newton’s theorem for the case r < n)
Substituting and simplifying, we obtain S4 = 25/6

25
Thus α 4 + β 4 + γ 4 =
6
6. Calculate the sum of the cubes of the roots of x4 + 2x + 3 = 0

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Solution:
Let the given equation be
x4 + P1x3 + P2x2 + P3x + P4 = 0
Here P1 = P2 = 0, P3 = 2 and P4 = 3
By Newton’s theorem, S3 + S2P1 + S1P2 + 3P3 = 0
i.e., S3 + 0 + 0 + 3 . 2 = 0
⇒ S3 = – 6
i.e., sum of the cubes of the roots of x4 + 2x + 3 = 0, is – 6.

1.4. Transformations of Equations

Let f(x) = 0 be a polynomial equation. Without explicitly knowing the roots of

f(x) = 0, we can often transform the given equation into another equation whose
roots are related to the roots of the first equation in some way. Now we discuss some
important such transformations.
1. To form an equation whose roots are k-times the roots of a given equation.
Let f ( x ) = a o x n + a 1 x n −1 + .... + a n ----------- (1)

Suppose that α1 , α 2 ,......, α n are the roots of f(x) = 0

Then f ( x ) = a o ( x − α1 )( x − α 2 )........( x − α n ) …………….. (2)

Put y = kx in (2), we obtain:

 y y  y  y 
f   = a o  − α 1   − α 2 ...... − α n 
k k  k  k 

Thus the roots of f ( y / k ) = 0, are kα 1 ,......, kα n

Therefore the required equation is

n n −1
 y  y y
f   = a o   + a1   + ...... + a n = 0
k k k
i.e., a o y n + ka 1 y n −1 + k 2 a 2 y n − 2 + ...... + k n a n = 0

Thus; to obtain the equation whose roots are k times the roots of a given equation,
we have to multiply the coefficients of x n , x n −1 ,......, x and the constant term by 1, k,

k2,……kn-1 and kn respectively.

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Remark:
To form an equation whose roots are the negatives of the roots of a given
equation of degree n, multiply the coefficients of xn, xn-1, . . . . by 1, -1, 1, -1, …
respectively.
2. To form an equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of a given
equation.
Consider, f ( x ) = a o x n + a 1 x n −1 + ...... + a n = 0 ………….. (1)

Let α1 , α1 , ......., α n be the roots of the equation. Then,

f ( x ) = a o ( x − α1 ) ( x − α 2 )......( x − α n ) ………….. (2)

1 1
In (1), put y = i.e., x =
x y

1 1  1  1 
Then f   = a o  − α1   − α 2 ........ − α n 
 y y  y  y 
1 1 1
The roots of this equation are , ,......
α1 α 2 αn
n n −1
1 1 1
But from (1) , f   = a o   + a 1   + ...... + a n = 0
 y  y y
i.e., a o + a 1 y + a o y 2 + ...... + a n y n = 0

Therefore, the required equation is a n y n + a n −1 y n −1 + ...... + a 1 y + a o = 0

3. To form an equation whose roots are less by ‘h’ then the roots of a given
equation. ( i.e., Diminishing the roots by h )
Let f ( x ) = a o x n + a 1 x n −1 + ...... + a n = 0 …………. (1)

Suppose that α1 , α 2 ,......, α n are the roots of f(x) = 0

Therefore, f ( x ) = a o (x − α1 )(x − α 2 ).......(x − α n ) …………. (2)

Put y = x – h so that x = y + h
From (2), f ( y + h ) = a o (y + h − α1 )(y + h − α 2 ).......(y + h − α n )

= a o (y − (α1 − h ) )(y − (α 2 − h ) )......(y − (α n − h ) )

The roots of f (y + h) = 0 are α 1 − h,....., α n − h .

By (1), we obtain,

a o (y + h ) + a 1 ( y + h ) n −1 + ...... + a n = 0
n

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Expanding using binomial theorem and combining like terms, we get an equation of
the form
b o y n + b1 y n −1 + ...... + b n = 0 .……… (3)

Replacing y = x – h, we get

b o (x − h ) + b1 (x − h )
n −1
+ ........ + b n = 0
n
.……… (4)

Now, equation (1) and (4) represents the same equation.

Dividing equation (4) continuously by (x – h), we obtain the remainders as
b n , b n −1 ,......, b o

Substituting these in (3), we obtain the required equation.

Remark:
Increasing the roots by h is equivalent to decreasing the roots by –h.
4. To form an equation in which certain specified terms of the given equation are
absent.
Consider the equation a o x n + a 1 x n −1 + ...... + a n = 0 ……… (1)

Suppose it is required to remove the second term of the equation (1). Diminish the
roots of the given equation by h.
For this, put y = x − h i.e., x = y + h in (1), we obtain the new equation as

a o (y + h ) + a 1 (y + h )
n −1
+ ...... + a n = 0
n

ie a o y n + (na o h + a 1 )y n −1 + ...... + a n = 0

Now to remove the second term of the equation (1), we must have na o h + a 1 = 0

i.e., we must have h=

− a1 .
na o

Thus to remove the second term of the equation (1), we have to diminish its roots by
a1
h=
na o

Remarks:
If α1 , α 2 , ........., α n are the roots of the polynomial equation f(x) = 0.

Formation of an equation whose roots are φ(α 1 ), φ(α 2 ), ........, φ(α n ) is known as a

general transformation of the given equation.

In this case, the relation between a root x of f(x) = 0 and a root y of the
transformed equation is that y = φ( x ) . Also, to obtain this new equation we have to

eliminate x between f(x) = 0 and y = φ( x ) .

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Solved Problems
1. Form an equation whose roots are three times those of the equation
x3 − x2 + x +1 = 0 .
Solution:
To obtain the required equation, we have to multiply the coefficients of x3, x2,
x, and 1 by 1, 3, 32, and 33 respectively.
Thus x 3 − 3x 2 + 9 x + 27 = 0 is the desired equation.
2. Form an equation whose roots are the negatives of the roots of the equation
Solution:
By multiplying the coefficients successively by 1, -1, 1, -1 we obtain the required
equation as x 3 + 6 x 2 + 8x + 9 = 0 .
3. Form an equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of
x 4 − 5x 3 + 7 x 2 − 4 x + 5 = 0 .
Solution:
We obtain the required equation, by replacing the coefficients in the reverse
order, as 5x 4 − 4 x 3 + 7 x 2 − 5x + 1 = 0
4. Find the equation whose roots are less by 2, than the roots of the equation
x 5 − 3x 4 − 2 x 3 + 15x 2 + 20 x + 15 = 0 .
Solution:
To find the desired equation, divide the given equation successively by x – 2.
2 1 -3 -2 +15 +20 +15
2 -2 -8 +14 68
1 -1 -4 +7 +34 83
2 +2 -4 +6
1 +1 -2 +3 +40
+2 +6 +8
1 +3 +4 +11
2 +10
1 +5 +14
+2
1 +7
1

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Thus the required equation is
x 5 + 7 x 4 + 14 x 3 + 11x 2 + 40 x + 83 = 0
5. Solve the equation x 4 − 8x 3 − x 2 + 68x + 60 = 0 by removing its second term.
Solution:
To remove the second term, we have to diminish the roots of the given
− a1 8
equation by h= = = 2.
na o 4.1

Dividing the given equation successively by x – 2, we obtain the new equation as

x 4 − 25x 2 + 144 = 0
On solving, we get x = - 4 , 4, - 3 , 3.
Thus the roots of the original equation are –2, 6, -1 and 5.
6. If α, β, γ are the roots of the equation x 3 + ax 2 + bx + c = 0. Form the equation

whose roots are αβ, βγ, γα .

Solution:
αβγ −c
Note that αβ = =
γ γ
−c −c
Put y= ⇒ x=
x y
Hence the given equation becomes
3 2
−c −c −c
  + a   + b  + c = 0
 y   y   y 
i.e., y 3 − by 2 + acy − c 2 = 0 , which is the required equation.
1+ α 1+ β 1+ γ
7. If α, β, γ are the roots of x 3 − x + 1 = 0 , show that + + =1
1− α 1− β 1− γ
Solution:
1+ α 1+ β 1+ γ
We have to form the equation whose roots are , , .
1− α 1− β 1− γ
1+ x y −1
For this, put y = i.e., x =
1− x y +1
3
 y −1  y −1
Therefore the required equation is   −   + 1 = 0
 y +1  y +1
On simplifying, we obtain y 3 − y 2 + 7 y + 1 = 0

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1+ α 1+ β 1+ γ
The sum of the roots of this equation is 1. i.e., + + =1
1− α 1− β 1− γ

1.5. Reciprocal Equations

Let f(x) = 0 be an equation with roots α1, α 2 , ......, α n .

1 1 1
If , ,......, are also roots of the same equation, then such equations are
α1 α 2 αn

called reciprocal equations.

Suppose that a o x n + a 1 x n −1 + ..... + a n = 0 …... (1) is a reciprocal equation with

roots α1, α 2 , ......, α n .

1 1 1
Then , ,......, are also roots of the same equation. The equation with roots
α1 α 2 αn

1 1 1
, , ......, is : a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 + ...... + a o = 0 …… (2)
α1 α 2 αn

ao a a
Since (1) and (2) represents the same equation, we must have = 1 = n =k
a n a n −1 a o

Taking the first and last terms in the above equality, we obtain k2 = 1 i.e., k = + 1
when k = 1, we have ao = an, a1 = an-1 . . . .
Such equations are called reciprocal equations of first type.
When k = –1, we have ao = –an, a1 = –an-1, …… These type of equations are called
reciprocal equations of second type.
A reciprocal equation of first type and even degree is called a standard
reciprocal equation.
Note:
1. If f(x) = 0 is a reciprocal equation of first type and odd degree, the x = –1 is
always a root. If we remove the factor x + 1 corresponding to this root, we
obtain a standard reciprocal equation.
2. If f(x) = 0 is a reciprocal equation of second type and odd degree, then x = 1 is
always a roots. If we remove the factor x –1 corresponding to this root, we
obtain a standard reciprocal equation.

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3. If f(x) = 0 is a reciprocal equation of second type and even degree, then x = 1
and x = –1 are roots. If we remove the factor x2 – 1 corresponding to these
roots, we obtain a standard reciprocal equation.

Solved Problems

1. Solve the equation 60 x 4 − 736 x 3 + a 433x 2 − 736 x + 60 = 0

Solution:
The given equation is a standard reciprocal equation. Dividing throughout by x2,
we obtain,
736 60
60 x 2 − 736 x + 1433 − + 2 =0
x x
 1   1
60 x 2 + 2  − 736x+  + 1433 = 0
 x   x

Putting y = x + 1 and simplifying, we obtain

x
60 y 2 − 736 y + 1313 = 0
101 13
On solving, we get y = or
10 6
101 1 101
When y = ,x + = ⇒ 10 x 2 − 101x + 10 = 0
10 x 10
1
i.e., x = 10,
10
13 3
Similarly when y = , we get x = , 2
6 2 3
1 3 2
Thus the roots of the given equation are 10, , ,
10 2 3
2. Solve :
x 2 − 5x 2 + 9 x3 − 9 x 2 + 5x − 1 = 0

Solution:
This is a second type reciprocal equation of odd degree. So x = 1 is a root.
On division by the corresponding factor x – 1, we obtain the other factor as
x 4 − 4 x 3 + 5x 2 − 4 x + 1 = 0 , which is a standard reciprocal equation.
Proceeding exactly as in the above problem, we may find that

1± i 3 3± 5
x= or x =
2 2

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1± i 3 3 ± 5
Hence the roots of the given equation are 1, ,
2 2
3. Show that on diminishing the roots of the equation
6 x 4 − 43x 3 + 76 x 2 + 25x − 100 = 0
by 2, it becomes a reciprocal equation and hence solve it.
Solution:
To diminish the roots of the given equation by 2, divide it successively by (x –
2), we obtain:
2 6 -43 +76 +25 -100
+12 -62 +28 +106
6 -31 +14 +53 +6
+12 -38 -48
6 -19 -24 +5
+12 -14
6 -7 -38
+12
6 +5
6
⇒ 6 x 4 + 5x 3 − 38x 2 + 5x + 6 = 0 is the required equation, which is a standard

reciprocal equation.
It can be written as

 1 
( )
6 x 2 + 2  + 5 x + 1 − 38 = 0
 x  x

1 − 10 5
Putting x + = y and solving for y, we get y = or
x 3 2
1 5 1
When y = 5 , we have x + = . On solving we get: x = 2,
2 x 2 2
− 10
When y = , we have 3x 2 + 10 x + 3 = 0 or x = −3 or − 1
3 3

Thus the roots of the original equation are 4, 5 , − 1, 5 ( by adding 2 to each of the
2 3
above roots)

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1.6 Cardan’s Method of Solving a Standard Cubic Equation
Knowledge of the quadratic formula is older than the Pythagorean
Theorem. Solving a cubic equation, on the other hand, was done by Renaissance
mathematicians in Italy. In this section we describe some methods to find one root
of the cubic equation

ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0. ---------- (1)

so that other two roots (real or complex) can then be found by polynomial division
and the quadratic formula. The solution proceeds in two steps. First, the cubic
equation is depressed; then one solves the depressed cubic.

1.6.1 Depressing the cubic equation

This trick, which transforms the general cubic equation into a new cubic
equation with missing x2-term is due to Italian mathematician Nicolo Fontana
Tartaglia (1500-1557). To remove the second term of Eq. (1), we diminish the roots of
a1
(1) by h = − with n = 3 (i.e., the degree of the polynomial equation), a0 = a, a1 = b;
na0

b b
so that h = − . Set x − h = y or x = y + h = y − .
3a 3a

b
We apply the substitution x = y − to the cubic equation (1), and obtain
3a
3 2
 b   b   b 
a  y −  + b  y −  + c  y −  + d = 0.
 3a   3a   3a

 b2   2b3 bc 
Multiplying out and simplifying, we obtain ay 3 +  c −  y +  d + −  = 0,
 3a   27 a 2 3a 

a cubic equation in which y2-term is absent.

1.6.2 Solving the Depressed Cubic

Method to solve a depressed cubic equation of the form

y 3 + Ay = B …(2)

had been discovered earlier by Italian mathematician Scipione dal Ferro (1465-1526).
The procedure is as follows:

First find s and t so that 3st = A .......… (3)

and s3 − t 3 = B ........…(4)

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Then y = s − t will be a solution of the depressed cubic. This can be verified as

follows: Substituting for A, B and y, equation (2) gives

( s − t )3 + 3st ( s − t ) = s 3 − t 3 .

This is true since we can simplify the left side using the binomial formula to obtain
s3 − t 3 .

Now to find s and t satisfying (3) and (4), we proceed as follows: From Eq.(3), we
3
A  A
have s = and substituting this into Eq.(4), we obtain,  3t  − t = B
3
3t  

A3
Simplifying, this turns into the tri-quadratic equation, t 6 + Bt 3 − = 0,
27

A3
which using the substitution u = t 3 becomes the quadratic equation, u 2 + Bu − = 0.
27

From this, we can find a value for u by the quadratic formula, then obtain t,
afterwards s. Hence the root s − t can be obtained.

Illustrative Examples:

1. Using the discussion above, find a root of the cubic equation

2 x3 − 30 x 2 + 162 x − 350 = 0.

Solution:

Comparing with ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0, ........…(5)

we have a = 2, b = −30, c = 162, and d = −350.

b
Hence substituting x= y− = y + 5 in (5), expanding and simplifying, we obtain
3a

the depressed cubic equation y 3 + 6 y − 20 = 0.

Now to find the solution of depressed equation y 3 + 6 y = 20, we proceed as follows:

We need s and t to satisfy 3st = 6 …(6)

and s 3 − t 3 = 20. …(7)

8 3
Solving for s in (6) and substituting the result into (7) yields: − t = 20,
t3

which multiplied by t3 becomes, t 6 + 20t 3 − 8 = 0.

Using the substitution u = t 3 the above becomes the quadratic equation

u 2 + 20u − 8 = 0.

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Using the quadratic formula, we obtain that u = −10 ± 108.

We take the cube root of the positive value of u and obtain t = 3 −10 + 108.

By Equation (7), ( )
s 3 = 20 + t 3 = 20 + −10 + 108 = 10 + 108

and hence s = 3 10 + 108.

Hence a root y for the depressed cubic equation is

y = s − t = 3 10 + 108 − 3 −10 + 108 .

Hence a root of the original cubic equation

2 x3 − 30 x 2 + 162 x − 350 = 0

is given by x = y + 5 = 3 10 + 108 − 3 −10 + 108 + 5.

2. Find one real root of the cubic equation x3 − 2 x − 5 = 0.

Solution.

Since the term x 2 is absent, the given equation is in the depressed form.

Here x3 − 2 x = 5, and hence 3st = −2 and s 3 − t 3 = 5.

3
2  2
Now substituting s = − in s 3 − t 3 = 5, we obtain  −  − t 3 = 5
3t  3t 

8 8
or − 3
− t 3 = 5 or t 6 + 5t 3 + = 0.
27t 27

8
Take u = t 3 . Then the above becomes the quadratic equation u 2 + 5u + = 0 with
27

4×8
−5 ± 25 −
u= 27 = −5 ± 4.88 = −4.94 or − 0.06.
2 2

We take the cube of root of the value with largest absolute value, and obtain

t = u1/ 3 = −1.7031 .

2
Putting this value in s = − , we obtain s = 0.3914 .
3t

Hence one of the roots of the given equation is s − t = 2.0945.

1.6.3 Cardan’s Solution of the Standard cubic

Italian Renaissance mathematician Girolamo Cardano (1501 –1576) published the

solution to a cubic equation in his Algebra book Ars Magna.

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Usually we take the cubic equation as a0 x 3 + a1 x 2 + a2 x + a3 = 0 .

But it has been found it is more advantageous to take the general cubic as

ax 3 + 3bx 2 + 3cx + d = 0 … (8)

This method of writing is referred to as the cubic with binomial coefficients.

Taking the form (8) and putting y = ax + b or x = ( y − b) / a and multiplying throughout

by a 2 , we obtain : ( y − b)3 + 3b( y − b) 2 + 3ac( y − b) + a 2 d = 0 .

i.e., y 3 + 3(ac − b 2 ) y + (a 2 d − 3abc + 2b3 ) = 0

i.e., y 3 + 3Hy + G = 0 , … (9)

where H = ac − b 2 and G = a 2 d − 3abc + 2b3 . The equation (9), where the term in y 2

absent, is the “standard form” of the cubic.

Now to solve (9) using Cardano’s method, assume that the roots are of the form
p1/ 3 + q1/ 3 ; where p and q are to be determined.

Putting y = p1/ 3 + q1/ 3 , we get y 3 = p + q + 3 p1/ 3 q1/ 3 ( p1/ 3 + q1/ 3 )

= p + q + 3 p1/ 3 q1/ 3 y .

Hence, y 3 − 3 p1/ 3 q1/ 3 y − ( p + q ) = 0. … (10)

Comparing the coefficients in (9) and (10), we have p + q = −G , and

p1/ 3 q1/ 3 = − H . i.e., p + q = −G … (11)

and pq = − H 3 .

Now, p − q = [( p + q )2 − 4 pq ]1/ 2

i.e., p − q = G 2 + 4H 3 … (12)

Using (11) and (12), solving for p and q, we get

−G + G 2 + 4 H 3 −G − G 2 + 4 H 3
p= , q=
2 2

Then the solution is given by y = p1/ 3 q1/ 3 .

Remark

We notice that p1/ 3 has three values, viz., m, mω and mω 2 where m is a cube root of

−G + G 2 + 4 H 3
p (i.e., m = 3 ) and ω is one of the imaginary cube roots of unity. But
2

we cannot take the three values of q1/ 3 independently, for we have the

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relation p1/ 3 q1/ 3 = − H . Thus if n, nω , nω 2 are the three values of q1/ 3 where n is a cube

root of q and ω is one of the imaginary cube roots of unity, we have to choose those
pairs of cube roots of p and q such that the product of each pair is rational. Hence the
three admissible roots of equation (9) are

m + n, mω + nω 2 , mω 2 + nω

Illustrative Examples

1. Solve the cubic x3 − 9 x + 28 = 0 by Cardan’s method.

Solution.

Let x = p1/ 3 + q1/ 3 be a solution. Then

x3 = p + q + 3 p1/ 3 q1/ 3 ( p1/ 3 + q1/ 3 )

Hence x 2 − 3 p1/ 3 q1/ 3 x − ( p + q) = 0

Comparing this with the given cubic equation, we get

p + q = −28 … (13)

p1/ 3 q1/ 3 = 3

Hence pq = 27 . Now , ( p − q) 2 = ( p + q) 2 − 4 pq = 784 − 108 = 676

Hence p − q = 26 … (14)

From (13) and (14), we get p = −1 and q = −27 .

Hence p1/ 3 = −1, − ω , − ω 2 and q1/ 3 = −3, −3ω , − 3ω 2 ; where ω is one of the imaginary

cube roots of unity.

Hence the roots of the given cubic are −1 − 3, − ω − 3ω 2 and − ω 2 − 3ω .

i.e., −4, − ω − 3ω 2 , − ω 2 − 3ω .

Another Method

Since −4 is a root of the given cubic, x + 4 is a factor of the polynomial in the given
cubic equation. Removing the factor x + 4 , the cubic equation yields the quadratic
equation x2 − 4 x + 7 = 0

4 ± −12
Hence x= = 2±i 3
2

Hence the roots of the given cubic are −4, 2 + i 3, 2 − i 3

2. Solve x3 − 6 x 2 + 3x − 2 = 0
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Solution.

To reduce to standard form [noting that h = −b / 3a = −6 / 3 = −2] , put x − 2 = y . i.e,

x = y + 2 and obtain ( y + 2)3 − 6( y + 2)2 + 3( y + 2) − 2 = 0

i.e., y 3 − 9 y − 2 = 0 , which is the standard form of the cubic.

Putting y = p1/ 3 + q1/ 3 , taking the cube and a rearrangement yields

y 3 − 3 p1/ 3 q1/ 3 y − ( p + q) = 0 .

Comparing this with the standard form of the cubic, we obtain

p + q = 12 … (15) and p1/ 3 q1/ 3 = 3

Hence pq = 27 and p − q = ( p + q )2 − 4 pq = 6 … (16)

From (15) and (16), p = 9 and q = 3 .

Hence y = 31/ 3 + 91/ 3 or 31/ 3 ω + 91/ 3 ω 2 or 31/ 3 ω 2 + 91/ 3 ω

Hence the roots of the given equation are

2 + 31/ 3 + 91/ 3 , 2 + 31/ 3 ω + 91/ 3 ω 2 , 2 + 31/ 3 ω 2 + 91/ 3 ω .

1.6.4 Nature of the roots of a cubic

Let α , β , γ be the roots of the cubic

y 3 + 3Hy + G = 0 … (17)

Then the equation whose roots are ( β − γ ) 2 , (γ − α )2 and (α − β ) 2 is

z 2 + 18Hz 2 + 81H 2 z + 27(G 2 + 4 H 3 ) = 0.

Hence ( β − γ ) 2 (γ − α )2 (α − β )2 = −27(G 2 + 4 H 3 ). … (18)

Then nature of the roots α , β , γ of Eq. (17) can be obtained by a consideration of the

product in Eq. (18). Since imaginary roots occur in pairs, equation (17) will have
either all real roots, or one real and two imaginary roots. The following cases can
occur.

Case 1: The roots α , β , γ are all real and different. In this case

( β − γ ) 2 (γ − α )2 (α − β )2 is positive. Therefore by Eq. (18), G 2 + 4 H 3 is negative.

Case 2: One root, say α , is real and the other two imaginary. Let β and γ be m ± in .

Then ( β − γ ) 2 (γ − α )2 (α − β )2 = (2in)2 (m − in − α ) 2 (m + in − α ) 2

= −4n 2 {(m − α ) 2 + n 2 }2 ,

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which is negative, whatever α , m, n may be. Therefore by Eq.(18), G 2 + 4 H 3 is
positive in this case.

Case 3: Two of the roots, say β , γ are equal. Then ( β − γ ) 2 (γ − α )2 (α − β )2 , and

therefore G 2 + 4 H 3 , is zero.

Case 4: α , β , γ are all equal. In this case all the three roots of equation (17) are zero.

This will be so if H = G = 0 .

Conversely, it is easy to see that

(i) when G 2 + 4 H 3 < 0 , the roots of the cubic in Eq. (17) are all real;

(ii) when G 2 + 4 H 3 > 0 , the cubic in Eq. (17) has two imaginary roots;

(iii) when G 2 + 4 H 3 = 0 , the cubic in Eq. (17) has two equal roots; and

(iv) when G = H = 0 , all the roots of the cubic in Eq. (17) are equal.

Remark

On substituting the values of G and H, it can be seen that

G 2 + 4 H 3 ≡ a 2 {a 2 d 2 − 6abcd + 4ac3 + 4b3 d − 3b 2 c 2 } .

The expression in brackets is called the discriminant of the general cubic in Eq. (7),
and is denoted by ∆ .

1.7. Quartic (or Biquadratic) Equation

A quartic function is a polynomial of degree four and is of the form

f ( x) = ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e, where a is nonzero.

Such a function is sometimes called a biquadratic function, but the latter term can
occasionally also refer to a quadratic function of a square, having the form

ax 4 + bx 2 + c, or a product of two quadratic factors, having the

form (ax 2 + bx + c)(dy 2 + ey + f ).

Setting f ( x) = 0 results in a quartic equation (or biquadratic equation) of the form

ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 0 where a ≠ 0.

Quartic equation is some times called biquadratic equation.

Solution of Quartic Equations (Ferrari’s method)

Shortly after the discovery of a method to solve the cubic equation, Lodovico
Ferrari (1522-1565), a student of Cardano, found a similar method to solve the

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quartic equation. In this method the solution of the quartic depends on the solution
of a cubic. We now describe the Ferrari’s method.

Writing the quartic equation u = ax 4 + 4bx 3 + 6cx 2 + 4dx + e = 0 … (19)

We assume that au = (ax 2 + 2bx + s )2 − (2mx + n) 2 .

Equating coefficients of like powers of x and then eliminating m and n we will

obtain a cubic equation in s. Then corresponding values of m and n will be

obtained. Using these, roots of the quartic equation will be obtained.

The method is illustrated in the following problems.

Illustrative Examples

1. Solve x 4 − 2 x3 − 12 x 2 + 10 x + 3 = 0.

Solution:

Let u = x 4 − 2 x 3 − 12 x 2 + 10 x + 3 = 0.

and u = ( x 2 + px + s )2 − (mx + n) 2 …(20)

Then, x 4 − 2 x3 − 12 x 2 + 10 x + 3 = ( x 2 + px + s) 2 − (mx + n)2

Equating coefficients of like powers of x, we obtain

−2 = 2 p, − 12 = 2 s + p 2 − m2 , 10 = 2 ps − 2mn, 3 = s 2 − n 2 .

Hence, p = −1, − 12 = 2 s + 1 − m 2 , 10 = −2 s − 2mn, 3 = s 2 − n 2 .

Thus p = −1, m2 = 2 s + 13, mn = − s − 5, n 2 = s 2 − 3.

To eliminate m and n , we note that (mn) 2 = m2 n 2

which gives (− s − 5)2 = (2s + 13)( s 2 − 3) or s 2 + 10 s + 25 = 2 s 3 − 6 s + 13s 2 − 39

which is the cubic equation 2 s 3 − 16 s + 12 s 2 − 64 = 0

or s 3 + 6 s 2 − 8s − 32 = 0. …(21)

( Remarks :

• Equation (21), which is a cubic in s , is known as the reducing cubic.

• The reducing cubic gives three values of s . These do not however lead
to three different sets of roots for the quartic equation. They only give
three different methods of factorizing the left hand side of the quartic.
Hence it is enough to find any one root of the reducing cubic. )

By inspection, s = −2 is a root of the cubic equation (21).

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Hence, m 2 = 2s + 13 = 2(−2) + 13 = 9

n 2 = s 2 − 3 = (−2) 2 − 3 = 1.

mn = − s − 5 = 2 − 5 = −3.

We take m = 3. Then, as mn = −3 and n 2 = 1, we take n = −1.

We take (Referring Remark above), s = −2, m = 3, n = −1.

Noting [by Eq.(20)] that u = {x 2 + ( p + m) x + s + n}{x 2 + ( p − m) x + s − n}

we have u = {x 2 + (−1 + 3) x − 2 − 1}{x 2 + (−1 − 3) x − 2 + 1}

or u = {x 2 + 2 x − 3}{x 2 − 4 x − 1} , or u = ( x − 1)( x + 3){x 2 − 4 x − 3} …(22)

As the quadratic equation x 2 − 4 x − 3 has roots 1 + 5 and 1 − 5 , by (22), we have the

roots of the given quartic equation are x = 1, − 3, 1 + 5, 1 − 5 .

2. Solve x 4 − 3 x 2 − 6 x − 2 = 0

Solution.

Let u = x 4 − 3 x 2 − 6 x − 2 = 0. and u = ( x 2 + px + s )2 − (mx + n) 2 …(23)

Then, x 4 − 3 x 2 − 6 x − 2 = ( x 2 + px + s )2 − (mx + n) 2

Equating coefficients of like powers of x, we obtain

p = 0, m2 = 2 s + 3, mn = 3, n 2 = s 2 + 2.

To eliminate m and n , we note that (mn) 2 = m 2 n 2 which gives 9 = (2s + 3)( s 2 + 2)

i.e., we obtain the cubic equation, 2 s 3 + 3s 2 + 4 s − 3 = 0. … (24)

In order to find a root of (24) we proceed as follows: If α , β , γ are the roots of (24),
then the equation with roots 2α , 2β , 2γ is given by
3 2
 y  y  y
2   + 3  + 4   − 3 = 0
2
  2
  2

Or y 3 + 3 y 2 + 8 y − 12 = 0 … (25)

1
y = 1 is evidently a root of equation (25). If we let 2α = 1 then α = is a root of (24).
2
1
i.e., s = is a solution of the reducing cubic (24). Hence
2
2
1 1 9
m2 = 2 × + 3 = 4, n 2 =   + 2 = .
2 2 4

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9 3
Take m = 2. Hence, as mn = 3, and n 2 = , we have to take n = .
4 2

1 3
Putting p = 0, s = , m = 2, n = , in
2 2

u = {x 2 + ( p + m) x + s + n}{x 2 + ( p − m) x + s − n} , we get u = {x 2 + 2 x + 2}{x 2 − 2 x − 1} .

As the quadratic equation x 2 + 2 x + 2 have roots −1 + i, − 1 − i and x 2 − 2 x − 1 have roots

1 + 2, 1 − 2 ; hence the roots of the given quartic equation are

1 + 2, 1 − 2, − 1 + i, − 1 − i .

3. Solve x 4 + 3 x3 + x 2 − 2 = 0.

Solution.

Let u = x 4 + 3 x 3 + x 2 − 2 = 0. and u = ( x 2 + px + s )2 − (mx + n) 2 …(26)

Then, x 4 + 3 x3 + x 2 − 2 = ( x 2 + px + s ) 2 − (mx + n)2

3 5
Equating coefficients of like powers of x, we obtain p = , m2 = 2s + ,
2 4

3
mn = s, n 2 = s 2 + 2. To eliminate m and n , we note that (mn) 2 = m 2 n 2 , which gives
2
2
3   5 2
 2 s  =  2s + 4  ( s + 2 ) and is the cubic equation
   

4 s 3 − 2s 2 + 8s + 5 = 0. …(27)

In order to find a root of (27) we proceed as follows: If α , β , γ are the roots of (24),
then the equation with roots 4α , 4β , 4γ is given by
3 2
 y  y  y
4   − 2   + 8   + 5 = 0.
4 4 4

Or y 3 − 2 y 2 + 32 y + 80 = 0. … (28)

y = −2 is evidently a root of equation (28).

1 1
If we let 4α = −2 then α = − is a root of (27). i.e., s=− is a solution of the
2 2
reducing cubic (27). Hence
5 5 1
m2 = 2s + = −1 + =
4 4 4

1 9
n2 = s2 + 2 = +2= .
4 4

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1 3 3 9 3
We take m = . Since mn = s = − , and since n 2 = , we are forced to take n = − ,
2 2 4 4 2

Hence u = {x 2 + ( p + m) x + s + n}{x 2 + ( p − m) x + s − n} gives u = {x 2 + 2 x − 2}{x 2 + x + 1}

Hence the roots of the given quartic equation are x = −1 + 3, 1 + 3, ω , ω 2 ,

where ω is an imaginary cube root of 1.

1.6. Insolvability of the Quintic.

A quintic function is a polynomial function of the form

where a, b, c, d, e and f are rational numbers, real numbers or complex numbers,

and a is nonzero. In other words, a quintic function is defined by a
polynomial of degree five.

If a is zero but one of the coefficients b, c, d, or e is non-zero, the function is

classified as either a quartic function, cubic function, quadratic function or linear
function.

As we noted above, solving linear, quadratic, cubic and quartic equations by

factorization into radicals is fairly straightforward, no matter whether the roots
are rational or irrational, real or complex; there are also formulae that yield the
required solutions. However, there is no formula for general quintic equations
over the rationals in terms of radicals; this is known as the Abel–Ruffini
theorem, first published in 1824, which was one of the first applications of group
theory in algebra. This result also holds for equations of higher degrees.

This means that unlike quadratic, cubic, and quartic polynomials,

the general quintic or all polynomials of degree greater than 5 cannot be solved
algebraically in terms of a finite number of additions, subtractions,
multiplications, divisions, and root extractions.

An example quintic whose roots cannot be expressed by radicals

is Some fifth-degree equations can be solved by factorizing

into radicals; for example, , which can be written

as , or, as another example, , which

has as solution.

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Évariste Galois developed techniques for determining whether a given
equation could be solved by radicals which gave rise to Galois theory.

1.7. Descarte’s Rule of Signs and Sturm’s Theorem

Nature of Roots - Descarte’s Rule of Signs

To determine the nature of some of the roots of a polynomial equation it is not

always necessary to solve it; for instance, the truth of the following statements will
be readily admitted.

1. If the coefficients of a polynomial equation are all positive, the equation has
no positive root; for example, the equation
x 4 + 3x 2 + 3 = 0
cannot have a positive root.
2. If the coefficients of the even powers of x are all of one sign, and the
coefficients of the odd powers are all of the opposite sign, the equation has no
negative root; thus for example, the equation
− x8 + x 7 + x 5 − 2 x 4 + x 3 − 3 x 2 + 7 x − 3 = 0

cannot have a negative root.

3. If the equation contains only even powers of x and the coefficients are all of
the same sign, the equation has no real root; thus for example, the equation
− x8 − 2 x 4 − 3 x 2 − 3 = 0
cannot have a real root.
4. If the equation contains only odd powers of x, and the coefficients are all of

the same sign, the equation has no real root except x = 0; thus the equation

x 7 + x5 + 3x 3 + 8 x = 0

has no real root except x = 0.

Suppose that the signs of the terms in a polynomial are + + − − + − − − + − + −; here

the number of changes of sign is 7. We shall show that if this polynomial is

multiplied by a binomial (corresponding to a positive root) whose signs are + −,

there will be at least one more change of sign in the product than in the original
polynomial.

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Writing down only the signs of the terms in the multiplication, we have the
following:
++−−+−−−+−+−
+−
__________________
++−−+−−−+−+−
−−++−+++−+−+
__________________
+±−±+−±±+−+−+
Here in the last line the ambiguous sign ± is placed wherever there are two different
signs to be added.

Here we see that in the product

(i) an ambiguity replaces each continuation of sign in the original polynomial;

(ii) the signs before and after an ambiguity or set of ambiguities are unlike;
(iii) a change of sign is introduced at the end.

Let us take the most unfavourable case (i.e., the case where the number of
changes of sign is less) and suppose that all the ambiguities are replaced by
continuations; then the sign of the terms become
+ + − − + − − − + − + − +,

and the number of changes of sign is 8.

We conclude that if a polynomial is multiplied by a binomial (corresponding to a

positive root) whose signs are + −, there will be at least one more change of sign in

the product than in the original polynomial.

If then we suppose the factors corresponding to the negative and imaginary

roots to be already multiplied together, each factor x − a corresponding to a positive
root introduces at least one change of sign; therefore no equation can have more
positive roots than it has changes of sign.

Again, the roots of the equation f ( − x ) = 0 are equal to those of f ( x ) = 0 but

opposite to them in sign; therefore the negative roots of f ( x ) = 0 are the positive
roots of f ( − x ) = 0; but the number of these positive roots cannot exceed the number

of changes of sign in f (− x); that is, the number of negative roots of f ( x ) = 0 cannot

exceed the number of changes in sign in f ( − x ).

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All the above observations are included in the following result, known as Descarte’s
Rule of Signs.
In any polynomial equation f(x) = 0, the number of real positive roots cannot
exceed the number of changes in the signs of the coefficients of the terms in f(x), and
the number of real negative roots cannot exceed the number of changes in the signs of
the coefficients of f(–x).

Example:
Consider the equation f(x) = x4 + 3x – 1 = 0
This a polynomial equations of degree 4, and hence must have four roots.
The signs of the coefficients of f(x) are + + –
Therefore, the number of changes in signs = 1
By Descarte’s rule of signs, number of real positive roots < 1.
Now f(-x) = x4 - 3x – 1 = 0
The signs of the coefficients of f(–x) are + – –
Therefore, the number of changes in signs = 1.
Hence the number of real negative roots of f(x) = 0 is < 1.
Therefore, the maximum number of real roots is 2.
If the equation has two real roots, then the other two roots must be complex roots.
Since complex roots occur in conjugate pairs, the possibility of one real root and
three complex roots is not admissible.
Also f (0) < 0, and f (1) > 0 , so f(x) = 0 has a real roots between 0 and 1.

Therefore, the given equation must have two real roots and two complex roots.

Problem.
Discuss the nature of roots of the equation x 9 + 5 x 8 − x 3 + 7 x + 2 = 0.
Solution.
With f ( x ) = x 9 + 5 x 8 − x 3 + 7 x + 2, there are two changes of sign in f ( x ) = 0 , and
therefore there are at most two positive roots.
Again f (− x) = − x 9 + 5 x8 + x3 − 7 x + 2, and there are three changes of sign, therefore
the given equation has at most three negative roots.
Obviously 0 is not a root of the given equation.
Hence the given equation has at most 2 + 3 + 0 = 5 real roots. Thus the given
equation has at least four imaginary roots.

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1.8. Exercises
1. Solve the equation x 4 + x 3 − x 2 − 2 x − 2 = 0 given that one root is 2.

2. Form a rational quartic whose roots are 1, –1, 2 + 3

3. Solve x 5 − x 3 + 4 x 2 − 3x + 2 = 0 given that it has multiple roots.

4. Solve the equation x 4 − 2 x 3 − 21x 2 + 2 2 x + 40 = 0 whose roots are in A.P.
5. Solve the equation x 4 − 2 x 3 + 4 x 2 + 6 x − 21 = 0 given that two of its roots are
equal in magnitude and opposite in sign.
6. Find the condition that the roots of the equation x 3 + px 2 + qx + r = 0 may be

in geometric progression.
7. Find the condition that the roots of the equation x 3 − lx 2 + mx − n = 0 may be
in arithmetic progression.
1 1
8. If α, β, γ are the roots of x 3 + px + 1 = 0 , prove that ∑ α5 = ∑ α3 ⋅ ∑ α2 .
5 6
9. If α, β, γ are the roots of x 3 + qx + r = 0 , then find the values of

and ∑(β − γ ) .
1
∑
2

β+γ

10. Prove that the sum of the ninth powers of the roots of x 3 + 3x + 9 = 0 is zero.
11. If α, β, γ are the roots of x 3 − 7 x + 7 = 0 , find the value of α −4 + β −4 + γ −4 .
12. Find the equation whose roots are the roots of the equation
3x 4 + 7 x 3 − 15x 2 + x − 2 = 0 , each increased by 7.
13. Remove the second term of the equation x 3 − 6 x 2 + 4 x − 7 = 0 .
14. Solve the equation x 4 − 8x 3 + 19 x 2 − 12 x + 2 = 0 by removing its second term.
15. If α, β, γ are the roots of x 3 + px + q = 0 , form the equation whose roots are

α 2 + βγ , β 2 + γα, γ 2 + αβ.

16. If α, β, γ are the roots of the equation x 3 + px + q = 0 , find the equation whose
β γ γ α α β
roots are + , + , + .
γ β α γ β α

17. Solve 6 x 6 − 25x 5 + 31x 4 − 31x 2 + 25x − 6 = 0 .

18. Solve x 5 − 5x 3 + 5x 2 − 1 = 0.

19. Solve x3 − 9 x − 12 = 0 using Cardan’s method.

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20. Solve 2 x3 + 3 x 2 + 3 x + 1 = 0 using Cardan’s method.

21. Solve x 4 + 2 x 3 − 7 x 2 − 8 x + 12 = 0 using Ferrari’s method.

22. Solve x 4 + 6 x3 + 4 x 2 − 32 = 0 using Ferrari’s method.

23. Find the greatest possible number of real roots of the equation
x 5 − 6x 2 − 4x + 5 = 0
24. Find the number of real roots of x7 − x5 − x 4 − 6 x 2 + 7 = 0 .

25. Show that x − 2 x + 7 = 0 has at least two imaginary roots.

5 2

26. Determine the nature of the roots of the equation x + 3x + 2 x − 7 = 0.

4 2

♦♦♦

Prescribed Text Book (As per Syllabus)

Barnard and Child, Higher Algebra, Macmillan.

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