Midterm

Topic 1 Vygotsky Socio-Cultural Theory

Learning 1. Explain salient concepts and principles of Lev Vygotsky’s
Outcomes Socio-Cultural Theory
Discussion Vygotsky Socio-Cultural Theory

Lev Semeonovich Vygotsky was a Russian Jew and

psychologist who was born in 1896. Vygotsky focused on the
explanation on how culture affects the course of one’s
development. For several years, Vygotsky’s works were forbidden
for political reasons in the Soviet Union. He died of Tuberculosis
at the age of 38 before he could fully develop his theory.
However, his argument has reached much attention and
interest.

For Vygotsky, cognitive development is a social process. He

maintained that cognitive development is shaped by the
sociocultural contexts in which it occurs. Also, he argued that
cognitive development grows from our own interactions with the
other members of our culture. Vygotsky proposed that acquiring
novel information is facilitated by an adult—an older sibling,
more skilled trainer, or More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) –
who is able to model a new behaviour. An older person who acts
as a guide structures all the encounters in the environment for
better learning. This process of learning is called scaffolding.
Scaffolding describes the process of learning a new behaviour by
which a more competent person (a teacher, a parent, or a more
skilled classmate) leads the child to a step-by-step procedure in
learning a new task. Succinctly, a mother might help her child,
Hannah, progress in constructing simple sentences. With her
assistance, Hannah may be able to do the task on her own. The
assistance is likened to a temporary scaffold that comes down
when construction is finished (Crain, 2005). Any support given
is considered a scaffold.

Such new learning as Vygotsky viewed could be best facilitated

in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Vygotsky’s ZPD is
an area where a child cannot solve a problem alone, but may be
able to successfully solve it with appropriate assistance from an
adult or skilled peer. The concept of ZPD eventually leads to the
concept of scaffolding, which is the support or guidance offered
by the adult and upon which the students build—scaffolds—
their own functional skills and competencies, eventually to be
incorporated into their individual repertoire (Bentzen, 2005). In
such case, a student may be at the verge of solving a problem,
but may need cues, prompts, heuristics, or words of
encouragement from the teacher (Orange, 2000). The zone of
proximal development refers to the range of tasks that are
slightly too difficult for a child to do alone but can be
accomplished successfully with some guidance from an adult or
 more experienced child (Bee & Boyd, 2007). Vygotsky was so
interested in the social factors in children’s development.

“The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s

development in the child but on tomorrow’s.”
- Lev Vygotsky
Enrichment Activity 1
Activity Instructions:
Challenge your prior and existing knowledge! Write the most
important ideas about Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
based from the things you’ve learned in this module and from
your prior knowledge.
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Comprehension Activity 1
Check Instructions:
Define or describe the words below.
 More Knowledgeable Zone of Proximal
Other (MKO) Development (ZPD) Scaffolfing

Topic 2 Bronfenbrenner Ecological Systems Theory

Objectives 1. Explain the salient concepts and principles of
Bronfenbrenner Ecological Systems Theory

Discussion Bronfenbrenner Bioecological Systems Theory

Bioecological Systems Theory presents child development within

the context of relationship systems that comprise the child’s
environment. The model is composed of microsystem,
mesosystem, macrosystem, and the chronosystem. Each layer
is further made up of different structures. The term
“bioecological” points out that a child’s own biological make-up
impacts on his/her development. The child’s growing and
developing body and the interplay between his/her immediate
family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuel
and steer his/her development. Changes or conflict in any one
layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child’s
development then, we must look not only at the child and
his/her immediate environment, but also at the larger
environment with which the child interacts.

Every person, develops within a microsystem (child has direct

contact, e.g. family, school), inside a mesosystem (connection
between the child’s microsystems, e.g. connection between the
child’s parents and teachers), embedded in an exosystem (larger
social system, e.g. parent workplace), all of which are part of the
macrosystem (cultural values, customs and laws) of the culture.

Context refers to the internal and external circumstances and

situations that interact with the individual’s thoughts, feelings,
and actions to shape development and learning.

“We as a nation need to be re-educated about the necessary and

sufficient conditions for making human beings human. We need
to be re-educated not as parents—but as workers, neighbors;
and as members of the organizations, committees, boards—and,
especially, the informal networks that control our social
institutions and thereby determine the conditions of life for our
families and their children,”
 - Urie Bronfenbrenner

Macrosystem

Exosystem/
Mesosytem
Microsystem/
Chronosystem
The
individual

Enrichment Activity 1
Activity Instructions:
Challenge your prior and existing knowledge! Write the most
important ideas about Bronfenbrenner Ecological Theory based
from the things you’ve learned in this module and from your
prior knowledge.
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Comprehension Activity 1
Check Instructions:
Describe each of the systems in the theory.

Macrosystem

Exosystem/
Mesosytem
Microsystem/
Chronosystem
The
individual
 Topic 3 Student Diversity/Individual Differences
Objectives 1. Identify the different factors that bring about diversity in
the classroom
2. Demonstrate a positive attitude towards diversity as an
enriching element in the learning environment
3. Come up with teaching strategies that consider student
diversity.
Student Diversity/Individual Differences

You’ve probably heard someone say, “Everyone is unique”.

Though it sounds really like a cliché, one cannot ignore the truth
in it. As a facilitator of learning, the teacher is tasked to consider
the individual differences among the students in planning for
effective instruction.

Factors that bring about Student Diversity

In all learning environments, individuals interact with others

who are in some ways different from them. Recall how these
differences were shown in your class tally—gender, racial, ethnic
or cultural background (nationality, province, language). This
diversity also comes from other factors like the following:

1. Socioeconomic Status- The millionaires’ lifestyle differs from

that of the middle income or lower income group.

2. Thinking/Learning Style- Some of you learn better by seeing

something; others by just listening; and still others by
manipulating something.

3. Exceptionalities- In class there maybe one who has difficulty

in spoken language comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.

How Student Diversity Enriches the learning Environment

A teacher may be called “challenged” to handle a class with

students so diverse. There may be students having different
cultural background, different language abilities, different
attitudes and aptitudes and behaviors. Some teachers might see
this diversity as a difficult predicament, really a hassle! Yet a
more reflective teacher may see a diverse classroom as an
exciting place to learn not just for his/her students, but for
himself/herself, as well. A wise teacher may choose to respect
and celebrate diversity! Read on to discover the benefits and
learning opportunities that student diversity can bring to your
classroom.

1. Students’ self-awareness is enhanced by diversity.

Exposing students to others with diverse backgrounds and
experiences also serves to help students focus on their
awareness of themselves. When they see how others are
different, students are given reference points or comparative
perspectives which sharpen assessment of their own attitudes,
values, and behaviors.

2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development.

The opportunity to gain access to the perspective of peers and to

learn from other students, rather than the instructor only, may
be especially important for promoting the cognitive development
of learners. Supreme Court of Justice, William J. Brennan “The
classroom is peculiarly the ‘marketplace of ideas.’ The depth and
breadth of student learning are enhanced by exposure to others
from diverse backgrounds. Student diversity in the classroom
brings about different points of view and varied approaches to
the learning process.

As the German philosopher, Nietzsche, said over 100 years ago:

“The more affects we allow to speak about one thing, the more
eyes, different eyes we can use to observe one thing, the more
complete will our concept of this thing, our objectivity, be.”

3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as

responsible members of society.

Suzanne Morse stresses one competency that has strong

implications for instructional strategies that capitalize on
diversity: “The capacity to imagine situations or problems from
all perspectives and to appreciate all aspects of diversity”.
Furthermore, she argues: “The classroom can provide more than
just theory given by the teacher in a lecture. With student
diversity, the classroom becomes a ‘public place’ where
community can be practiced.”

4. Student diversity can promote harmony.

When student diversity is integrated into the classroom teaching

and learning process, it can become a vehicle for promoting
harmonious race relations. Through student-centered teaching
strategies, diverse students can be encouraged to interact and
collaborate with one another, on learning tasks that emphasize
unity of effort while capitalizing on their diversity of
backgrounds.

Some tips on Student Diversity

1. Encourage learners to share their persona; history and
experiences.

Students will be made to realize that they have something in

common with the rest. They also differ in several ways.

2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which

promote students’ multicultural and cross-cultural
awareness.

 You can encourage or even initiate co-curricular

experiences that are aimed at promoting diversity
awareness. These activities could be held to coincide with
already-scheduled national weeks or months which are
designated for appreciation of diverse groups, Disability
Awareness Week, Linggo ng Wika, Indigenous People’s
Week, etc.
 Let students interview other students on campus who are
from diverse backgrounds (foreign students or students
from other ethnic/racial groups). These students of
different racial and ethnic origin serve as source of first
hand information on topics related to their culture. This
can also provide opportunity for interaction among
students who may otherwise never come in contact with
each other.
 Invite students to Internet discussion groups or e-mail;
have students “visit” foreign countries and “talk” to
natives of those countries.
 Ask students if they have ever been the personal target of
prejudice or discrimination, and have them share these
experiences with other members of the class.

3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of

unity that transcend group differences.

Clyde Kluckholn, an early American anthropologist who spent a

lifetime studying human diversity across different cultures,
concluded from his extensive research that, “Every human is, at
the same time, like all other humans, like some humans, and
like no other human” (cited in Wong, 1991). His observation
suggests a paradox in the human experience, namely: We are all
the same in different ways. It may be important to point out to
students the biological reality that we, human beings, share
approximately 95% of our genes in common, and that less than
5% of our genes account for the physical differences that exist
among us. When focusing on human differences, these
commonalities should not be overlooked, otherwise, our repeated
attempts to promote student diversity may inadvertenty promote
student divisiveness. One way to minimize this risk, and
promote unity along with diversity, is to stress universality of the
learning experience by raising students’ consciousness of
common themes that bind all groups of people—in addition to
highlighting the variations on those themes.

 Periodically place students in homogenous groups on the

basis of shared demographic characteristics (e.g., same-
gender groups or same-race/ethnicity groups), and have
them share their personal views or experiences with
respect to course issues. Then form a panel comprised of
representatives from each group who report their group’s
ideas. You can serve as moderator and identify the key
differences and recurrent themes that emerge across
different groups, or students who are not on the panel can
be assigned this task.
 Try to form groups of students who are different with
respect to one demographic characteristic but similar with
respect to another (e.g., similar gender but different
gender). This practice can serve to increase student
awareness that humans who are members of different
groups can, at the same time, be members of the same
group—and share similar experiences, needs, or
concerns.
 After students have completed self-assessment
instruments (e.g., learning style inventories or personality
profiles), have them line up or move to a corner of the
room according to their individual scores or overall profile.
This practice can visibly demonstrate to students how
members of different student populations can be quite
similar with respect to their learning styles or personality
profiles, i.e., students can see how individual similarities
can often overshadow group differences.

4. Communicate high expectations to students from all

subgroups.

 Make a conscious attempt call on, or draw in students

from diverse groups by using effective questioning
techniques that reliably elicit student involvement. In
addition to consciously calling on them in class, other
strategies for “drawing in” and involving students include:
(a) assigning them the role of reporter in small-group
discussions, i.e., the one who report backs the group’s
idea to the class, and (b) having them engaged in paired
discussions with another classmate with the stipulation
that each partner must take turns assuming the role of
both listener and speaker, and (c) scheduling instructor-
 student conferences with them outside the classroom.
 Learn more the names of your students, specially the
foreign names that you may have difficulty pronouncing.
This will enable you to establish early, personal rapport
with them which can later serve as a social/emotional
foundation or springboard for encouraging them to
participate.

5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate

student diversity in learning styles.

 Diversify the sensory/perceptual modalities through

which you deliver and present information (e.g., orally, in
print, diagrammatic and pictorial representations, or
“hands on” experiences).
 Diversify the instructional formats or procedures you use
in class:
Use formats that are student-centered (e.g., class
discussions, small group work) and teacher-
centered (e.g., lectures, demonstrations).

Use formats that are unstructured (e.g., trial-and-

error discovery learning) and structured (e.g., step-
by-step instructions).

Use procedures that involve both independent

learning (e.g., independently completed projects;
individual presentations) and interdependent
learning e.g., collaborative learning in pairs or
small groups).

6. Vary examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to

provide multiple contexts that are relevant to students from
diverse backgrounds.

Specific strategies for providing multiple examples and varied

context that are relevant to their varied backgrounds include the
following:

 Have students complete personal information cards

during first week of class and use this information to
select examples or illustrations that are relevant to their
personal interests and life experiences.
 Use ideas, comments, and questions that students raise
in class, or which they choose to write about to help you
think of examples and illustrations to use example.
 Ask students to provide their own examples of concepts,
based on experiences drawn from their personal lives.
  Have students apply concepts by placing them in a
situation or context that is relevant to their lives (e.g.,
“How would you show respect to all persons in your
home?”).

7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning

styles by allowing them personal choice and decision-
making opportunities concerning what they will learn and
how they will learn it.

Giving the learner more decision-making opportunity with

respect to learning tasks: (a) promotes positive student attitudes
toward the subject matter, (b) fosters more positive interactions
among students, and (c) results in students working more
consistently with lesser teacher intervention. Also, when
individuals are allowed to exert some control over a task, they
tend to experience less anxiety or stress while performing that
task.

8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating

student learning.

You can accommodate student diversity not only by varying

what you do with your teaching, but also by varying what you
ask students to do to demonstrate learning. In addition to the
traditional paper-and-pencil tests and written assignments,
students can demonstrate their learning in a variety of other
performance formats, such as: (a) individually-delivered oral
reports, (b) panel presentations, (c) group projects, (d) visual
presentations (e.g, concept maps, slide presentations,
powerpoint presentations, collages, exhibits), or (d) dramatic
vignettes—presented live on videotape. One potential benefit of
allowing students to choose how they demonstrate their learning
is that the variety of options exercised may be a powerful way to
promote student awareness of the diversity of human learning
styles.

9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from

diverse backgrounds. You can form groups of students with
different learning styles, different cultural background, etc.

Small peer-learning groups may be effective for promoting

student progress to a more advanced stage of cognitive
development. Peer-learning groups may promote this cognitive
advancement because: (a) the instructor is removed from center
stage, thereby reducing the likelihood that the teacher is
perceived as the ultimate or absolute authority; and (b) students
are exposed to the perspectives of other students, thus
increasing their appreciation of multiple viewpoints and different
 approaches to learning.
Enrichment Activity 1 (Student Diversity Day Exhibit)
Activity Instructions: Research on at least 2 images for diversity in the
classroom and explain what each image communicates about
diversity.

Comprehension From the module on Individual Differences, I learned that…

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Topic 4 Learning/Thinking Styles
Objectives 1. Describe the different learning/thinking styles
2. Identify own learning/thinking styles and multiple
intelligences
Discussion Learning/Thinking Styles

Learning/Thinking styles refer to the preferred way an

individual processes information. They describe a person’s
typical mode of thinking, remembering or problem solving.
Furthermore, styles are usually considered to be bipolar
dimensions. For instance your particular learning/thinking style
would lie at a point in continuum. Having a particular
learning/thinking style simply denotes a tendency to behave in a
certain manner. Your style is usually described as a personality
dimension which influences your attitudes, values, and social
interaction.
There are several perspectives about learning-thinking styles.
We shall focus on sensory preferences and the global-analytic
continuum.

Sensory Preferences. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one

of the following types:
 Visual Learners. These learners must see their teacher’s
actions and facial expression to fully understand the
content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting in front so
 no one would block their view. They may think in pictures
and learn best from visual aids including: diagrams,
illustrated text books, overhead transparencies, videos,
flipcharts and hand-outs. During a lecture or classroom
discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed
notes to absorb the information.

Ri Charde further breaks down visual learners into:

Visual-iconic. Those who prefer this form of input

are more interested in visual imagery such as film,
graphic displays, or pictures in order to solidify
learning. They usually have good “picture memory,”
a.k.a. iconic imagery and attend to pictorial detail.
They would like to read a map better than to read a
book.

Visual-symbolic. Those who prefer this form of

input feel comfortable with abstract symbolism
such as mathematical formulae or the written
word. They would prefer to read a book than a map
and would like to read about things than hear
about them. They tend to be good abstract thinkers
who do not require practical means for learning.

 Auditory Learners. They learn best through verbal

lectures, discussions, talking things through and listening
to what others have to say. Auditory learners interpret the
underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone
of voice, pitch, speed and other nuances. Written
information may have little meaning until it is heard.
These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and
using a tape recorder. They can attend aurally to details,
translate the spoken word easily into the written word,
and are not easily distracted in their listening ability.

Auditory learners also fall into two categories:

The “Listeners”. This is the more common type.

‘Listeners,’ most likely do well in school. Out of school too,
they remember things said to them and make the
information their own. They may even carry on mental
conversations and figure out how to extend what they
learned by reviewing in their heads what they heard
others say.

The “Talkers”. They are the ones who prefer to talk

and discuss. They often find themselves talking to those
around them. In a class setting when the instructor is not
asking questions, auditory-verbal processors (talkers)
 tend to whisper comments to themselves. They are not
trying to be disruptive and may not even realize they need
to talk.

 Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners. Tactile/Kinesthetic

persons benefit much from a hands-on approach, actively
exploring the physical world around them. They may find
it hard to sit still for long periods. They may not benefit so
much from the discussion or the written materials, and
may become distracted by their need for activity and
exploration. Those preferring this form of input move
toward active, sensori-motor learning. They tend to prefer
“learning by doing,” preferring the use of psychomotor
skills to, say, abstract thinking skills. They tend to have
good motor memory and motor coordination.

Global-Analytic Continuum

 Analytic. Analytic thinkers tend toward the linear, step-

by-step processes of learning. They tend to see finite
elements of patterns rather than the whole; they are the
“trees seers.” They are more comfortable in a world of
details and hierarchies of information.
 Global. Global thinkers lean towards non-linear thought
and tend to see the whole pattern rather than particle
elements. They are the “forest seers” who give attention
only to the overall structure and sometimes ignore details.

Several theorists have tied the global-analytic continuum

the left-brain/right-brain continuum. In accord with Roger
Sperry’s model, the left-brained dominant individual is portrayed
as the linear (analytic), verbal, mathematical thinker while the
right-brained person is one who is viewed as global, non-linear,
and holistic in thought preferences.

Both sides of the brain can reason, but through different

strategies. In an individual, one side may be more dominant
than the other. The left brain is regarded as analytic in approach
while the right is described as holistic or global. A successive
processor (left brain) prefers to learn in a step-by-step sequential
format, beginning with details leading to a conceptual
understanding of a skill. A simultaneous processor (right brain)
prefers to learn beginning with the general concept and then
going on to specifics.

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric
Style
1. Verbal 1. Visual
 2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice
3. Sequential 3. Random
4. Processes information 4. Processes information in
linearly varies order
5. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion
6. Plans ahead 6. Impulsive
7. Recalls people’s names 7. Recalls people’s faces
8. Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking
9. Punctual 9. Less punctual
10. Prefers formal study 10. Prefers sound/music
design background while studying
11. Prefers bright lights while 11. Prefers frequent mobility
studying while studying

Enrichment Activity I
Activities Instructions: Answer the questions below.

1. In your own words, describe the different learning/thinking

styles.

2. What is/are your thinking/learning style/s?

Comprehension From the Module on Thinking/Learning Styles, I learned that …

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Topic 5 Multiple Intelligences
Objectives 1. Describe the different multiple intelligences
2. Identify own multiple intelligences
Discussion Multiple Intelligences

The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by

Howard Gardner in Frames of Mind (1983). Gardner defines
intelligence as “an ability or set of abilities that allows a person
to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued in one or
more cultures”. Gardner believes that different intelligences may
be independent abilities—a person can be low in one domain
area but high in another. All of us possess the intelligences but
in varying degrees of strength.

His most current research indicates that there are nine distinct
forms of intelligences. In order to facilitate learning effectively,
teachers should use strategies that match these kinds of
intelligences. The nine kinds are:

Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)- learning visually

and organizing ideas spatially. Seeing concepts in action in order
to understand them. The ability to “see” things in one’s mind in
planning to create a product or solve a problem.

Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart)- learning through the spoken

and written word. This intelligence is always valued in the
traditional classroom and in traditional assessments of
intelligence and achievement.

Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart)- learning

through reasoning and problem solving. Also highly valued in
the traditional classroom where students are asked to adapt to
logically sequenced delivery of instruction.

Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart)- learning through interaction

with one’s environment. This intelligence is the domain of “overly
active” learners. It promotes understanding through concrete
experience.

Musical (Music Smart) – learning through patterns, rhythms,

and music. This includes not only auditory learning but also the
identification patterns through all the senses.

Intrapersonal (Self Smart) – learning through feelings, values,

and attitudes. This is a decidedly affective component of learning
through which students place value on what they learn and take
ownership for their learning.

Interpersonal (People Smart) – learning through interaction

with others. Not the domain of children who are simply
“talkative” or “overly social”. This intelligence promotes
collaboration and working cooperatively with others.

Naturalist (Nature Smart) – learning through classification,

categories, and hierarchies. The naturalist intelligence picks up
on subtle differences in meaning. It is not simply the study of
nature; it can be used in all areas of study.

Existential (Spiritual Smart) – learning by seeing the “big

picture”: “Why are we here?” “What is my role in the world?”
“What is my place in my family, school, and community?” This
intelligence seeks connection to real world understanding and
application of new learning.

It is important for teachers to use their knowledge about

thinking/learning style and multiple intelligences in planning
activities to help their students learn effectively.

While researches on these typologies continue, it is clear that the

teachers can no longer just teach the text book. It is a sensible
practice to teach each child according to his/her
thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligence.

Teaching Strategies guided by Thinking/Learning Styles and

Multiple Intelligence

1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of

thinking from recalling factual information to drawing
implications and making value judgments.

2. Provide general overview of material to be learned, i.e.,

structured overviews, advance organizers, etc., so that students’
past experiences will be associated with the new ideas.

3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then

integrate using both the right-and left-brain hemispheres.

4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing, or reading

experience.

5. Warm up before the lesson development by using

brainstorming, set induction, etc.

6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving

information. (Write directions on the board and give them orally)

7. Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring

closure to learning (writing summaries, creating opinion surveys,
 etc.).

8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising (“The

example you’ve provided is an excellent one to point to the
concept of …”). (From Cornett, C.E. (1983). What you should
know about teaching and learning styles. Bloomington, IN: Phi
Delta Kappa Educational Foundation).
Enrichment Activity 1
Activity Instructions: Answer the questions below.

1. In your own words, describe the different multiple

intelligences.

2. What are your dominant multiple intelligences?

Comprehension Activity 1
Check Instructions:

From the module on Multiple Intelligences, I realized that …

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