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Electrical Circuits in Biomedical Engineering Problems With Solutions - Keskin SPRINGER 2017
Electrical Circuits in Biomedical Engineering Problems With Solutions - Keskin SPRINGER 2017
Electrical Circuits in Biomedical Engineering Problems With Solutions - Keskin SPRINGER 2017
Electrical Circuits
in Biomedical
Engineering
Problems with Solutions
Electrical Circuits in Biomedical Engineering
Ali Ümit Keskin
Electrical Circuits
in Biomedical Engineering
Problems with Solutions
123
Ali Ümit Keskin
Department of Biomedical Engineering
Yeditepe University
Istanbul
Turkey
v
vi Preface
It is hoped that the book will be helpful for students, as well as for engineers in
analyzing and/or designing practical biomedical instrumentation circuits.
Acknowledgements: The author thanks particularly the research assistants,
Kübra Öztürk, Anil Ozdemirli, Betül Yardibi, Ibrahim Kapici, Ahmet Yetkin,
Surhan Bozkurt, Ercument Cenap Turan, and Sinan Yagcioglu of Biomedical and
Electrical Engineering Departments at Yeditepe, who supported this work with
critical comments and discussions at various stages of its preparation.
Finally, I wish to express my deep appreciation to my wife, Naciye, for her
encouragement, continued support, and understanding.
1 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Electric Charge, Current, Voltage, Power, Energy,
and Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Laws, Parallel–Series Connection of
Resistors and Sources, Delta–Wye Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3 Resistivity and Resistance, Voltage and Current Division,
Resistive Sensors and Mixture Models, Blood Cell Counting,
Wheatstone Bridge, Infinite Ladders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2 Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.1 Nodal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.2 Mesh Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.3 Linearity and Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.4 Source Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
2.5 Thévenin–Norton Equivalent Circuits and Maximum Power
Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 165
3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.1 Capacitors, Permittivity, Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
4 Inductors and First-Order RL Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
4.1 Inductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
4.2 First-Order RL Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
5 Second-Order Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
5.1 Second-Order RLC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
vii
viii Contents
ix
The following are trademarks or registered
trademarks of respective holders:
xi
Chapter 1
Basic Concepts
Problem 1.1.2 How much charge passes through a cross section of a conductor in
60 s if a dc current value is measured as 0.1 mA?
Solution
q ¼ it ¼ 107 60 ¼ 6 106 C ¼ 6 lC
Problem 1.1.3 How much charge passes through a cross section of a conductor in
60 s if a current value is given as iðtÞ ¼ 5t mA; t in s?
Solution
Problem 1.1.4 Determine the total charge entering a terminal between t = 0 s and
t = 10 s if the current passing the terminal is
1
iðtÞ = pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi A
5t + 2
Solution
Z10 Z10
1
q¼ iðtÞdt ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi dt;
5t þ 2
0 0
Let u ¼ 5t þ 2, then
du 1
¼5 ! dt ¼ du
dt 5
Z10
1 2 1 10 2 1 10
u2 du ¼
1
q¼ u2 ¼ ð5t þ 2Þ2 ¼ 2:319 C
5 5 0 5 0
0
60
i¼ ¼ 2A
30
60 Ah 60 5000
t¼ ¼ ¼ 5000 h ¼ ¼ 208:3 days
12 V 12 103 24
1000 X
Problem 1.1.7 A 6 V battery is rated at 2.4 Ah has a lifetime of 10 h.
1.1 Electric Charge, Current, Voltage, Power, Energy, and Sources 3
Solution
(a) The maximum current this battery can supply for 10 h is
2:4
i¼ ¼ 240 mA
10
Problem 1.1.9 To move a charge q from point a to point b, requires (−10) J. Find
the voltage drop if,
(a) q = 2 C, (b) q = −5 C.
Solution
W 10
(a) Vab ¼ ¼ ¼ 5 V
q 2
W 10
(b) Vab ¼ ¼ ¼ 2V
q 5
Problem 1.1.10 Prove the electrical power relationship, P ¼ v i, where v and i are
symbols for instantaneous voltage and current on a load.
4 1 Basic Concepts
Solution
If q represents electric charge, the current is defined by simple differential equation,
@q
i¼
@t
@W
v¼
@q
@q @W @W
iv¼ : ¼
@t @q @t
p ¼ 1 HP ¼ 0:746 kW
E ¼ ð pÞt ¼ 0:746 kW 1 h ¼ 0:746 kWh
cos t ¼ 0:746 10 30 13 ¼ $ 29:09
Problem 1.1.12 A lightning bolt with 10 kA strikes an arrester for 14 ls. How
much charge is transferred to the arrester?
Solution
p 75
p ¼ vi ! i¼ ¼ ¼ 0:341 A
v 220
q ¼ i t ¼ 0:341 10 3600 ¼ 12;272 C
N ¼ 12;272 6:24 1018 ¼ 76;581 1018 ¼ 7:6581 1022 electrons
1.1 Electric Charge, Current, Voltage, Power, Energy, and Sources 5
Solution
P
16
(a) E ¼ Pt ¼ 300 2 þ 600 1 þ 900 1 þ 300 1 þ 600 1 þ 300 2
i¼8
E ¼ 3600 Wh ¼ 3:6 kWh
3:6
(b) Pav ¼ ¼ 0:15 kW
24
Solution
(a) R ¼ R0 ½1 þ aðT T0 Þ ¼ 98½1 þ 0:0004 ð37 20Þ ¼ 98:6664 X
(b) R ¼ 98½1 þ 0:0004 ð0 20Þ ¼ ð1 0:008Þ þ 98 ¼ 97:2160 X
(c) R ¼ 98½1 þ 0:0004 ð500 20Þ ¼ ð1 þ 0:192Þ 98 ¼ 116:8160 X
V 230 VðrmsÞ
R¼ ¼ ¼ 23 X
I 10 AðrmsÞ
R ¼ R 0 ½ 1 þ að T T 0 Þ
Problem 1.1.18 During stimulation of an excitable cell, current and voltage vari-
ation as functions of time are given as
iðtÞ ¼ 3t ½A t 0
vðtÞ ¼ 10 e ; 6t
½V t 0
Determine the energy consumed (in micro joules) between 0 and 2 ms.
1.1 Electric Charge, Current, Voltage, Power, Energy, and Sources 7
Solution
Z 3
210 Z 3
210 Z 3
210
Zb Zb
u dv ¼ u vjba v du
a a
with
1
u ¼ t; du ¼ dt; dv ¼ e6t dt; v ¼ e6t
2 36
2103 Z 3
210
6 1 6t 1 7
W ¼ 304t e e6t dt5
6 0 6
0
" 3 3
#
1 6t 210 1 6t 210
¼ 30 t e e
6 0 36 0
3
2 10 3 1 12103
¼ 30 e 1210
e 1
6 36
¼ 30 3:374 104 3:353 104
¼ 30 0:021 104 ¼ 630 107 J ¼ 63 lJ
1
pn ¼ jsin tj; for np t ðn þ 1Þp; n ¼ 0; 1; 2; . . .
3n
Z1 Z1
1
W¼ pn ðtÞdt ¼ jsintjdt
3n
0 0
1 1 1 X1
1 1 3
pn ðtÞ ¼ 0 jsintj þ 1 jsintj þ 2 jsintj þ ¼ jsintj ¼ jsintj ¼
3 3 3 n¼0
3 n 13 2
1
8 1 Basic Concepts
Note that, inside of the summation above equals to the sum of a geometric series.
Finally,
Zp p
3 3 3 3
W¼ jsin tjdt ¼ jcos tj ¼ ð1 1Þ ¼ 2 ¼ 3 J
2 2 0 2 2
0
Z Zt
w¼ pðtÞdt ¼ AB sin xs cos xs ds
t0
sinð2uÞ ð1:1Þ
sinð2uÞ ¼ 2 sinðuÞ cosðuÞ; ! sinðuÞ cosðuÞ ¼
2
1
Let xs ¼ u; ! xds ¼ du ! ds ¼ du
x
t = 0:0.1:2*pi;
w=1; A=1; B=1; K=(A*B)/(4*w);
i=A*sin(w*t); v=B*cos(w*t); w=K*(1-cos(2*w*t));
plot(t,w,'r',t,i,'b',t,v,'k','linewidth',2.5);
grid on; axis([0 2*pi -A A]); xlabel('time [s]');
title('voltage,current and energy waveforms');legend('w','i','v');
Problem 1.1.21 During an in vitro (petri dish) experiment, the peak electric power
that a group of stem cells can tolerate without some serious functional
1.1 Electric Charge, Current, Voltage, Power, Energy, and Sources 9
0.8
w
0.6
i
0.4 v
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time [s]
Power [mW]
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-0.5
-1
Time [sec]
Solution
22
m v þ gh
1
mv 2
þ mgh 2 mðv2 þ 2 ghÞ
P¼2 ¼ ¼
T T 2T
P ¼ IU
P mðv2 þ 2 ghÞ
I¼ ¼ ½A
U 2UT
Problem 1.1.23 A hospital has a dynamic uninterrupted power system (D-UPS)
consisting of a diesel generator, synchronous machine, and a kinetic energy unit. If
the energy to hospital fails, kinetic energy unit continues to feed the 600 kW
electrical load of the hospital for 20 s, then diesel engine and synchronous machine
take the load over and feed the load.
(a) Determine total energy capacity of the kinetic energy unit.
(b) If the load is 240 kW at a specific power failure instant, how long the unit can
feed load?
Solution
(a) Assuming no energy losses,
E ¼ P t ¼ 600 kW 20 s ¼ 12;000 kJ ¼ 12 MJ
1.1 Electric Charge, Current, Voltage, Power, Energy, and Sources 11
(b) Since actual load is less than the available power, it takes longer to feed the
load,
12;000 kJ ¼ 240 kW t s ! t ¼ 50 s
Solution
(a) q ¼ I t ¼ 5 A 2 h ¼ 5 A 2 3600 s ¼ 36;000 C
The number of moles of electrons transferred when 36,000 coulombs of electric
charge flow through the electrolytic cell
36;000
n¼ ¼ 0:373 mol electrons
96;500
Balanced equation at the cathode of this cell gives one mole of sodium for
every mole of electrons,
Na þ þ e ! Na
m ¼ 0:373 23 ¼ 8579 g
12 1 Basic Concepts
36;000
n¼ ¼ 0:373 mol electrons
96;500
Balanced equation at the cathode of this cell gives 1 mol of copper for 2 mol of
electrons,
Cu þ 2 þ 2e ! Cu
(c) Balanced equation at the anode of this cell gives one mole of chlorine gas for
2 mol of electrons,
1000 g
n¼ ¼ 14:085 mol
g
35:5 mol 2
Electrical charge,
Current is calculated as
2;718;405 C 2;718;405
I¼ ¼ ¼ 75:511 A
3600 10 s 36;000
Power,
Energy,
1.1 Electric Charge, Current, Voltage, Power, Energy, and Sources 13
Solution
R1 :R2
Req ¼ ; 10 kX ¼ 10 103 X; 3:3 kX ¼ 3:3 103 X
R1 þ R2
33 106 X2
Req ¼ ¼ 2:48 kX
13:3 103 X2
Problem 1.2.2
(a) What is the equivalent resistance of three parallel-connected resistors with
equal values?
(b) If R ¼ R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R3 ¼ 10 kX, Req = ?
Solution
1 1 1 1 3 R
(a) ¼ þ þ ¼ ; ! 3Req ¼ R ! Req ¼
Req R R R R 3
10 kX
(b) Req ¼ ¼ 3:333 kX
3
1 1 1 1 1
¼ þ þ þ ¼ 104 þ 103 þ 0:2 103 þ 0:3333 103
Req R1 R2 R3 R4
¼ ð0:1 þ 1 þ 0:2 þ 0:3333Þ 103 ¼ 1:6333 103
1 103
Req ¼ ¼ ¼ 612:26 X
1:6333 103 1:6333
Problem 1.2.4 Find the values of equivalent resistors in the circuit of Fig. 1.6
ðY ! D conversionÞ.
R1 ¼ 10 X; R2 ¼ 10 X; R3 ¼ 5 X:
1.2 Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Laws, Parallel–Series Connection … 15
Solution
Y ! D conversion,
R1 R2 þ R2 R3 þ R1 R3 10 10 þ 10 5 þ 10 5
Ra ¼ ¼ ¼ 20 X
R1 10
R1 R2 þ R2 R3 þ R1 R3 10 10 þ 10 5 þ 10 5
Rb ¼ ¼ ¼ 20 X
R2 10
R1 R2 þ R2 R3 þ R1 R3 10 10 þ 10 5 þ 10 5
Rc ¼ ¼ ¼ 40 X
R3 5
Problem 1.2.5
(a) In the circuit shown in Fig. 1.7, use delta–wye transformation rule, and
determine the power dissipated by resistor R1 :ðR1 ¼ 10 X; R2 ¼ R3 ¼
R4 ¼ 20 X; R5 ¼ R6 ¼ 40 X; U ¼ 40 VÞ:
(b) Find the voltage at node a.
(c) Check the results using SPICE and print a netlist (delta_wye1.cir).
Solution
(a) Delta–wye conversion can be applied to R2 R3 R4 mesh, which is a delta
form (Fig. 1.8).
R2 R3 20 20 400 20
Ra ¼ Rb ¼ Rc ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ X
R2 þ R3 þ R4 20 þ 20 þ 20 60 3
20 20 þ 120 140
Rb þ R5 ¼ Rc þ R6 ¼ þ 40 ¼ ¼ X
3 3 3
140
Rp ¼ ðRb þ Rs Þ k ðRc þ R6 Þ ¼ X
6
20 140 60 þ 40 þ 140
R ¼ R1 þ Ra þ Rp ¼ 10 þ þ ¼ ¼ 40 X
3 6 6
U 40
I¼ ¼ ¼ 1A
R 40
PR1 ¼ I R ¼ 1 10 ¼ 10 W
2
Delta-Wye1
V1 1 0 40
R1 1 2 10
R2 2 3 20
R3 2 4 20
R4 3 4 20
R5 3 0 40
R6 4 0 40
*.op
1.2 Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Laws, Parallel–Series Connection … 17
Problem 1.2.6
(a) Determine the equivalent resistance of an unbalanced bridge circuit shown in
Fig. 1.9. (Z_symbolic2.m).
(b) If R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = R5 = 1 X, Req = ?
Solution
(a) Apply Y − D transformation to R2, R3, R5:
R2 R3 þ R3 R5 þ R2 R5 R2 R3 þ R3 R5 þ R2 R5 R2 R3 þ R3 R5 þ R2 R5
Ra ¼ ; Rb ¼ ; Rc ¼
R5 R2 R3
R1 Ra R4 Rb
Rd ¼ R1 k Ra ¼ ; Re ¼ R4 k Rb ¼ ; Rf ¼ Rd þ Re
R1 þ Ra R4 þ Rb
Rf Rc
Req ¼ Rf k Rc ¼
Rf þ Rc
R1 R2 R3 þ R1 R2 R4 þ R1 R2 R5 þ R1 R3 R5 þ R2 R3 R4 þ R1 R4 R5 þ R2 R4 R5 þ R3 R4 R5
Req ¼
R1 R3 þ R1 R4 þ R1 R5 þ R2 R3 þ R2 R4 þ R2 R5 þ R3 R4 þ R3 R5
V 1
i¼ ¼ 2 mA; G ¼ ¼ 2 104 S ¼ 0:2 mS
R R
P ¼ i V ¼ 2 mA 10 V ¼ 20 mW
Problem 1.2.9 Find the power consumed over a resistor, if the voltage across the
resistor is v(t) = 10 sin pt V, and R = 5 kX.
Solution
V
i¼ ¼ 2 sin pt ðmAÞ; ! P ¼ i V ¼ 20 sin2 pt ðmWÞ
R
Problem 1.2.10 V1 = 2 V, V4 = 4 V, V5 = 2 V and R1 = R2 = 1 kX. Find the
current flowing in the circuit of Fig. 1.10.
KVL (Selecting the current direction counterclockwise),
V1 þ V4 þ V5 ¼ V3 þ V2
2 þ 4 þ 2 ¼ 8 ¼ iðR1 þ R2 Þ ¼ 2000i
Therefore,
8V
i¼ ¼ 4 mA
2000 X
Problem 1.2.11 Find the current in the circuit of Fig. 1.11 (R1 = 0.1 X,
G2 = 0.05 S).
Solution
50 50 50 50
i¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 20:48 A
R1 þ R2 1 0:1 þ 20 20:1
0:1 þ
0:05
Problem 1.2.12 For the circuit in Fig. 1.12, what is
(a) the voltage between the point a and b (Vab)?
(b) the power (P) consumed on resistor, in mW?
(c) the conductance (G)?
Solution
i ¼ 3 mA ¼ 3 103 A; R ¼ 1 kX ¼ 1 103 X
Problem 1.2.13 For the circuit of Fig. 1.13, what is the voltage drop across the
resistor?
Solution
Use Kirchhoff’s current law, and let the current flowing through the resistance be i,
X
N
in ¼ 3 A 5 A þ 8 A þ i ¼ 0 ! iþ6A ¼ 0 ! i ¼ 6 A
n¼1
1þ2 5þ4þi ¼ 0 ! i ¼ 2 A
Solution
Apply the Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the circuit,
V1 þ V2 þ V3 V4 þ V5 ¼ V1 þ R1 i þ R2 i V4 þ R3 i ¼ 0
10 þ 2 X 1 A þ 4 X 1 A V4 þ 6 X 1 A ¼ 0
V4 ¼ 2 V
Problem 1.2.16 Design a voltage divider circuit (Fig. 1.16) to measure voltage
values up to 20 kV (DC) with the following constraints:
R1 =R2 ¼ 1000, maximum current flow through the circuit = 200 microamperes.
Solution
R1 R2
V0 ¼ V1
V1 ¼ 20 103 103 ¼ 20 V ðR1 R2 Þ
R1 þ R2 R1
20
R2 ¼ ¼ 100 kX ! R1 ¼ 1000 R2 ¼ 103 100 103 ¼ 100 MX
200 106
Problem 1.2.17 Find the voltage V1 in the circuit of Fig. 1.17. Comment on the
possible values of k.
Solution
By KVL, 18 þ kV1 þ ð1 þ 2 þ 3ÞRI ¼ 0
By Ohm’s law, V1 ¼ RI;
Problem 1.2.18
(a) Find the input resistance seen by the voltage source in Wheatstone bridge of
Fig. 1.18.
(b) Determine the power dissipated in the circuit in terms of (U, R).
Solution
ð2RÞð2RÞ 4R2
(a) Req ¼ ¼ ¼ R ðXÞ
ð4RÞ 4R
U2 U2
(b) P ¼ ¼ ðWÞ
Req R
Problem 1.2.19
(a) Determine input resistance of the circuit of Fig. 1.19, using SPICE analysis
R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R4 ¼ 10 X; R3 ¼ R5 ¼ 5 X ðWB ridge1:cirÞ:
(b) Find the value of current (in mA) and its direction of flow through resistor R3.
Solution
Let a unit current source be used as the excitation at the input terminals of the
circuit, and using SPICE analysis, it is found that the voltage at node 1 is
V1 = 8.42105 V.
The voltages at nodes 2 and 3 are computed as V2 = 3.68421 V and
V3 = 3.15789 V, respectively.
(a) Input resistance of the circuit is Rin = V1 / Iin = 8.42105 X
(b) The current through resistor R3
V2 V3 3:68421 3:15789
IR3 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:105264 A ¼ 105:264 mA
R3 5
The current flow direction is from node 2 to node 3. The SPICE list is given
below.
*WBridge1.cir
*Wheatstone resistive circuit1
*OP analysis
Iin 0 1 1
R1 1 2 10
R2 1 3 10
R3 2 3 5
R4 2 0 10
R5 3 0 5
Problem 1.2.20
(a) A dc voltage source of Vi ¼ U volts feeds a load consisting of two series-
connected resistors as in Fig. 1.16. Determine the current in the circuit in terms
of G1 ; G2 and U.
(b) Determine the voltage at the junction between the two resistors.
(c) Calculate numerical values of unknowns if G1 ¼ 200 mS; G2 ¼ 100 mS;
U ¼ 5 V:
Solution
G1 G2
(a) I ¼ UG ¼ U
G1 þ G2
1 1
G2 G2 UG1 G2 G1
(b) UA ¼ U 1 1 ¼ U G1 þ G2 ¼ G2 ðG1 þ G2 Þ ¼ G1 þ G2 U
þ
G1 G2 G1 G2
0:2 0:1 0:02 0:1 0:5
(c) I ¼ 5 ¼5 ¼ 0:333 A ! UA ¼ 5¼ ¼ 1:667 V
0:2 þ 0:1 0:3 0:2 þ 0:1 0:3
24 1 Basic Concepts
Problem 1.2.21 Find the current flowing through R1 in the circuit shown in
Fig. 1.20.
Vdc = 12 V, R1 = R2 = 1 kX, R3 = 10 kX.
Solution
Equivalent resistance of parallel branch is
1 kX 1 kX
Rp ¼ ¼ 0:5 kX
1 kX þ 1 kX
Vdc 12 V
it ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:143 mA
Rt 10:5 kX
Problem 1.2.23 A red light-emitting diode (LED) has a rated forward current of
20 mA at its operating voltage of VF = 20 V. Determine the value of resistor in E12
series that is required to operate the LED, when the power supply voltage is 12 V,
see Fig. 1.21.
Solution
By KVL: 12 ¼ i R þ VF
12 2 ¼ 20 103 R
10
R¼ ¼ 0:5 kX ! next closest E12 series value is 560 X ðsee appendixÞ:
20 103
Note that 470 Ω is not selected, since it does not provide a safe operating region
for the LED. (Considering 10% tolerance, minimum possible resistance would be
470 − 47 = 423, which is quite below the calculated resistance value.)
26 1 Basic Concepts
Problem 1.2.24 Three resistors each having a value of 2.2 kΩ are connected in
parallel. Find the current through each resistor if the system is supplied with a
current source of 10 mA.
Solution
Since equal valued resistors are connected in parallel,
10
Ix ¼ Iz ¼ It ¼ ¼ 3:33 mA
3
Alternative solution;
1 1
i ¼ 10 mA ¼ 0:01 A ¼ vG ¼ v 3: ¼ v 3: ¼ 1:363 103 V
R 2:2 103 X
0:01
v¼ ¼ 7:34 V
1:363 103
v 7:34 V
Ix ¼ Iz ¼ It ¼ ¼ ¼ 3:33 mA
R 2:2 103 X
30 10 300
R2 k R3 ¼ kX ¼ kX ¼ 7:5 kX
40 40
R1 þ ðR2 k R3 Þ ¼ ð10 þ 7:5ÞkX ¼ 17:5 kX
R2 k R3 7:5
vx ð t Þ ¼ v 1 ð t Þ ¼ 10 sinð314tÞ ¼ 4:286 sinð314tÞV
R1 þ R2 k R3 17:5
parallel or perpendicular to the fiber direction. (5) Linearity applies to both fiber and
the matrix. See, Fig. 1.23.
rf ¼ Conductivity of fibers;
rm ¼ Conductivity of matrix;
rc ¼ Conductivity of composite;
Vf
f ¼ The volume fraction of fibers ¼
Vf þ Vm
rc ¼ f rf þ ð1 f Þrm ð1:2Þ
1 rf rm
rc ¼ ¼ ð1:3Þ
f 1 f f rm þ ð1 f Þrf
þ
rf rm
Therefore,
1
rc f rf þ ð1 f Þrm rf [ rm ð1:4Þ
f 1f
þ
rf rm
28 1 Basic Concepts
If rf \rm , upper and lower bounds of electrical conductivity for the composite
material become
1
rc f rf þ ð1 f Þrm rf \rm ð1:5Þ
f 1f
þ
rf rm
Solution
(a) Assume that resistance of the composite material is made out of two resistors
connected in parallel. In this case, direction of current flow is parallel to the
alignment of fibers, see, Fig. 1.24. (Voigt model of fiber composites).
R ¼ Rf k Rm ;
where
Rf fiber equivalent resistance with resistivity qf , conductivity rf
Rm matrix equivalent resistance with resistivity qm , conductivity rm
R composite bulk resistance with conductivity r
A composite cross-sectional area
Af fiber cross-sectional area
Am matrix cross-sectional area
T, x dimensions of rectangular cross section of composite material
Vf Af
f ¼ ¼ ; A ¼ xT ¼ Af þ Am ; Af ¼ fxT; Am ¼ ð1 f ÞxT
Vf þ Vm A
1
R ¼ Rf k Rm ; G¼ ¼ Gf þ Gm
R
rA rf Af rm Am
¼ þ
L L L
R ¼ Rf þ Rm
where,
Rf fiber equivalent resistance with resistivity qf , conductivity rf
Rm matrix equivalent resistance with resistivity qm , conductivity rm
R composite bulk resistance with resistivity q,
A area (perpendicular to current flow direction)
Lf fiber thickness
Lm matrix thickness
qf Lf qm Lm Lf Lm Lf L Lf L Lf L Lf
R¼ þ ¼ þ ¼ þ ¼ þ
A A rf A rm A rf A rm A A rf L rm L
L Lf L Lf L Lf 1 Lf
R¼ þ ¼ þ 1
A rf L rm L A r f L rm L
Considering volume fractions of fiber and matrix over the total volume of the
composite, and realizing that the current flows through the same area A,
Vf Lf
f ¼ ¼
Vf þ Vm L
ð1:6Þ
L f 1 L f 1f
R¼ þ ð1 f Þ ¼ þ
A rf rm A rf rm
30 1 Basic Concepts
Using the relationship between the resistance of the composite material and its
bulk conductivity,
L L
R¼ ! r¼
rA AR
L 1
r¼ ¼
L f 1f f 1f
A þ þ
A rf rm rf rm
1
rc ¼ ¼ 2:5 1011 Sm1
f 1f
þ
rf rm
Note that,
10
composite conductivity,Voigt model,current flow parallel to fibers
10
5
10
conductivity, S/m
0
10
-5
10
-10
10
-15
10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Volume fraction, %
Fig. 1.25 Electrical conductivity of fiber composite. Voigt model, when current flow is parallel to
fibers
10
composite conductivity,Reuss model,current flow perpendicular to fibers
10
5
10
conductivity, S/m
0
10
-5
10
-10
10
-15
10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Volume fraction, %
Fig. 1.26 Electrical conductivity of fiber composite. Reuss model, when current flow is
perpendicular to fibers
32 1 Basic Concepts
Solution
(a) Applying KVL around the loop,
Vi Vref Vx ¼ 0 ! Vx ¼ Vi Vref
Vx 0 if Vi Vref 0 ! Vx 0 if Vi Vref
In other words, output voltage is positive if input voltage is greater than the
reference voltage.
(b) Using SPICE DC Sweep analysis, the result found above is demonstrated in
Fig. 1.28.
Input voltage is swept between 1 and 1 V. Reference voltage is set to 0.3 V.
'sweep' 'v(2)'
1.0
0.5
voltage [V]
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
sweep [V]
Fig. 1.28 SPICE Sweep analysis for the circuit of Problem 1.2.27
1.2 Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Laws, Parallel–Series Connection … 33
Once the input voltage level exceeds the reference voltage value, the voltage at
node 2 becomes positive, increasing with the same slope of the input voltage.
Fig. 1.29 Voltammetry experiment using three electrodes and its current-voltage diagram
34 1 Basic Concepts
Solution
(a) The standard-state potential is obtained from the curve,
i 0:5 0:2
I¼ ¼ 0:2 þ ¼ 0:35 lA
2 2
I 0:35
I ¼ kc ! c¼ ¼ ¼ 0:7 mol/l
k 0:5
(c) The impedance between reference and the working electrode at standard-state
potential is
0:6
ZRW ¼ ¼ 1:714 MX
0:35 106
(d) When power supply value is 1.5 V, the impedance between reference and
counter electrodes at standard-state potential is
1:5 0:6
ZCR ¼ ¼ 2:571 MX
0:35 106
(e) When power supply value is 1.5 V, the impedance between counter and the
working electrode at standard-state potential is
The resulting hydroxyl ions react with Ag/AgCl anode material (oxidation)
Ag $ Ag þ þ e
Ag þ þ Cl $ AgCl #
This means that silver from the anode material is oxidized to silver ions while
liberating electrons to the anode. Silver ions then combine with chloride ions and
b2
t¼ ;
Dm
Problem 1.2.30
(a) How is electrical conductivity of a salt solution measured? What is the
practical unit of these types of measurements?
(b) Electrical conductivity of a salt solution changes 1.9% per celsius degree
increase in temperature.
(i) Determine the conductivity at 25 °C if measured conductivity at 18 °C is
100 lS/cm.
(ii) What will be the measured conductivity at 35 °C, if conductivity at 25 °C is
100 lS/cm?
(e) Comment on the practical application of these results.
1.2 Ohm’s Law, Kirchhoff’s Laws, Parallel–Series Connection … 37
Solution
(a) Electrical conductivity (EC) is measured by measuring the current flow
between the two stainless steel or platinum electrodes in the liquid sample.
The more dissolved salt in the water, the higher the current flow and the
EC. Measurements of EC can be used to give an estimate of TDS (total
dissolved solids) in much quicker and simpler way. EC measures the
conductance of liquid in a specific measuring cell in microSiemens per
centimeter (lS/cm) at 25 °C.
(b, i) G25 ¼ G18 ð1 þ 0:019 DT Þ ¼ 100½1 þ 0:019ð25 18Þ ¼ 113:3 lS/cm
(b, ii) 100 ¼ G35 ð1 þ 0:019 DT Þ ¼ G35 ½1 þ 0:019:ð25 35Þ ¼ G35 0:81
100
G35 ¼ ¼ 123:5 lS/cm
0:81
(c) Most conductivity meters measure conductivity and temperature simulta-
neously by using the same probe. They also make correction to standard
temperature. The standard temperature is 25 °C in US and European
Pharmacopoeia, ASTM D 1125-95 and ISO 7888-1985 standards.
(Nevertheless, the corrected reading may not be as accurate as taking a
reading of the sample’s conductivity at 25 °C).
Problem 1.2.31
(a) Search three methods of determining the salt content (salinity) of electrolyte
solutions.
(b) Determine the salinity of electrolyte solution S at 18 °C, if the measured
conductivity of electrolyte is, (i) Gx = 50,000 lS/cm, (ii) Gx = 45893.8 lS/cm.
(c) Determine the amount of total dissolved salts in part b, if equipment is pro-
grammed for electrical conductivity changes of 2.5% per °C increase in
temperature.
Solution
(a) The three methods of determining the salinity of water are the as follows [6]:
1. Total dissolved salts (Solids) (TDS) is measured by evaporating a known
volume of water to dryness, and weighing the remaining residue. TDS is
recorded in milligrams of dissolved solid in one liter of water (mg/L). Parts
per million (ppm) is equivalent to mg/L.
2. Electrical Conductivity (EC) is measured in the liquid sample. The more
dissolved salt in the water, the higher the current flow and the EC.
Measurements of EC can be used to give an estimate of TDS in much
quicker and simpler way.
EC can then be converted to TDS: TDS (mg/L)
EC (lS/cm at 25 °C) k
38 1 Basic Concepts
(Here, k = 0.635 when EC > 720 lS/cm. For more precise calculations, EC
versus TDS of KCl solution at 25 °C is plotted and proper curve fitting equations
must be derived).
Electrical conductivity of a solution at specific temperature T (in °C) is measured
(= Gx), and this value is substituted in the conductivity ratio R:
Gx
R¼
GKCl
S ¼ a0 þ a1 R1=2 þ a2 R þ a3 R3=2 þ a4 R2 þ a5 R5=2 þ DS
DS ¼ K:ðb0 þ b1 R1=2 þ b2 R þ b3 R3=2 þ b4 R2 þ b5 R5=2 Þ
T 15
K¼
1 þ 0:0162ðT 15Þ
Problem 1.3.1
(a) A conducting square prismatic object has length, width, and resistivity of
L, a, and q, respectively (Fig. 1.31). Determine the ratio of resistance values
between (parallel) square faces and rectangular faces.
(b) If L = 100a, determine the ratio, numerically.
Solution
(a) Resistance between square faces is
L
Rs ¼ q
a2
Their ratio:
q
Rp a2 a2
¼ L ¼ 2¼
Rs qL L L
a2
40 1 Basic Concepts
(b) If L = 100a,
Rp a 2 1
¼ ¼ 4
Rs 100a 10
1
R ¼ qL
A
Z2 2
x3 16 80
A¼ 8 x2 dx ¼ 8x ¼ 32 ¼ ½cm2
3 2 3 3
2
1 3
R ¼ 80 0:1 ¼ 80 0:1 104 ¼ 3 kX
80 4 80
10
3
Problem 1.3.3 A potential difference U is applied between the inner and outer
surfaces of a hollow cylinder conductor with resistivity q, length L, inner and outer
radii of a and b, respectively. Determine the resistance (see, Fig. 1.32).
Solution
Consider a differential thin cylinder of inner radius r and outer radius (r + dr) and
length L. Its differential resistance,
Zb Zb b
dL dr q dr q q b
dR ¼ q ¼q ! R¼ dR ¼ ¼ lnr ¼ ln
A 2prL 2pL r 2pL a 2pL a
a a
1.3 Resistivity and Resistance, Voltage … 41
Zh Zh
q dx
R¼ dR ¼ ab
2 ;
p xþb
0 0 h
ab
Let A¼ ;
h
42 1 Basic Concepts
Zh Zh h
q dx q 2 q ðAx þ bÞ1 q 1 1
R¼ ¼ ðAx þ bÞ dx ¼ ¼
p ðAx þ bÞ2 p p A p AðAh þ bÞ Ab
0 0 0
q b ðAh þ bÞ q h qh qh
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
p AbðAh þ bÞ p bðAh þ bÞ ab pb½ða bÞ þ b
pb hþb
h
qh
R¼
pba
Problem 1.3.5 A homogenous solid sphere of Radius = a, and resistivity q is
symmetrically truncated with two flat parallel planes at Radius = b. Determine the
resistance of the object between the two truncating planes (Fig. 1.34).
Solution
The equation of sphere in cylindrical coordinates
r 2 þ z 2 ¼ h2
l dl
R¼q ! dR ¼ q
A A
a2 z2 ¼ c2
A ¼ pc2 ¼ p h2 z2 ; dl ¼ dz
dz
dR ¼ q 2
p h z2
Zb Zb Zb
q dz q dz q dz
R¼
¼2 ¼2
p h2 z 2 p h z
2 2 p ða zÞða þ zÞ
b 0 0
Applying partial fraction expansion inside of the integral results in the following,
Zb
1
1 Zb
q q 1 1
R¼2 2a
þ 2a
dz ¼ þ dz
p a z aþz pa a z aþz
0 0
b q
a þ z b q
a þ b
q ¼
¼ ½ lnða zÞ þ lnða þ zÞ ¼ ln ln
pa a pa a z a pa ab
Problem 1.3.6 An aluminum wire with the cross-sectional area of 0:5 mm2 has the
resistance of 20 Ω. A 1.5 V battery is connected across this wire ends.
(a) What is the length of the wire?
(b) Determine the power dissipated in the wire. (mW) (qAl ¼ 2:65 108 XmÞ
Solution
l RA 20 0:5 106
(a) R ¼ qAl ! l¼ ¼ ¼ 377:36 m
A qAl 2:65 108
V 2 1:52 2:25
(b) P ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:1125 W ¼ 112:5 mW
R 20 20
Problem 1.3.7 A silver wire and an aluminum wire have equal lengths (= 1 km)
and cross-sectional areas (= 1 mm2 ). If they are connected in series, what is their
total resistance? qAg = 1:64 108 Xm, qAl = 2:65 108 Xm .
44 1 Basic Concepts
Solution
l1 l2
l 103
RT ¼ qAg þ qAl ¼ qAg þ qAl ¼ ð1:64 þ 2:65Þ 108 6
A1 A2 A 10
RT ¼ ð1:64 þ 2:65Þ 10 ¼ 4:29 10 ¼ 42:9 X
Solution
103 ðmÞ
RCu ¼ 1:78 108 ¼ 17:8 X;
106 ðm2 Þ
103 ðmÞ
RAl ¼ 2:65 108 6 2 ¼ 26:5 X
10 ðm Þ
Voltage division:
RAL 26:5
Vx ¼ Vin ¼ 12 ¼ 12 0:5982 ¼ 7:178 V
RAl þ RCu 26:5 þ 17:8
Problem 1.3.9 A copper wire (1 mm2 area, 1 km length) and an aluminum wire of
the same size and length of copper wire are connected in parallel, and a current of
1A feeds the parallel circuit. Find the current through the copper wire.
qAl = 2:65 108 Xm, qCu = 1:78 108 Xm
Solution
103 m
Rcu ¼ 1:78 108 ¼ 17:8 X;
106 m2
3
10 m
RAl ¼ 2:65 108 6 2 ¼ 26:5 X
10 m
26:5 26:5
Icu ¼ 1 ¼ ¼ 0:598 A
26:5 þ 17:8 44:3
1.3 Resistivity and Resistance, Voltage … 45
L L L
R1 ¼ q1 ¼ q1 2
; R2 ¼ q2 2
A1 p r1 r22 p r2 r32
L
R3 ¼ q3
pr32
1 1 1 1
G ¼ G1 þ G2 þ G3 ¼ ¼ þ þ
R R1 R2 R3
p r12 r22 p r22 r32 pr32 p r12 r22 r22 r32 r32
G¼ þ þ ¼ þ þ
q1 L q2 L q3 L L q1 q2 q3
6 6 6
p 10 10 10
¼ 1 þ þ ¼ 100p 1:3264 ¼ 416:7 S
10 107 1:06 6:9 4:2
Solution
L 1 1 1 A A G r G
R¼q ; r¼ ! G¼ ¼ ¼r ! ¼ ! r¼ L
A q R q L L A L A
mS mS mS S
r ¼ 10 2 100 10q m ¼ 10 4 2 107 m ¼ 102 ¼ 102 103
cm 10 m m m
lS
r ¼ 105 106
m
lS
r ¼ 10
m
RL
V0 ¼ VDC
RL þ RS
at 5 ppm H2 S, RS ¼ 90 kX
V0 RL 2:5 RL
¼ ! ¼ 0:5 ¼
VDC RL þ 90 ðkXÞ 5 RL þ 90 ðkXÞ
RL ¼ 90 kX
3:5 RL
¼ 0:7 ¼ ! 0:7RL þ 63 ¼ RL
5 RL þ 90 ðkXÞ
63
0:3RL ¼ 63 ! RL ¼ ¼ 210 kX
0:3
1.3 Resistivity and Resistance, Voltage … 47
(c) Repeating previous procedure for the new alarm threshold voltage at given gas
concentration,
1:5 RL
¼ 0:3 ¼ ! 0:3RL þ 27 ¼ RL
5 RL þ 90 ðkXÞ
27
0:7RL ¼ 27 ! RL ¼ ¼ 38:5 kX
0:7
Problem 1.3.13 Show that for an isotropic material with equally spaced four
electrodes aligned along a straight line, the resistivity is calculated as
V
q ¼ 2pd ; ð1:7Þ
I
Then,
dV I
¼q ð1:11Þ
dr 2pr12
ZV Zr1
qI dr
dV ¼ ð1:12Þ
2p r2
0 0
qI
V¼ ð1:13Þ
2pr1
48 1 Basic Concepts
Since
V
q ¼ 2pd ;
I
pt V
q¼ ð1:17Þ
ln 2 I
I
J¼ ð1:18Þ
2prt
dV qI
E¼ ¼ ð1:19Þ
dr 2prt
ZV Zr1
qI dr
dV ¼ ð1:20Þ
2pt r
0 0
qI
V ¼ lnjr j ð1:21Þ
2pt
Iq Iq
¼ V2 V3 ¼ ðln d2 ln d1 Þ ðln d4 ln d3 Þ ð1:22Þ
2pt 2pt
Iq
¼ ðln d2 ln d1 ln d4 ln d3 Þ ð1:23Þ
2pt
Iq d2 d3
¼ ln ð1:24Þ
2pt d1 d4
2ptV
q¼
I lnð4Þ
pt V
q¼ ;
ln 2 I
3:415926 t V V
q¼ ¼ 4:5323 t
0:69315 I I
50 1 Basic Concepts
q V
Rsheet ¼ ¼ 4:5323 ð1:27Þ
t I
Problem 1.3.15 Porosity is defined as a fraction of the volume of voids over the
total volume of a solid material. In other words, porosity is the percentage of solid
that is void of material and thus can be filled with gas or fluid. The larger the pore
space, the higher the porosity. Therefore, its numerical value is between 0 and 1.
A sintered porous titanium material (with average pore size of 100 lm) is
evaluated as a part of its biomedical applicability tests by performing conductivity
analysis. Bulk conductivity of titanium is 2.34 MS/m, and the following empirical
equations can be tested.
What is the void volume and resistance of a bar made out of this material with
L = 50 cm, cross-sectional area A = 0.5 cm2 and porosity factor p = 0.40?
(porosity_conductance.m)
r1 ¼ r0 ð1 pÞ3:26 ð1:28Þ
p 9:2
r2 ¼ r0 1 ð1:29Þ
2:31
1p
r3 ¼ r0 ð1:30Þ
1 þ 7:15p
p
1
r4 ¼ r0 2:31 ð1:31Þ
1 þ 7:15p
Vv
p¼ ! Vv ¼ pV ¼ pðALÞ ¼ 0:4 0:5 104 m2 0:5 m ¼ 105 m3
V
r0 ¼ 2:34 106 S/m;
1
q0 ¼ ¼ 4:2735 107 Xm
r0
Conductivity ratios as functions of porosity factor for all four methods are
plotted on the same graph in Fig. 1.37.
1.3 Resistivity and Resistance, Voltage … 51
0.35
s1
0.3 s2
conductivity ratio= s/s0 s3
0.25 s4
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7
porosity factor
Fig. 1.37 Conductivity ratio versus porosity due to (s1) Sevostianov I. et al.; (s2) D. Zhou, et al.;
(s3) Mori, T., Tanaka, K.; (s4) Zhu, et al.
1
q1 ¼ ¼ 2:26 106 Xm;
r1
1
q2 ¼ ¼ 2:75 106 Xm;
r2
1
q3 ¼ ¼ 2:46 106 Xm
r3
1
q4 ¼ ¼ 2:00 106 Xm
r4
q1 q2 q3 q4
¼ 5:287; ¼ 6:433; ¼ 5:751; ¼ 4:669
q0 q0 q0 q0
All models predict different conductivity values for a given porosity factor
(p = 0.4).
These are approximately 19, 15.5, 17.4, and 21.4% of bulk conductivity of
titanium, respectively. On the other hand, computed resistivities for these models at
p = 0.4 level are 5.287, 6.433, 5.751, and 4.669 times the bulk resistivity of tita-
nium, respectively.
Resistance of the bulk titanium rod having specified dimensions will be
L 0:5
R0 ¼ q0 ¼ 4:2735 107 ¼ 4:3 mX
A 0:5 104
Based upon these models, resistance value of the given porous Ti specimen can
be predicted as
L 0:5
R1 ¼ q1 ¼ 2:26 106 ¼ 22:6 mX
A 0:5 104
L 0:5
R2 ¼ q2 ¼ 2:75 106 ¼ 27:5 mX
A 0:5 104
L 0:5
R3 ¼ q3 ¼ 2:46 106 ¼ 24:6 mX
A 0:5 104
L 0:5
R4 ¼ q4 ¼ 2:00 106 ¼ 20:0 mX
A 0:5 104
Problem 1.3.16 Human body can be considered as a mixture of cells and extra-
cellular fluid (Fig. 1.38). Under DC conditions (for zero frequency), electrical
current cannot enter the cells and it flows in the extracellular fluid (ECF) with
resistivity of qECF .
If the cells take up the part c (percent volume) of total body, then the overall
body resistivity is [12]:
qECF
q= ð1:32Þ
ð1 cÞ3=2
KqH 2
R¼ ð1:33Þ
V
H2 W
V ECF ¼ kECF ð1:34Þ
RE
where,
1=3
K 2 q2ECF
kECF ¼ ð1:35Þ
d
where K is the body geometry factor (De Lorenzo factor [13]), H is the body height,
W is Body mass in kg, d is body density, V is the body volume, in m3.
(a) What does the term (1 − c) indicate in terms of VECF and V?
(b) Check for the unit dimension of kECF and then prove that VECF is indeed cm3 , if
CGS units are used in calculations.
(c) Derive Eq. (1.3).
(d) Let c = 0.7, c = 0.5 and c = 0.3. Calculate tissue resistivity for each case, if
qECF ¼ 100 Xm. What can be concluded about the tissue resistivity for a
mixture of fluid and cells?
(e) Let qECF ¼ 40:5ðX cmÞ; K ¼ 4:3; d ¼ 1:05 g cm3 ; RE ¼ 800 X; H ¼ 1:7 m;
W = 60 kg. Determine the volume of extracellular fluid for this person using
CGS units.
(f) Determine the percentage of extracellular fluid and total body resistivity in
part (e).
(g) Determine percent change of VECF if extracellular fluid resistivity value devi-
ates 3%.
54 1 Basic Concepts
Solution
(a) If c is the percentage of cells, then (1 − c) indicates the percentage of extra-
cellular fluid,
VECF
1c¼ ð1:36Þ
V
2 31=3
2
1 ðX cmÞ 5 ¼ X cm
2=3 5=3
(b) kECF ¼4
g g1=3
cm3
X2=3 cm5=3 cm4=3 g1=3
VECF ¼ ¼ cm3
g1=3 X2=3
(c) Substituting (1.36) into (1.32),
qECF qECF V 3=2
q¼ ¼
¼ qECF ð1:37Þ
ð1 cÞ3=2 VECF 3=2
V
VECF
or,
pffiffiffiffi
3=2 V
VECF ¼ K qECF H2 ð1:39Þ
RE
This is the same Eq. (1.3), with the coefficient kECF given by (1.35).
1.3 Resistivity and Resistance, Voltage … 55
2 pffiffiffiffiffi23
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi2
H W 1702 60; 000 3
VECF ¼ kECF ¼ 30:682
RE 800
23
28; 900 244:95
¼ 30:682
800
2
VECF ¼ 30:682 ð8848:78Þ3 ¼ ð30:682Þ ð429:11Þ
¼ 13166:03 cm3 ¼ 13:166 l
VECF
1c¼ ð1:42Þ
V
VECF ¼ 13:166 l
W 60;000
V¼ ¼ ¼ 57142:86 cm3
d 1:05
13:166
1c¼ ¼ 0:2304
57:143
If the cells take up 23% (volume) of total body, then the overall body resistivity
is given by (1),
2=3
(g) Since VECF is proportional to qECF , ð1:03Þ2=3 ¼ 1:02; DECV ; ð0:97Þ2=3 ¼ 0:98
In other words, 3% increase/decrease of extracellular resistivity causes 2%
increase/decrease in the value of extracellular volume.
Solution
(a) The current supplied by the voltage source is Req ¼ 1 þ 2 k ð1 þ 1Þ ¼
1þ1 ¼ 2X
2V
I¼ ¼ 1A
2X
By current division, 0.5 A flows through series (1Ω, 1Ω) resistors branch.
Then,
1 1
Vx ¼ A 1X ¼ V
2 2
I ¼ 1A
P ¼ I V ¼ 1 2 ¼ 2W
2000 2
(c) Vm3 ¼ Vi ¼ Vi ¼ 0:95 mV
2000 þ 100 2:1
It is noted that higher the input impedance, higher the voltage available at the
input of monitoring equipment.
Problem 1.3.20 When Vx ¼ 3 V; what is the ratio of R1 to R2, in the circuit of
Fig. 1.42?
Solution
By voltage division,
R2 Vx R2 R1 V1 12
Vx ¼ V1 ! ¼ ! ¼ 1¼ 1¼3
R1 þ R2 V1 R1 þ R2 R2 Vx 3
Problem 1.3.21 Find the values of Vb, I1, I2, I3 in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.43.
R1 = 68 kΩ, R2 = 22 kΩ, R3 = 33 kΩ, R4 = 15 kΩ, Vdc = 12 V.
Solution
R1 :R3 68 kX 33 kX
Rp1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 22:22 kX;
R1 þ R3 68 kX þ 33 kX
R2 :R4 22 kX 15 kX
Rp2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 8:92 kX;
R2 þ R4 22 kX þ 15 kX
Vdc 12
I¼ ¼ ¼ 0:385 mA;
Rp1 þ Rp2 22:22 kX þ 8:92 kX
Vxa ¼ Rp1 :I ¼ ð22:22 kXÞð0:385 mAÞ ¼ 8:563 V
Va ¼ Vb ¼ Rp2 :I ¼ ð8:92 kXÞð0:385 mAÞ ¼ 3:434 V
Vxa 8:563 V
I1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:126 mA
R1 68 kX
Va 3:434 V
I2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:156 mA
R2 22 kX
I3 ¼ I1 I2 ¼ 0:126 0:156 ¼ 0:03 mA
As a proof of this,
Vxa 8:563 V
I R3 ¼ ¼ ¼ I I1 ¼ 0:385 mA 0:126 mA ¼ 0:259 mA
R3 33 kX
Vb 3:434 V
I R4 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:229 mA
R4 15 kX
I3 ¼ IR3 IR4 ¼ 0:259 0:229 ¼ 0:03 mA
This is also a proof of the sign of the current I3, entering into the node a, leaving
the node b.
Problem 1.3.22 Other than common mode rejection, describe the advantage of
using a full bridge circuit as compared to a voltage divider circuit for the mea-
surement of nonelectrical quantities (strain, pressure, temperature…).
60 1 Basic Concepts
Solution
Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.44. The right side of the bridge is a voltage
divider with
R1
V0 þ ¼ U
R1 þ Rs
R1 U
V0 ¼ U¼
R1 þ R1 2
R1 1
V0 ¼ V0 þ ¼ V0 ¼ U
R1 þ Rs 2
Assuming that Rs ¼ R1 at rest, the last equation shows that the offset is reduced
(eliminated) by the addition of a voltage divider and measuring the output
differentially.
Problem 1.3.23
(a) Balanced output of a Wheatstone bridge becomes unbalanced by a slight
variation in the resistance value of one of its arms. Determine the voltage
variation in terms of resistance variation, another bridge arm resistance and
power supply voltage. Assume that arm resistance change is much smaller than
the resistance of the arm and there is no load resistance at the output terminals.
(b) Let Vi = 12 V, R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = 100 Ω at 0 °C. A Pt100 temperature
sensor element with a = 0.0039/K, and RT = Ro(1 + aT) first-order charac-
teristic equation is used in place of R2. Find the voltage change at the output of
1.3 Resistivity and Resistance, Voltage … 61
Solution
(a) Balanced bridge:
VB ¼ VD ; Vo ¼ 0
I1 R1 ¼ I2 R3 ð1:43Þ
I1 R2 ¼ I2 R4 ð1:44Þ
R1 R3
¼
R2 R4
R2 R4
Vo ¼ VBC VDC ¼ Vi
R1 þ R2 R3 þ R4
Unbalanced bridge:
R2 ! R2 þ DR2 ; Vo ! Vo þ DVo
R2 þ DR2 R4
Vo þ DVo ¼ Vi
R1 þ R2 þ DR2 R3 þ R4
R2 DR2 R2
DVo ¼ Vi þ
R1 þ R2 R1 þ R2 R1 þ R2
DR2
DVo ¼ Vi
R1 þ R2
The change in the output voltage drop is directly proportional to change in the
resistance of the sensor.
(b) DR ¼ RT Ro ¼ Ro ð1 þ a T 1Þ
¼ Ro a T ¼ 100 0:0039 1 ¼ 0:39 X=K
Since this resistance change is much smaller than the resistance itself,
DR2 0:39
DVo ¼ Vi ¼ 12 ¼ 24 mV/ C
R1 þ R2 100 þ 100
DVo ¼ 20 24 ¼ 480 mV
Problem 1.3.24
(a) Describe briefly the operating principle of a Coulter (blood cells) counter.
(b) In the bridge circuit shown in Fig. 1.46, R1 = R3 = R4 = R. A cell counter
orifice resting resistance is R2 = R ohms. An erythrocyte increases its resistance
by DR.
Determine the output voltage of the circuit each time an erythrocyte passes
through the orifice.
(c) Calculate Vab if R ¼ 500 X, DR ¼ 20 X, U ¼ 15 V:
Solution
(a) In a Coulter counter (blood cell counting) aperture technology instrument, a
tube with a small aperture on its wall is immersed into a beaker that contains
particles suspended in a low concentration electrolyte. One electrode is placed
inside the aperture tube and another electrode is dipped inside the beaker, and a
current path is provided by the electrolyte when a potential difference is applied
between the electrodes.
As a particle passes through the aperture, a volume of electrolyte equivalent to
the volume of the particle is displaced from the sensing zone, causing a swift
variation in the impedance between the electrodes. The pulse height is proportional
to the volume of the particle. It is also proportional to the particle mass. The
measured particle volume (or size) can be used to obtain particle size distribution.
A typical measurement takes less than a minute [14], as counting and sizing rates
of up to 10,000 particles per second are possible. Aperture size typically ranges
from 20 to 2000 µm.
R Rx 1 R þ DR
ðbÞ Vab ¼ U ¼U ð1:45Þ
R þ R R þ Rx 2 R þ R þ DR
2R þ DR 2R 2DR DR
¼U ¼U
2ð2R þ DRÞ 4R þ 2DR
Since DR R, Eq. (1.45) can be simplified,
DR DR
Vab ffi U ! Vba ¼ U ð1:46Þ
4R 4R
20 300
Vba ¼ 15 ¼ ¼ 0:15 ¼ 150 mV
4 500 2000
Problem 1.3.25
(a) Determine Vab, the Wheatstone bridge output voltage in the circuit shown in
Fig. 1.46.
(b) If R4 is a thermistor, state the maximum sensitivity condition with respect to the
thermistor resistance.
64 1 Basic Concepts
(c) If R4 is a thermistor with b = 4000 K and R25 = 100 Ω, calculate its value at
T = 40 o C.
(d) Calculate Vab at 40 °C with U = 10 V, R1 = R2 = R3 = 100 Ω.
(e) Compute the numerical sensitivity value, S ¼ DVab =DT.
(f) Compute temperature versus thermistor resistance, as well as temperature
versus Vab voltage for 35 o C T 45 C ; show these results in a single table
and plot the graph of temperature versus Vab voltage, also demonstrating its
linearity. Print the MATLAB script used in these computations (wheat-
stone_thermistor1.m).
Solution
(a) By voltage division rule application to full bridge circuit,
R1 R2
Vab ¼ U
R1 þ R4 R2 þ R3
dVab d R1 1 ðR1 þ R4 Þ R1 ð1Þ R4
(b) ¼U ¼U ¼U ;
dR1 dR1 R1 þ R 4 ð R1 þ R4 Þ 2
ð R1 þ R 4 Þ 2
!
d dVab d R4 R4 ðR1 þ R4 Þ2 2R4 ðR1 þ R4 Þ
¼ U 2
¼U ¼0
dR4 dR1 dR4 ð R1 þ R4 Þ ð R1 þ R4 Þ 4
or,
dVab
Therefore; is maximum when R1 ¼ R4 :
dR1
This is also seen in the following graph of d (Vab)/dR1 versus R4. Maximum
occurs at the value of R4 = R1 = 100 X (Figs. 1.47, 1.48 and 1.49).
b T T
1 1
-3
x 10
2.5
2
dVab/dR1, V/ohm
1.5
0.5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
R4, ohm
65
60
Thermistor Resistance,Ohm
55
50
45
40
35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Temperature, C
2.4
Vab
line
2.2
2
Output Voltage, V
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Temperature, C
2 3
DV RA þ RC
1
RB RC 6 U RC 7
RD ¼ 6
4
7; DV ¼ VA VB
RA DV RA þ RC 5
1þ
U RA
Solution
(a) Voltage difference between A and B nodes:
RC RD RC RD
DV ¼ VA VB ¼ U U¼U ð1:47Þ
RA þ RC RB þ RD RA þ RC RB þ RD
DV RC RD RD RC DV
¼ ! ¼ ð1:48Þ
U RA þ RC RB þ RD RB þ RD RA þ RC U
RC DV
RD ¼ ðRB þ RD Þ ðRB þ RD Þ
RA þ RC U
RB RC RC RD DV DV
¼ þ RB RD ð1:49Þ
RA þ RC RA þ RC U U
RC DV DV RB RC
RD ¼ RD RB þ ð1:50Þ
RA þ RC U U RA þ RC
RC DV RC DV
RD RD ¼ RD 1
RA þ RC U RA þ RC U
DV RB RC
¼ RB þ ð1:51Þ
U RA þ RC
DV RB RC RB RC DV RA þ RC
RB þ þ1
U RA þ RC RA þ
RC U RC
RD ¼
¼ ð1:52Þ
RC DV RC DV
1 1
RA þ RC U RA þ RC U
DV RA þ RC DV RA þ RC
RB RC 1 RB RC 1
U RC U RC
¼ ¼ ð1:53Þ
DV DV
RA þ RC RC þ ðRA þ RC Þ RA þ ðRA þ RC Þ
U U
DV RA þ RC
1
RB RC U RC
RD ¼
ð1:54Þ
RA DV RA þ RC
1þ
U RA
(c) If all other resistor values are known, (except floating unknown resistor value, RB ),
DV RA þ RC
1þ
RA RD U RC
RB ¼ ð1:56Þ
RC DV RA þ RC
1
U RC
Note to the sign changes in numerator and denominator of Eqs. (1.54) and (1.56).
Problem 1.3.27 Show that the output of a Wheatstone Bridge for a single resistive
RTD sensor of the form Rð xÞ ¼ RN ð1 þ axÞ is nonlinear function of the measurand x,
where RN is the nominal resistance of the sensor and a is a material constant, (a < 1).
1.3 Resistivity and Resistance, Voltage … 69
Solution
Let the upper two arms of a Wheatstone bridge have resistor values of RM while the
lower two arms have the resistance values of RN at nominal measurand value of x
(temperature, displacement, pressure, etc.). If the resistance sensor is described as
RS ¼ RN ð1 þ axÞ; (Fig. 1.51)
RN RS RN RN ð1 þ axÞ RM
Vab ¼ U ¼U ; let k ¼
RN þ RM RS þ RM RN þ RM RN ð1 þ axÞ þ RM RN
1 1ð1 þ axÞ 1 þ ax þ k ð1 þ axÞð1 þ kÞ
Vab ¼ U ¼U
1 þ k ð1 þ axÞ þ k ð1 þ kÞ½ð1 þ axÞ þ k
ð1 þ axÞ½1 ð1 þ kÞ þ k ð1 þ axÞðk Þ þ k akx
¼U ¼U ¼U
ð1 þ kÞ½1 þ ax þ k ð1 þ kÞ½1 þ ax þ k ð1 þ kÞð1 þ ax þ kÞ
akx akx
Vba ¼ U ¼U ax
ð1 þ kÞð1 þ ax þ kÞ ð1 þ kÞð1 þ kÞð1 þ Þ
1þk
2 3
" #
k 6 ax 7
Vba ¼ U 2
4 ax 5
ð1 þ kÞ 1þ
1þk
Solution
Assume that R4 represents RTD in Fig. 1.52,
R1 R4 ¼ R2 R3 ;
Let R1 ¼ R3 ,
R R4 ¼ R2 R ! R4 ¼ R2
1
Standard linear resistance range for spindle operated potentiometers is 100–2.2 MΩ, with
resistance values 1, 2.2, 4.7 in each decade; See, for example, Tyco electronics, variable resistors
literature No: 1773442-9, 2006.
1.3 Resistivity and Resistance, Voltage … 71
Solution
(a) In balanced case,
R2 R3 100 R2
R1 R4 ¼ R2 R3 ! R4 ¼ ¼ ¼ R2 ¼ 120 X ! R2 ¼ 120 X
R1 100
120
This is ¼ 0:545 ! 54:5%
220
100 100
R4 ¼ R2 ¼ 100 X ! R2 ¼ 100 X: This is ¼ 0:455 ! 45:5%
100 220
Dl1 Dl2
k¼ ¼
l1 l2
DR
R DR l
G ¼ G1 ¼ G2 ¼ 0 ¼
Dl Dl R0
l
72 1 Basic Concepts
Solution
(a) Using the definition of gauge factor,
DR
R DR l
G¼ 0 ¼
Dl Dl R0
l
Change in SG resistance,
Dl
DR ¼ R0 G ¼ R0 Gk
l
1.3 Resistivity and Resistance, Voltage … 73
SG resistances,
R1 ¼ R0 þ DR ¼ R0 þ R0 Gk ¼ R0 ð1 þ GkÞ
R2 ¼ R0 DR ¼ R0 R0 Gk ¼ R0 ð1 GkÞ
Bridge voltage,
R1 R2 R1 R2
Vm ¼ VX VY ¼ Vi Vi ¼ Vi
R0 þ R1 R0 þ R2 R0 þ R1 R0 þ R2
R0 ð1 þ GkÞ R0 ð1 GkÞ 1 þ Gk 1 Gk
Vm ¼ Vi ¼ Vi
R0 ð1 þ Gk Þ þ R0 R0 ð1 Gk Þ þ R0 2 þ Gk 2 Gk
ð2 Gk Þð1 þ Gk Þ ð2 þ Gk Þð1 Gk Þ
Vm ¼ Vi
ð2 þ Gk Þð2 Gk Þ
" #
2 þ 2Gk Gk ðGk Þ2 ð2 2Gk þ Gk ðGk Þ2
¼ Vi
ð2 þ Gk Þð2 Gk Þ
!
2Gk
Vm ¼ Vi ð1:57Þ
4 ðGkÞ2
!
2 2 0:25 10
Vm ¼ Vi ¼ ¼ 2:667 V
4 ð2 0:25Þ2 4 ð0:5Þ2
Problem 1.3.31
(a) Four sensors each with resting resistance R are placed in a Wheatstone bride
circuit so that two of them increase their resistance while the others decrease
their resistance by the same amount (¼ DRÞ, see, Fig. 1.56. Determine the
output voltage to supply voltage ratio in terms of sensor (resting) resistance
R and DR:
(b) Give a practical example of this type of sensor circuit application topology in
the area of measuring magnetic fields employing magnetoresistivity. Indicate
referenced literature.
Solution
R DR R þ DR
(a) Vab ¼ U
R DR þ R þ DR R þ DR þ R DR
Vab R DR R þ DR R R 2DR 2DR DR
¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
U 2R 2R 2R 2R R
74 1 Basic Concepts
(b) A current carrying magnetic material changes its resistivity in the presence of
an external magnetic field. Various types of magnetoresistive sensors are
reported in the literature. Anisotropic (AMR), spin valve (SV), semiconductor
(InSb), multilayer giant (GMR), colossal (CMR) sensors are different types of
magnetoresistive sensor structures. Among these, semiconductor types have
strong temperature dependance and high nonlinearity.
Permalloy ð19% Fe; 81% NiÞ is a ferromagnetic material which shows relatively
strong magnetoresistive effect [15].
The thin permalloy film strip resistance R depends on the angle a (the angle
between the direction of current and the magnetic field which is parallel to the
strip plane and perpendicular to the preferred direction), (Fig. 1.57)
"
2 #
Hy
R ¼ R0 þ DR cos2 ðaÞ ¼ R0 þ DR 1
Ho
Ho ¼ constant for material
a ¼ 0 ; Rmax ¼ R
a ¼ 90 ; Rmin ¼ R
DR
ffi 0:03 for permalloy
R
Problem 1.3.32
(a) Four sensors each with resting resistance R = 2 kX are placed in a Wheatstone
bride circuit so that two of them increase their resistance while the others
decrease their resistance by the same amount (¼ DR = 80 XÞ, see, Fig. 1.56.
Calculate the output voltage if supply voltage is U = 5 V.
(b) Give a practical example of this type of sensor circuit application topology in
the area of measuring respiratory pressure by employing piezoresistive effect.
Compare them with strain gauges. Indicate the referenced literature.
Solution
R DR R þ DR
(a) Vab ¼ U ¼ DR
R U ¼ 2000 5 ¼ 200 mV
80
R DR þ R þ DR R þ DR þ R DR
(b) Pressure Sensors based on piezoresistivity:
Pressure sensors convert the physical quantity “pressure” into an electrical
signal. Measuring cell consists of a chip with an etched silicon diaphragm in which
resistance paths are formed and a carrier chip is also formed on silicon base. The
deflection of the diaphragm leads to changes in the implanted resistances when
pressure is applied, The thickness of the diaphragm, its surface area and the geo-
metric design of the resistors determine the permissible pressure range.
The Piezoresistive Effect
Metallic strain gauges change their resistance due to changes in their geometry.
On the other hand, in piezoresistivity, the primary effect is the change in conduc-
tivity, q, dependent on the mechanical stresses within the crystal [17, 18]. This
dependence is defined by the proportionality constant,
dq
¼pr
q
76 1 Basic Concepts
dR dL
¼K
R L
DR
Vout ¼ Vin ¼ Vin K eð pÞ
R
Here, eðpÞ is the mechanical deflection due to pressure that is linear for small
diaphragm deflections [18].
Problem 1.3.33 If a Wheatstone bridge with R2 = R3 = R + DR, and
R1 = R4 = R is driven by a constant current source, I(A), (see, Fig. 1.59) determine
the expression for the output voltage, Vab.
What is the advantage of using such a circuit?
1.3 Resistivity and Resistance, Voltage … 77
Solution
Since the resistances of both arms are equal, current I divides into two equal halves,
I I I I
Vab ¼ Va Vb ¼ ðR þ DRÞ R ¼ ðR R þ DRÞ ¼ DR
2 2 2 2
R R 2R R 5
Rabce ¼ Rdfgh ¼ ; Rbcedfg ¼ ; Rah ¼ 2Rabce þ Rbcedfg ¼ þ ¼ R
3 6 3 6 6
For R ¼ 5 kX;
5
Rah ¼ 6 ¼ 5 kX
6
78 1 Basic Concepts
R Rin
Rin ¼ R þ R k Rin ¼ R þ
R þ Rin
R Rin þ R2in ¼ R þ R Rin
R2in R Rin R2 ¼ 0
x2 Rx R2 ¼ 0
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi!
R ðRÞ2 4ðR2 Þ R 5R2 1 5
Rin ¼
¼
¼R
2 2 2 2 2 2
pffiffiffi!
1
5
Rin ¼ R ; only Rin [ 0 is meaningful;
2
Rin ¼ 1:618 R
Solution
(a) Assume that equivalent resistance is known. Add one more section in front of
Req (as in Fig. 1.62b) and calculate the final Req:
R1 R2
Req ¼ R1 þ R1 þ R2 k Req ¼ 2R1 þ
R1 þ R2
Req R2 þ R2eq ¼ 2R1 R2 þ 2R1 Req þ R2 Req
simplify,
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1
Req ¼ R1 4R21 þ 8R1 R2 ¼ R1 R21 þ 2R1 R2
2 ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
p
Req ¼ R1 R1 ðR1 þ 2R2 Þ
Problem 1.3.37 Compute the equivalent resistance (input resistance) of the infinite
ladder circuit of the form in Fig. 1.63, and then find the value of R if the equivalent
circuit resistance is 50 Ω.
Solution
Let the input resistance be Z′. Adding one more section in front of it does not
change the equivalent resistance of the overall circuit,
Z ¼ Z 0 then;
ZR
Z ¼ 2R þ Z k R ¼ 2R þ
Z þR
ZR þ Z 2 ¼ 2R2 þ 2ZR þ 2Z ! Z 2 2ZR 2R2 ¼ 0
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffi
2R ð2RÞ2 4ð2R2 Þ 12 12
Z1;2 ¼
¼R
R ¼ R 1þ
2 2 2 2
Problem 1.3.38
(a) Compute the input resistance (equivalent resistance) of a ladder circuit which
consists of m = 5 “L” sections, as shown in Fig. 1.61.
(b) If R = 100 Ω, Rab = ? (Rab = Req).
(c) Plot m versus R(m), then find R(∞) = ?
Solution
R ð2RÞ 2R
Req ð2Þ ¼ R þ R k Req ð1Þ ¼ R þ R k 2R ¼ R þ ¼ Rþ
3R 3
2 5
¼ R 1þ ¼ R ð1:59Þ
3 3
5R
5R R 2
Req ð3Þ ¼ R þ R k Req ð2Þ ¼ R þ R k ¼ Rþ 3 ¼ R þ 5R
3 5R 8R
Rþ
3
5 13
¼ R 1þ ¼ R ð1:60Þ
8 8
82 1 Basic Concepts
13R
R 13R2 13 34
Req ð4Þ ¼ R þ R k Req ð3Þ ¼ R þ 8 ¼ Rþ ¼ 1þ R¼ R
13R 21R 21 21
Rþ
8
ð1:61Þ
34R
R 2
Req ð5Þ ¼ R þ R k Req ð4Þ ¼ R þ 21 ¼ R þ 34R ¼ 1 þ 34 R ¼ 89 R
34R 55R 55 55
Rþ
21
ð1:62Þ
89
(b) Rab ð5Þ ¼ Req ¼ :100 X ¼ 1618 X
55
(c) Recursive formulation: (Table 1.2)
The resulting RðmÞ values for m 6 are given in Table 1.3 as obtained using
EXCEL or MATLAB.
1.3 Resistivity and Resistance, Voltage … 83
1.95
Equivalent Resistance (ohms)
1.9
1.85
1.8
1.75
1.7
1.65
1.6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
m=Number of L-sections
Fig. 1.64 The graph of input resistance (equivalent resistance) of a ladder circuit as a function of
“L” sections
Note that For m 8 one may approximate R(∞) = 1.618034. A plot of first
m = 10 values versus R(m) is shown in Fig. 1.64.
References
12. Hanai T (1968) Electrical properties of emulsions. Chapter 5 of: Sherman (Ed.), Emulsion
Science, Academic Press
13. Lorenzo AD, Andreoli A, Matthie J, Withers P (1997) Predicting body cell mass with
bioimpedance by using theoretical methods: a technological review. J Appl Phys 82:
1542–1558
14. www.beckmancoulter.com, Accessed 09 Dec 2016
15. Tumanski S (2001) Thin film magnetoresistive sensors. Institute of Physics Publishing, ISBN
0750307021
16. Stork T (2000) Application note, AN00022 Philips Semiconductor
17. Doll JC, Pruitt BL (2013) Piezoresistor design and applications. Springer Science & Business
Media
18. Siemens Datenbuch (1995) Silizium-Temperatur-und Drucksensoren
Chapter 2
Analysis Methods
Problem 2.1.1 Two current sources with equal internal resistances feed a load as
shown in Fig. 2.1.
Solution
(a) Parallel-connected current sources, KCL applies, 200 Akð100 AÞ ! 100 A
By current division,
200k200 100
IRL ¼ 100 ¼ 100 ¼ 50 A:
100 þ 200k200 100 þ 100
Vx ¼ 100 X 50 A ¼ 5000 V:
Problem 2.1.2 Find the values of currents and voltages in the circuit shown in
Fig. 2.2, for R = 2 X.
Solution
By Kirchhoff’s current law, 2i0 þ 5 i0 ¼ 0 ! i0 ¼ 5 A
vx ¼ i0 R ¼ 5 2 ¼ 10 V:
Problem 2.1.3
(a) Find the value of V0 in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.3.
(b) If the gain constant of dependent source is k, what are the limiting values of k, if
I0 has always a positive value? Resistor value is 4 X.
Solution
(a) KCL: 3 þ 0:2I0 I0 ¼ 0 ! I0 ¼ 3:75 A
V0 ¼ 4I0 ¼ 4 3:75 ¼ 15 V
Problem 2.1.4 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.4, the coefficient of current-controlled
current source is 2 A/A. If the node voltage is 1 V, find the value of the voltage
source, the current through R1 = 1 X, and current through R2 = 2 X.
2.1 Nodal Analysis 87
Solution
Applying KCL at the node, and using given component values,
Vin Vx Vx
þ ki ¼0
R1 R2
Vx 1
Vin Vx þ 2ðVin Vx Þ ¼ 0 ! Vin 1 þ 2ðVin 1Þ ¼ 0
2 2
Vin ¼ 1:167 V
Vx 1
i2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 A
2 2
Vin Vx
i¼ ¼ Vin Vx ¼ 1:167 0:5 ¼ 0:667 A
1
Problem 2.1.5 Determine the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.5. Use
Cramer’s rule, if necessary.
(a) For I1 ¼ 1 A; I2 ¼ 2 A; R1 ¼ 1=2 X; R2 ¼ 1=8 X; R3 ¼ 1=4 X
(b) For I1 ¼ 2 A; I2 ¼ 4 A; R1 ¼ 5 X; R2 ¼ 2 X; R3 ¼ 10 X:
Solution
(a) For I1 ¼ 1 A; I2 ¼ 2 A; R1 ¼ 1=2 X; R2 ¼ 1=8 X; R3 ¼ 1=4 X
Node equations are
1 2V1 4ðV1 V2 Þ ¼ 0
2 8V2 þ 4ðV1 V2 Þ ¼ 0
or
6V1 4V2 ¼ 1
:
4V1 þ 12V2 ¼ 2
In matrix form,
6 4 V1 1
¼ :
4 12 V2 2
D ¼ 72 16 ¼ 56; D1 ¼ 12 þ 8 ¼ 20; D2 ¼ 12 þ 4 ¼ 16
D1 5 D2 4 :
V1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:357 V; V2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:286 V
D 14 D 14
(b) For I1 ¼ 2 A; I2 ¼ 4 A; R1 ¼ 5 X; R2 ¼ 2 X; R3 ¼ 10 X:
Nodal equations in matrix form can be formed using “analysis by inspection”;
2 3 2 3
1 1 1 3 1
7 V 2
6 5þ7
10 7 V1 2 6 10 10
1 5 V2 ¼ 4 ! 6 5 V2 ¼ 4 :
1
4 1 1 4 1
þ
10 10 2 10 10
3 6 1 18 1 17
D¼ ¼ ¼ ;
10 10 100 100 100 100
6 1 12 4 16
D1 ¼ 2 þ4 ¼ þ ¼
10 10 10 10 10
3 1 12 2 14
D2 ¼ 4þ 2¼ þ ¼
10 10 10 10 10
16 14
D1 160 D 10 140
¼ 10 ¼
2
V1 ¼ ¼ 9:411 V; V2 ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 8:235 V:
D 17 17 D 17 17
100 100
Problem 2.1.6 Determine the value of current I in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.6.
Use Cramer’s rule, when necessary R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R3 ¼ R4 ¼ 1=2 X; R5 ¼
1=4 X; I1 ¼ 1 A; I2 ¼ 2 A.
Solution
Nodal matrix equation of the circuit is obtained by applying “analysis by inspec-
tion” method,
G1 þ G2 þ G3 G3 V1 I1 2þ2þ2 2 V1 1
¼ ! ¼
G3 G3 þ G4 þ G5 V2 I2 2 2þ2þ4 V2 2
6 2 V1 1
¼ :
2 8 V2 2
Solution
V1 ¼ 3:8095 V; V2 ¼ 1:5476 V:
Problem 2.1.8 What is the voltage across resistor R3 (in mV)? Use analysis by
inspection and Cramer’s rule if necessary (i1 = i2 = i3 = 1 A, R1 = R3 = R5 = 1 Ω,
R2 = ½ Ω, R4 = R6 = 1/6 Ω). Check the result using SPICE (Nodal 2.cir) (Fig. 2.8).
Solution
½G½V ¼ ½I ;
2 32 3 2 3 2 3
G1 þ G2 þ G6 G2 G6 V1 1þ1 2
6 76 7 6 7 6 7
4 G2 G2 þ G3 þ G4 G4 54 V 2 5 ¼ 4 0 5 ¼ 4 0 5
G6 G4 G4 þ G5 þ G6 V3 11 0
2 32 3 2 3 2 32 3 2 3
1þ2þ6 2 6 V1 2 9 2 6 V1 2
6 76 7 6 7 6 76 7 6 7
4 2 2 þ 1 þ 6 6 ¼
54 2 5 4 5
V 0 ! 4 2 9 6 ¼
54 2 5 4 0 5
V
6 6 6þ1þ6 V3 0 6 6 13 V3 0
:
D ¼ 1053 þ ð72Þ þ ð72Þ ½324 þ 324 þ 52 ¼ 906 700 ¼ 209
9 2 6
D2 ¼ 2 0 6 ¼ ð2Þð6Þð6Þ ½ð13Þð2Þð2Þ ¼ 72 ð52Þ ¼ 124
6 0 13
D2 124
V2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:593 V ¼ 593 mV
D 209
SPICE file:
*Operating point anaysis Nodal 2.cir
I1 0 1 1
I2 3 1 1
I3 0 3 1
R1 1 0 1
R2 1 2 0.5
R3 2 0 1
R4 2 3 0.1667
R5 3 0 1
R6 1 3 0.1667
Problem 2.1.9 Use node voltage method to find the values for the voltage at node C
(=Vc) and the current through the resistor R6 (=i). (R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 Ω,
R4 = R5 = R6 = 4 Ω, iS = 2 A) (Sim_Lin_Eq_Solve.m, matrix_solve.xlsx)
(Fig. 2.9).
2.1 Nodal Analysis 91
Solution
2 32 3 2 3
G1 þ G4 G4 0 VA 15
4 G4 G2 þ G4 þ G5 G5 54 VB 5 ¼ 4 0 5
0 G5 G3 þ G5 þ G6 VC 0
2 1 1 3
1þ 0 2 3 2 3
6 4 4 7 VA 2
6 7
6 1 1 1
1þ þ
1 7 4 V 5 ¼ 4 05
6 7 B
4 4 4 4 4 5 VC 0
1 1 1
0 1þ þ
4 4 4
2 32 3 2 3
1:25 0:25 0 VA 2
4 0:25 1:50 0:25 54 VB 5 ¼ 4 0 5:
0 0:25 1:50 VC 0
VC 0:04734
i¼ ¼ ¼ 0:011834 A:
R6 4
Problem 2.1.10
(a) In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.10, find the voltage gain, i.e., V2/V1 = ?
(b) If R1 = 2.5 kX, Ro = 10 kX, RL = 10 kX, k = 50, find the numerical value of
(V2/V1). Check the result using SPICE (cccs8.cir).
Solution
V1 V1
(a) I1 ¼ ; V2 ¼ k I1 ðRo ==RL Þ ¼ k ðRo ==RL Þ
R1 R1
V2 Ro ==RL Ro ==RL
¼ k ¼k R1
V1 RL Ro þ RL
V2 10==10 5
ðbÞ ¼ 50 ¼ 50 ¼ 100 V=V
V1 2:5 2:5
SPICE netlist (cccr8.cir);
Solution
V1 V1 V2
iS ¼0
R2 R3
V1 V2 V2 2ðV1 V2 Þ
þ ¼ 0:
R1 R3 R1
1 2V1 þ V2 ¼ 0
:
3V1 4V2 ¼ 0
Simplifying,
2V1 V2 ¼ 1
:
3V1 4V2 ¼ 0
Solving this simultaneous set of linear equations for unknown voltage values
yields
V1 ¼ 0:8V; V2 ¼ 0:6V;
V1 V2 :
i¼ ¼ 0:8 0:6 ¼ 0:2 A
R1
SPICE Netlist,cccs7.cir
Analysis: DC Operating Point
*fx N+ N- Vy Val
* x Name of the source, N+ : positive node
*N- : Name of negative node. Current flows from the + node
* through the source to the - node
*Vy : Name of the voltage source
*The direction of positive control current is
*from + node through the source to the - node of Vy=0
*Val: Current gain
i1 0 1 1
f1 0 2 Vy 2
Vy 3 2 0
R1 1 3 1
R2 1 0 1
R3 2 0 1
Solution
V2 V2
i¼ ¼ ¼ V2 :
R3 1
V1 þ V2 ¼ 0: ð2:4Þ
V2 V2
i4 ¼ ¼ 1 A; i3 ¼ ¼ 1 A:
R4 R3
Problem 2.1.13 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.13, R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = 1 Ω,
Is = 1 A, and f = 4 A/A. V1 = ?, V2 = ?, V3 = ?, i = ? Use node voltages method.
Check your results using SPICE (cccs4).
Solution
KCL at nodes 1 and 2 with i = V2/R3:
V1 V2 V1 V2
f ¼0 ð2:5Þ
R1 R3 R2
2.1 Nodal Analysis 95
V2 V1 V2 V2
f þ ¼ 1: ð2:6Þ
R3 R2 R3
Simplifying,
*cccs4.cir
*Analysis: DC Operating Point
current controlled current source-nodal analysis
i1 0 3 1
f1 1 2 vref 4
vref 4 0 0
R1 1 0 1
R2 1 2 1
R3 2 4 1
R4 2 3 1
96 2 Analysis Methods
V2 V1 V1 V2
is f ¼0 ð2:11Þ
R3 R1 R2
V2 V1 V2 V2
f þ ¼ 0: ð2:12Þ
R3 R2 R3
1 4V2 V1 V1 þ V2 ¼ 0 ð2:13Þ
4V2 þ V1 V2 V2 ¼ 0: ð2:14Þ
Simplifying,
V1 þ 2V2 ¼ 0: ð2:16Þ
In matrix form,
1 2 3 V1
¼ : ð2:17Þ
0 1 2 V2
V2 1
V1 ¼ 2 V; V2 ¼ 1 V; i¼ ¼ ¼ 1 A
R3 1
V1 V2 2 ð1Þ
iR2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 3 A:
R2 1
Problem 2.1.15
(a) Determine the voltage-to-current ratio (the input resistance) in the circuit shown
in Fig. 2.15:
Vx
Rx ¼ ¼?
Ix
1 1
R1 ¼ R2 ¼ 1 X; R3 ¼ 2 X; R4 ¼ X; Vx ¼ V; k ¼ 0:5 S:
2 4
Solution
ðR1 þ R2 Þ R3
ðaÞ V1 ¼ Ix ð2:18Þ
R1 þ R2 þ R3
Vx ¼ V1 V2 : ð2:19Þ
Node 2:
V2
Ix kV1 ¼0 ð2:20Þ
R4
Vx V1
¼ Rx ¼ ð1 þ kR4 Þ þ R4 : ð2:23Þ
Ix Ix
ð 1 þ 1Þ 2
Rx ¼ ð1 þ 0:5 0:5Þ þ 0:5 ¼ 1:75 X
1þ1þ2
Vx 0:25 1
Ix ¼ ¼ ¼ A ¼ 0:142857 A:
Rx 1:75 7
Problem 2.1.16
(a) Use node voltage method and find the voltage drop across R2 (in mV).
(b) Verify the solution using SPICE and print SPICE netlist (vccs2.cir).
(Is = 1 A, R1 = 1 Ω, R2 = 1/2 Ω, R3 = 1/4 Ω) (Fig. 2.16).
Solution
KCL at 1:
1 V1 2ðV1 V2 Þ ¼ 0
KCL at 2:
V1
4V2 þ 2ðV1 V2 Þ ¼ 0
2
3V1 þ 2V2 ¼ 1
V1
þ 2V1 4V2 2V2 ¼ 0
2
3V1 2V2 ¼ 1 ð2:25Þ
Solution
Start at the rightmost node of the circuit (node f), looking to the right of each node,
Rc ¼ 2R==ðR þ RÞ ¼ R; Rb ¼ 2R==ðR þ RÞ ¼ R:
Node voltages:
Va ¼ V
Rb V RV V
Vb ¼ ¼ ¼ V
R þ Rb 2R 2
Rc V R V V
Vc ¼ ¼ ¼ V
R þ Rc 2 2R 2 4
Rd V R U V :
Vd ¼ ¼ ¼ V
R þ Rd 4 2R 4 8
Re V R V V
Ve ¼ ¼ ¼ V
R þ Re 8 2R 8 16
Rf V R V V
Vf ¼ ¼ ¼ V
R þ Rf 16 2R 16 32
This is the same current through the left branch departing from (f).
The shunt branch current departing from node (e) is
V
Ve V
Ieo ¼ ¼ 16 ¼ ¼ 2Io :
2R 2R 32
Similarly,
2.1 Nodal Analysis 101
V
Vb V
Ibo ¼ ¼ 2 ¼ ¼ 16Io :
2R 2R 4R
½I ¼ ½G½V ; G ¼ R1
G1 ¼ G2 ¼ G3 ¼ G4 ¼ 103 S
2 3 2 3 2 3
I3 G1 þ G2 G2 0 V1
103 4 I1 ðI3 þ I4 Þ 5 ¼ 4 G2 G2 þ G3 G3 5 4 V2 5 103
I2 þ I4 0 G3 G3 þ G4 V3
2 3 2 32 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
1 1þ1 1 0 V1 1 2 1 0 V1
4 1 ð1 þ 1Þ 5 ¼ 4 1 1 þ 1 1 54 V2 5 ! 4 1 5 ¼ 4 1 2 1 5 4 V2 5:
1þ1 0 1 1 þ 1 V3 2 0 1 2 V3
1 1 0 1 1
..
1 1 . 1 2
2
D1 2 1 2 2 1 4 þ 2 þ 0 ð0 þ 1 þ 2Þ 3
V1 ¼ ¼2 3¼ ¼
D 2 1 0 2 1 8 þ 0 þ 0 ð0 þ 2 þ 2Þ 4
4 1 ..
2 1 . 1 25
0 1 2 0 1
¼ 0:75 V:
Problem 2.1.19 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.19, find the values of node voltages
V1 and V2. Use Cramer’s rule when necessary R1 ¼ R3 ¼ 2 X; R2 ¼ 4 X; I1 ¼ I3 ¼
1 A; I2 ¼ I4 ¼ I5 ¼ 2 A:
Solution
V1 V1 V2 3 1
þ 5¼0 ! V1 V2 ¼ 5
2 4 4 4
V2 V1 V2 1 3
þ þ 1 ¼ 0 ! V1 þ V2 ¼ 1
4 2 4 4
2 3
3 1
6 4 7
6 4 7 V1 5
4 1 ¼
3 5 V2 1
4 4
1 3 3 1
5 5
4 14 4 1 4 4 1
D1 ¼ ¼ ; D ¼ ¼ ; D ¼ ¼
3 1 2 1 3 2
2
4
1 1
4 4 4 4
D1 D2
V1 ¼ ¼ 7 V; V2 ¼ ¼ 1 V:
D D
Problem 2.1.20 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.20, I1 = 1 A, I2 = 1/2 A,
R1 = 1/2 Ω, R2 = 1/4 Ω, R3 = 1/8 Ω.
Solution
V1 V1 V2
ðaÞ þ þ I2 I1 ¼ 0 ð2:27Þ
R1 R2
V2 V1 V2
þ I2 ¼ 0 ð2:28Þ
R2 R3
1 1 V2
V1 þ ¼ I1 I2 ð2:29Þ
R1 R2 R2
V1 1 1
þ V2 þ ¼ I2 : ð2:30Þ
R2 R2 R3
V1 ¼ 0:14 V; V2 ¼ 0:09 V:
104 2 Analysis Methods
V1 V1 V2 V2
ðbÞ i1 ¼ ¼ 0:28 A; i2 ¼ ¼ 0:2 A; i3 ¼ ¼ 0:72 A:
R1 R2 R3
Problem 2.1.21 Use node voltages method and find the values of currents and
voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.21.
1 1
R1 ¼ X; R2 ¼ X; R3 ¼ R4 ¼ 1 X; I1 ¼ I2 ¼ 1 A; I3 ¼ 2 A:
2 4
Solution
Applying KCL at node 1,
v1 v1 v2
I1 þ I2 i1 i2 ¼ 0 ! 1þ1 ¼0
R1 R2
v1 v1 v2
2 ¼0 ! 2 6v1 þ 4v2 ¼ 0
1 1
2 4
6v1 þ 4v2 ¼ 2: ð2:31Þ
v2 v3 ¼ 1: ð2:33Þ
1
G¼ ¼ 1S
R
2 32 3 2 3 2 32 3 2 3
GþG G 0 V1 I1 þ I2 þ I3 2 1 0 V1 3
4 G GþGþG G 54 5
V2 ¼ 4 I2 5 ! 4 1 3 1 54 V2 ¼ 1 5:
5 4
0 G GþG V3 I3 0 1 2 V3 1
This matrix equation is solved for unknown voltages and yields the following
voltage values:
V1 ¼ 1:5 V; V2 ¼ 0 V; V3 ¼ 0:5 V:
Problem 2.1.23
(a) Use node voltages and Cramer’s methods to find the values of currents and
voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.23. Use SPICE for checking the results.
Print the SPICE netlist (cccs5.cir).
1
R1 ¼ R4 ¼ X; R2 ¼ R3 ¼ 1 X; I1 ¼ 2 A; f ¼ 3 A=A:
2
(b) Determine the node voltages using the following component values. Use
SPICE for checking the results. Print the new SPICE netlist.
R1 ¼ 1 X; R2 ¼ 4 X; R3 ¼ 8 X; R4 ¼ 4 X I1 ¼ 3 A; f ¼ 2 A=A:
Solution
(a) Applying KCL at node 1,
v1 v3 v1 v2 v1 v3 v1 v2
I1 i1 ix ¼ 0 ! 2 ¼0!2 ¼0
R4 R1 1 1
2 2
2 2ð v 1 v 3 Þ 2ð v 1 v 2 Þ ¼ 0
v1 v2 v1 v3 v2 v3
3 þ þ ¼ 0 ! 3½2ðv1 v2 Þ þ 2ðv1 v3 Þ þ ðv2 v3 Þ
1 1 1
2 2
¼0
2 32 3 2 3
5 4 1 v1 12
4 8 11 1 54 v2 5 ¼ 4 0 5
14 17 3 v3 0
5 4 1 12 4 1
D ¼ 8 11 1 ¼ 58; D1 ¼ 0 11 1 ¼ 192
14 17 3 0 17 3
5 12 1 5 4 12
D2 ¼ 8 0 1 ¼ 120; D3 ¼ 8 11 0 ¼ 216
14 0 3 14 17 0
D1 D2 D3
v1 ¼ ffi 3:31V; v2 ¼ ffi 2:06 V; v3 ¼ ffi 3:72 V:
D D D
Advantages of using SPICE are apparent here. It can be easily used for many
different component variations of a circuit, rather than performing tedious
calculations.
Problem 2.1.24 Determine the ratio of node voltages V 1 =V 2 in the circuit shown in
Fig. 2.24. Use Cramer’s rule when necessary.
I ¼ 1 A; R1 ¼ 10 X; R2 ¼ 1 X; R3 ¼ 5 X; k1 ¼ 5 A=A; k2 ¼ 2 A=V:
Solution
KCL at node 1:
V1 V1 V1 V2 V1 V1 V2
I i 5i iR2 ¼ I 5 ¼I6 þ ¼0
R1 R1 R2 R1 R2 R2
1 1 V2
I 7V1 þ þ ¼ 0: ð2:37Þ
R1 R2 R2
KCL at node 2:
V1 V1 V2 V2
5i þ iR2 iR3 þ 2ðV1 V2 Þ ¼ 5 þ 2ðV1 V2 Þ ¼ 0
R1 R2 R3
V1 V1 V2 V2
5 þ þ 2V1 2V2 ¼ 0: ð2:38Þ
R1 R2 R2 R3
R1 ¼ 10 X; R2 ¼ 1 X; R3 ¼ 5 X
7ð0:1 þ 1Þ 1 V1 1
¼
0:5 þ 1 þ 2 ð1 þ 0:2 þ 2Þ V2 0
7:7 1 V1 1
¼
3:5 3:2 V2 0
D1
D1 D2 V1 D1
V1 ¼ ; V2 ¼ ; ¼ D ¼
D D V2 D2 D2
D
1 1 7:7 1
D1 ¼ ¼ 3:2; D2 ¼ ¼ 3:5
0 3:2 3:5 0
V1 3:2
¼ ¼ 0:9143ðV=VÞ:
V2 3:5
110 2 Analysis Methods
Problem 2.1.25 Determine currents flowing through each resistor in the circuit
shown in Fig. 2.25 (ladder_node.xlsx).
R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R3 ¼ R4 ¼ R5 ¼ 10 X; R6 ¼ R7 ¼ 5 X; R8 ¼ R9 ¼ 20 X; I1 ¼ I2 ¼ 2 A:
Solution
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1
G11 ¼ þ ; G22 ¼ þ ; G33 ¼ þ þ ; G44 ¼ þ ;
10 5 10 5 10 5 20 20 10
1 1 1 1 1
G55 ¼ þ ; G12 ¼ G21 ¼ ; G32 ¼ G23 ¼ ; G43 ¼ G34 ¼ ;
10 20 5 5 20
1
G45 ¼ G54 ¼ ;
20
2 3
0:3 0:2 0 0 0
6 0:2 0:5 0:2 0 0 7
6 7
½G ¼ 6
6 0 0:2 0:35 0:05 0 7 7:
4 0 0 0:05 0:2 0:05 5
0 0 0 0:05 0:15
Solution of Eq. (2.39) using these numerical values yields the node voltages:
V1 V2
i1 ¼ ¼ 1:054545 A; i2 ¼ ¼ 0:581818 A
R1 R2
V3 V4
i3 ¼ ¼ 0:4 A; i4 ¼ ¼ 0:472727 A
R3 R4
V5 V1 V2
i5 ¼ ¼ 1:490909 A; i6 ¼ ¼ 0:945459 A :
R5 R6
V2 V3 V3 V4
i7 ¼ ¼ 0:363636 A; i8 ¼ ¼ 0:03636 A;
R7 R8
V4 V5
i9 ¼ ¼ 0:50909 A
R9
Problem 2.1.26 Find the node voltage values for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.26.
I1 = I3 = 1 A, I2 = 2 A, I4 = −1 A, R1 = R2 = R3 = R5 = R6 = R7 = R8 = 1 Ω,
R9 = 0.1 Ω (Sim_Lin_Eq_Solve.m, matrix_solve.xlsx).
Solution
The conductance values are
G1 ¼ G2 ¼ G3 ¼ G4 ¼ G5 ¼ G6 ¼ G7 ¼ G8 ¼ 1 S; G9 ¼ 10 S
½G½V ¼ ½I:
Problem 2.1.27
(a) Find the node voltage values in terms of current gain of the CCCS for the
circuit shown in Fig. 2.27.
(b) Verify the solution using SPICE and print SPICE netlist (cccs1.cir).
IS ¼ 1 A; R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R3 ¼ 1 X:
Solution
KCL at node 1: (G1 = G2 = G3 = 1 S)
IS V1 ðV1 V2 Þ fi ¼ 0 ! 1 V1 V1 þ V2 f V2 ¼ 0
1 2V1 þ V2 ð1 f Þ ¼ 0
2V1 ð1 f Þ V2 ¼ 1: ð2:40Þ
KCL at node 2:
fi þ ðV1 V2 Þ i ¼ 0 ! fV2 þ V1 V2 V2 ¼ 0
fV2 þ V1 2V2 ¼ 0
V1 þ V2 ðf 2Þ ¼ 0: ð2:41Þ
From (2.41),
V 1 ¼ V 2 ð f 2Þ ¼ ð 2 f Þ V 2 : ð2:42Þ
2.1 Nodal Analysis 113
V2 ð4 2f 1 þ f Þ ¼ 1 ! V2 ð3 f Þ ¼ 1
1
V2 ¼ : ð2:43Þ
3f
From (2.42),
2f
V1 ¼ : ð2:44Þ
3f
*fx N+ N- Vy Value
*x Name of the source
*N+ : Name of positive node
*N- : Name of negative node. Current flows from the + node
* through the source to the - node
*Vref : Name of the voltage source through the controlling
*current flows.
* The direction of positive control current is
* from + node through the source to the - node of Vref=0
*Value: Current gain
i1 0 1 1
f1 1 2 Vref 4
Vref 3 0 0
R1 1 0 1
R2 1 2 1
R3 2 3 1
*.op
114 2 Analysis Methods
Problem 2.1.28 Find the node voltage values in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.28. All
resistors are 1 Ω and I1 = 4 A, I2 = 1 A, I3 = 1 A, I4 = 4 A (Sim_Lin_Eq_Solve.
m, matrix_solve.xlsx).
Solution
V1 V2 V1 V3
I1 ¼ þ ! 2V1 V2 V3 ¼ 4
R2 R1
V2 V1 V2 V4
I2 ¼ þ ! V1 þ 2V2 V4 ¼ 1
R2 R3
V3 V3 V4 V3 V1
I1 þ I3 þ þ þ ¼0 ! V1 þ 3V3 V4 ¼ 5
R5 R4 R1
V4 V4 V2 V4 V3
I2 þ I4 þ þ þ ¼0 ! V2 V3 þ 3V4 ¼ 5:
R6 R3 R4
Solution of this matrix equation by employing any available software yields the
voltage values as
R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R3 ¼ R4 ¼ R5 ¼ R6 ¼ R7 ¼ R8 ¼ 1 kX; R9 ¼ 100 X;
I1 ¼ I2 ¼ I3 ¼ I4 ¼ 1 mA:
Solution
(a) ½G½V ¼ ½I
Problem 2.1.30 Find the node voltage values in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.30.
R1 = R6 = R7 = 1 X, R2 = R3 = R5 = 2 X, R4 = 4 X, I1 = 2 A, I2 = 1 A,
I3 = 3 A (Sim_Lin_Eq_Solve.m, matrix_solve.xlsx).
Solution
Analysis by inspection,
G6 ¼ 1 S; G7 ¼ 1 S
2 32 3 2 3
1:5 0:5 0 0 v1 3þ2
6 0:5 1:25 0:25 07 6 7 6 7
½G½V ¼ ½I ; 6 76 v2 7 ¼ 6 0 7:
4 0 0:25 1:75 1 54 v3 5 4 0 5
0 0 1 2 v4 3 þ 1
Solution of this matrix equation (e.g., using EXCEL or MATLAB tools) gives
node voltages:
Solution
(a) The circuit used in SPICE analysis is shown in Fig. 2.31b: (Table 2.2)
(b) Fig. 2.31c displays the current sweep.
2.1 Nodal Analysis 117
(b)
(c) 'i(vref)'
100.0m
50.0m
i [A]
0.0m
-50.0m
-100.0m
-1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
is sweep [A]
Problem 2.1.32 Use node voltages method and determine all currents (mA) and
V2 ðmVÞ in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.32. V1 ¼ 2 V; V3 ¼ 1 V; R1 ¼ 5 X; R2 ¼
3 X; R3 ¼ 4 X; R4 ¼ 2 X:
Solution
V1 V3 2 1
V1 ¼ 2 V; V3 ¼ 1 V; i3 ¼ ¼ ¼ 500 mA:
R4 2
KCL at node 2:
2 V2 V2 1 V2
i1 i2 i4 ¼ 0 ! ¼0 !
5 3 4
12ð2 V2 Þ 20ðV2 1Þ 15V2 ¼ 0
44
V2 ¼ ¼ 0:93617 V ¼ 936:17 mV
47
2 0:93617 0:93617 1
i1 ¼ ¼ 212:766 mA; i2 ¼ ¼ 21:277 mA
5 3
0:93617
i4 ¼ ¼ 234:043 mA; iV1 ¼ i1 þ i3 ¼ 212:766 þ 500 ¼ 712:766 mA
4
iV2 ¼ ði2 þ i3 Þ ¼ ð21:277 þ 500Þ ¼ 478:723 mA:
Problem 2.1.33 Determine the node voltages in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.33.
V1 ¼ 12 V; V2 ¼ 6 V; R1 ¼ 4 X; R2 ¼ 2 X; R3 ¼ 2 X; R4 ¼ 6 X:
Solution
There is a voltage source ðV2 Þ connected between two nonreference nodes (2,3).
These nodes form a supernode. KCL and KVL can be applied to obtain the node
voltages in this circuit.
On the other hand, V1 is connected between node 1 and ground. Thus, the
voltage at node 1 equals to v1 ¼ V1 ¼ 12 V:
At the supernode,
i1 þ i4 i2 i3 ¼ 0 ð2:45Þ
v1 v2 v1 v3 v 2 v3
þ ¼ 0: ð2:46Þ
R1 R4 R2 R3
v2 v 3 ¼ V 2 ¼ 6 V ! v2 ¼ V 2 þ v3 ¼ 6 þ v3 ð2:47Þ
v1 v2 v1 v3 1 1 6 þ 2v3
þ ¼ ð v2 þ v3 Þ ¼ ð 6 þ v3 þ v3 Þ ¼ : ð2:48Þ
4 6 2 2 2
Since v1 ¼ V1 ¼ 12 V;
12 ð6 þ v3 Þ 12 v3 6 þ 2v3
þ ¼ ð2:49Þ
4 6 2
36 16 3v3 þ 24 2v3 ¼ 36 þ 12v3 ð2:50Þ
8
17v3 ¼ 8 ! v3 ¼ V:
17
From (2.47),
8 110
v2 ¼ 6 þ ¼ V:
17 17
Solution
Since independent voltage source is connected between nodes (1, 3), these nodes
form a supernode. Node 2 is included in this supernode. Thus,
v1 v3 v1 v3
i1 i2 þ 5 ¼ 0 ! þ2 ¼ 0 ! þ2 ¼ 0
R1 R4 4 2
v1 þ 2v3 ¼ 8: ð2:51Þ
The constraint is
v3 v1 ¼ 2 V ! v3 ¼ 2 þ v1 : ð2:52Þ
v1 þ 2ð 2 þ v 1 Þ ¼ 8 ! v1 þ 4 þ 2v1 ¼ 8 ! 3v1 ¼ 4
4
v1 ¼ ¼ 1:3333 V:
3
From (2.52)
v3 ¼ 2 þ 1:3333 ¼ 3:3333 V:
At node 2:
v1 v2 v2 v3
i3 þ I1 i4 ¼ 0 ! þ I1 ¼ 0: ð2:53Þ
R2 R3
1:3333 v2 v2 3:3333
þ2 ¼0 ! 4:6667 2v2 ¼ 16
8 8
2.1 Nodal Analysis 121
The current flowing through the voltage source is calculated by applying KCL at
node 1:
v1 v1 v2
i1 i5 i3 ¼ 0 ! i5 ¼0
R1 R2
SPICE netlist:
supernode1
*OP analysis
R1 1 0 4
R2 1 2 8
R3 2 3 8
R4 4 0 2
V1 3 1 2
I1 0 2 2
V3 3 4 0
Problem 2.1.35 Determine the current through dependent source and current
though independent voltage source in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.35. Here, v2 is the
node voltage at node 2.
122 2 Analysis Methods
I1 ¼ 4 A; V1 ¼ 5 V; R1 ¼ R4 ¼ 2 X; R2 ¼ 4X; R3 ¼ 1 X:
Solution
Consider the supernode consisting of nodes (1,2). Applying KCL,
v1 v1 v3 v2 v3 v2
I1 ¼0
R1 R4 R3 R2
v1 v1 v3 v2 v3 v2
4 ¼0
2 2 1 4
16 2v1 2ðv1 v3 Þ 4ðv2 v3 Þ v2 ¼ 0
But,
v3 ¼ V1 ¼ 5 V: ð2:56Þ
From (2.55),
v1 ¼ 5 1:84 ¼ 9:2 V:
KCL at node 1:
v1 v1 v3 9:2 9:2 5
i12 ¼ I1 ¼4 ¼ 2:7 A:
R1 R4 2 2
2.1 Nodal Analysis 123
KCL at node 3:
v2 v3 v1 v3 1:84 5 9:2 5
i30 ¼ þ ¼ þ ¼ 1:06 A:
R3 R4 1 2
Following is the SPICE netlist (supernode2.cir) for the operating point analysis
of this circuit:
supernode2
*OP analysis
R1 1 0 2
R2 2 0 4
R3 2 3 1
R4 1 3 2
V1 3 0 5
I1 0 1 4
*VCVS: e{name} {+node} {-node} {+cntrl} {-cntrl} {gain}
e1 1 2 2 0 4
Problem 2.2.1 Find the values of Vx ; V0 in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.36.
U = 35 V.
Solution
KVL around the loop, U Vx 2Vx þ V0 ¼ 0
Vx ¼ 10i; V0 ¼ 5i
35 10i 20i 5i ¼ 0
i ¼ 1 A; V0 ¼ 5i ¼ 5 V; Vx ¼ 10i ¼ 10 V:
SPICE netlist (mesh01):
mesh01
*OP ANALYSIS
VU 1 3 35
R1 1 2 10
R2 3 0 5
*VCVS: Ex N+ N- NC+ NC- VALUE
E1 2 0 1 2 2
Problem 2.2.2
(a) Determine the current iab in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.37.
(b) If U1 = 10 V, U2 = 6 V, R = 1 kX what is the value of iab ? (mA)
(c) If U1 = U2 = 10 V, R = 1 kX what is the value of iab ? (mA)
(d) If U1 = U2/2 = 10 V, R = 1 kX what is the value of iab ? (mA)
Solution
(a) Current through the left mesh (in CW direction),
U1
i1 ¼
R
U2
i2 ¼
2R
U1 U2 1 U2
iab ¼ i1 þ i2 ¼ ¼ U1
R 2R R 2
6
10
2 7
(b) iab ¼ 3
¼ ¼ 7 mA
10 103
(c) If U1 = U2 = 10 V,
5
iab ¼ ¼ 5 mA
103
Problem 2.2.3 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.38, use mesh currents method and
find the value of voltage Vx . What is the voltage drop across R2?. R1 ¼ R3 ¼
2R2 ¼ 4 X; V1 ¼ 3 V; V2 ¼ 5 V (Sim_Lin_Eq_Solve.m, matrix_solve.xlsx).
Solution
By applying mesh currents and analysis by inspection, the governing equation of
the circuit is
R1 þ R2 R2 i1 V1 V2
¼
R2 R2 þ R3 i2 V2
or
6 2 i1 2
¼ :
2 6 i2 5
V1 þ i1 R1 þ ði1 i2 Þ R3 ¼ 0
ði2 i1 Þ R3 þ i2 R2 þ V2 ¼ 0:
2 þ 3i1 2i2 ¼ 0
3i2 2i1 1 ¼ 0:
Solution of this set of simultaneous linear equations for unknown current values
yields
i1 ¼ 0:8 A; i2 ¼ 0:2 A
Problem 2.2.5 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.39, use mesh currents method and
Cramer’s rule to find the values for Vx, VR1, VR2. (R1 = R2 = 2 Ω, R3 = 1 Ω,
V1 = 2 V, V2 = 1 V) (Sim_Lin_Eq_Solve.m, matrix_solve.xlsx).
Solution
Using analysis by inspection and mesh currents method,
R1 þ R3 R3 i1 V1
¼ :
R3 R2 þ R3 i2 V2
5 10
VR1 ¼ i1 R1 ¼ 2 ¼ ¼ 1:25 V
8 8
2.2 Mesh Analysis 127
Problem 2.2.6 Find the values of mesh currents and the node voltage in the circuit
shown in Fig. 2.40. R1 = 10 X, R2 = 2 X, R3 = 1 X, V1 = 4 V, V2 = 2 V,
V3 = 1 V (Sim_Lin_Eq_Solve.m, matrix_solve.xlsx).
Solution
KVL in mesh1:
4 þ 10i1 þ 2ði1 i2 Þ þ 2 ¼ 0
KVL in mesh2:
2 þ 2ði2 i1 Þ þ i2 þ 1 ¼ 0
i1 ¼ 0:25 A
i2 ¼ 0:5 A
Alternatively,
vx ¼ V3 þ i2 R3 ¼ 1 þ 0:5 1 ¼ 1:5 V:
Problem 2.2.7 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.41, determine the voltage drop across
R2 using mesh analysis.
R1 = 3 X, R2 = 5 X, R3 = 4 X, v1 = 2 V, I = 2 A.
Solution
Since a current source exists in the second mesh,
i2 ¼ I ¼ 2 A:
2 þ 3i1 þ ði1 i2 Þ 5 ¼ 0:
Problem 2.2.8 Find the values of numbered (clockwise flowing) mesh currents in
the circuit shown in Fig. 2.42. Use Cramer’s rule when necessary U ¼ 4 V; I ¼
2 A; R ¼ R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R3 ¼ R4 ¼ 1 X (mesh1.cir).
Solution
Assume clockwise rotation for mesh currents.
Since i2 ¼ I; it is not necessary to write down KVL equation associated with
second mesh.
KVL in mesh 1:
KVL in mesh 3:
D1 20 D2 10
i1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 4 A; i2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 2 A:
D 5 D 5
Problem 2.2.9 For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.43, write down the circuit equation
in matrix form and solve for mesh currents. R = 2 X, V1 = V2 = V3 = 1 V
(Sim_Lin_Eq_Solve.m, matrix_solve.xlsx).
Solution
Analysis by inspection yields
2 3 2 3 2 3
6 2 2 0 I1 1
6 2 6 0 2 7 6 I2 7 6 0 7
4 2 I3 5 ¼ 4 1 5 ðVÞ:
0 4 2 5 4
0 2 2 4 I4 1
Problem 2.2.10 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.44, find the value of current iAB
through 3 Ω resistor.ðiAB ¼ iBA Þ. Use Cramer’s rule, when necessary.
V1 = 7 V, V2 = 6 V, R1 = R5 = 1 X, R2 = R4 = 2 X, R3 = 3 X.
Solution
iAB ¼ i3 i2 :
3 1 1 3 1
..
D3 ¼ 1 6 0 . 1 6 ¼ 108 þ 0 þ 3 ð12 þ 0 þ 6Þ
2 3 6 2 3
¼ 111 ð6Þ ¼ 117
D2 78 D3 117
i2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 2 A; i3 ¼ ¼ ¼ 3 A; iAB ¼ i3 i2 ¼ 3 2 ¼ 1 A:
D 39 D 39
Problem 2.2.11 For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.45, determine the ratio of currents,
iR1
r¼ ; for k ¼ 1; 0; 1; 1:
iR3
Solution
Assume mesh currentsði1 ; i2 Þ flow clockwise in the left and right meshes,
respectively,
KVL at mesh 1:
KVL at mesh 2:
R þ R2 ð1 kÞ 0
D2 ¼ 1 ¼ U ½R1 þ R2 ð1 kÞ
R2 U
D1 D2 i1 iR1 D1 R2 ð1 kÞ R2
i1 ¼ ; i2 ¼ ;r ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ :
D D i2 iR3 D2 R1 þ R2 ð1 kÞ R1
þ R2
1k
KVL 2:
36i1 32i2 ¼ 0
8
9i1 ¼ 8i2 ! i1 ¼ i2 ð2:65Þ
9
8 8 12 108
11 i2 6i2 ¼ 12 ! i2 6 ¼ 12 ! i2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 3:176 A;
9 9 34 34
9
8
i ¼ i1 ¼ ð3:176Þ ¼ 2:824 A
9
iR2 ¼ i1 i2 ¼ 2:824 3:176 ¼ 0:352 A
Vx ¼ 12 iR2 ¼ 4:224 V:
Problem 2.2.13 Find the values of currents i1, i2, i3, iAB in the circuit shown in
Fig. 2.47. Use Cramer’s rule, when necessary. V1 = 4 V, R1 = 10 X,
R2 = R3 = 4 X, R4 = 6 X (Sim_Lin_Eq_Solve.m, matrix_solve.xlsx).
Solution
i0 ¼ i1 i2
16 10 6 4 10 6
D ¼ 10 18 4 ¼ 544; D1 ¼ 0 18 4 ¼ 624
4 6 10 0 6 10
16 4 6 16 10 4
D2 ¼ 10 0 4 ¼ 464; D3 ¼ 10 18 0 ¼ 528
4 0 10 4 6 0
D1 D2 D3
i1 ¼ ffi 1:15 A; i2 ¼ ffi 0:85 A; i3 ¼ ffi 0:97 A; iab ¼ i3 i2 ffi 0:12 A:
D D D
Simplifying,
2 ¼ 4i1 i2 i3 i5
Similarly,
iy ¼ i2 ¼ 0:273 A
Problem 2.2.15 Find the values of mesh currents and the node voltage VX in the
circuit shown in Fig. 2.49.
R = 1 kX (matrix_solve.xlsx).
Solution
10 þ i1 þ i1 i2 þ i1 i4 ¼ 0
3i1 i2 i4 ¼ 10 ð2:66Þ
i2 þ i2 i3 þ i2 i5 þ i2 i1 ¼ 0
i3 þ i3 i6 þ i3 i2 ¼ 0
i4 i1 þ i4 i5 ¼ 0
i5 i4 þ i5 i2 þ 5 ¼ 0
5 þ i6 i3 þ i6 ¼ 0
Problem 2.2.16 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.50, use mesh currents method to
determine currents flowing through each resistor (mesh6.xlsx) R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R3 ¼
2 X; R4 ¼ R5 ¼ R6 ¼ 4 X; R7 ¼ R10 ¼ 8 X; R8 ¼ R9 ¼ 1 X; V1 ¼ V2 ¼ 10 V:
Solution
Analysis by inspection, ½R½I ¼ ½V ;
2 3 2 3 2 3
14 8 0 4 0 0 I1 0
6 8 15 1 0 4 07 6 7 6 7
6 7 6 I2 7 6 0 7
6 0 1 7 0 0 4 7 6 I3 7 6 0 7
6 7¼6 7¼6 7:
6 4 0 0 5 1 07 6 7 6 7
6 7 6 I4 7 6 10 7
4 0 4 0 1 13 8 5 4 I5 5 4 0 5
0 0 4 0 8 12 I6 10
Solution of this matrix equation (via Excel) gives mesh currents as
2.2 Mesh Analysis 137
IR10 ¼ I5 I6 ¼ 0:880 A:
Problem 2.2.17 Use mesh analysis and determine the node voltages at nodes 2 and
4 in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.51. Va ¼ 12 V; Vb ¼ 6 V; I ¼ 8 A; R1 ¼ 2R2 ¼
3R3 ¼ 12 X (Supermesh1.cir).
Solution
Since there is a current source between two meshes, a supermesh results by
excluding the current source and resistor connected in series with it. Thus KVL
around supermesh (Fig. 2.52):
Va þ i1 R1 þ i2 R2 þ Vb ¼ 0 ! Vb Va ¼ i1 R1 i2 R2
Va Vb ¼ i1 R1 þ i2 R2 ! 6 ¼ 12i1 þ 6i2
2i1 þ i2 ¼ 1: ð2:72Þ
i1 i2 þ 8 ¼ 0 ! i1 i2 ¼ 8: ð2:73Þ
7
2i1 þ 8 þ i1 ¼ 1 ! 3i1 ¼ 7 ! i1 ¼ A ¼ 2:333 A
3
7 24 7 17
i2 ¼ 8 ¼ ¼ A ¼ 5:667 A
3 3 3
v2 ¼ Vb þ i2 R2 ¼ 6 þ ð5:667Þð6Þ ¼ 40 V; v4 ¼ 40 4 8 ¼ 8 V:
Following is the SPICE netlist for the operating point analysis of this circuit:
supermesh1
*OP Analysis
R1 1 2 12
R2 2 3 6
R3 2 4 4
Va 1 0 12
Vb 3 0 6
I1 0 4 8
Problem 2.2.18 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.53, determine voltages at nodes 2, 3,
and 4 using mesh current analysis (Supermesh2.cir).
Va ¼ 10 V; g ¼ 0:1ðA=VÞ; h ¼ 10ðV=AÞ; R1 ¼ 5 X; R2 ¼ 4 X;
R3 ¼ 3 X:
Solution
There is a current source between two meshes. For the supermesh circuit,
(KVL) (Fig. 2.54),
2.2 Mesh Analysis 139
Va ¼ R1 i1 þ R2 i2 þ hi1 ¼ 0
Va 10
1 þ i1 i2 þ ¼ 0 ! 1 þ i1 i2 þ ¼0
10 10
i1 i2 ¼ 2 A: ð2:76Þ
40 2
i2 ¼ ¼ 2:1053 A; i1 ¼ ¼ 0:1053 A
19 19
40 2 180
V2 ¼ i2 R2 þ 10i1 ¼ 4 þ 10 ¼ ¼ 9:474 V:
19 19 19
Alternatively,
2
V2 ¼ Va i1 R1 ¼ 10 5 ¼ 9:474 V
19
V4 ¼ 9Va R3 ¼ 0:1 10 3 ¼ 3 V
Following is the SPICE netlist for the operating point analysis of this circuit:
140 2 Analysis Methods
supermesh2
*OP Analysis
Va 1 0 10
I1 0 2 1
R1 5 2 5
R2 2 3 4
R3 4 0 3
*CCVS: hxx N+ N- VNAME VALUE
*Controlling current is through a zero volt voltage source
VREF 1 5 0
h1 3 0 VREF 10
*VCCS: gxx N+ N- NC+ NC- VALUE
g1 4 2 1 0 0.1
Problem 2.3.1 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.55, find the value of the current
flowing through R2 ¼ 9 X resistor using superposition. R1 ¼ 6X; U ¼ 3 V; I ¼ 2 A:
Solution
Current due to voltage source alone is
3 1
i0 ¼ ¼ A:
9þ6 5
6 4
i00 ¼ 2 ¼ A:
9þ6 5
The sum:
1 4
i ¼ i0 þ i00 ¼ þ ¼ 1 A:
5 5
Problem 2.3.2
(a) Determine the node voltage in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.56 (use
superposition).
(b) Calculate the node voltage if all conductances are 2 S, and current source
values are both 1 A.
Solution
(a) By superposition,
I1 off, I2 on; Vx0 ¼ I2 =G3 ; I1 on, I2 off; Vx00 ¼ I1 =G3 ;
I2 I1 1
Vx ¼ Vx0 þ Vx00 ¼ þ ¼ ðI1 þ I2 Þ:
G3 G3 G3
ðbÞ G1 ¼ G2 ¼ G3 ¼ 2 S; I1 ¼ I2 ¼ 1 A
1
Vx ¼ ð1 þ 1Þ ¼ 1 V:
2
Problem 2.3.3
(a) In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.57, determine the voltage at node a, if V1 = 1 V,
V2 = 2 V, R = 1 kΩ.
(b) i = ? (Use superposition theorem).
Solution
V1 V2
ðaÞ Va0 ¼ V; Va00 ¼ V;
3 3
V1 V2 1 2
Va ¼ Va0 þ Va00 ¼ þ ¼ þ ¼ 1V
3 3 3 3
Va 1V
ðbÞ i¼ ¼ ¼ 1 mA:
R 1 kX
Problem 2.3.4
(a) Assuming a single-input and single-output (SISO) system, state criteria to
determine the linearity of such a system.
(b) If y is the output and x is the input of a system of the form y = mx + n, what can
be said about its linearity?
Solution
(a) Assuming y is the output and x is the input of a system, three criteria to
determine the linearity of such a system are as follows:
1. Homogeneity: if y = f(x) then k.y = f(k.x) where k is a constant factor (more
generally stated, k is any real number for real systems and it is any complex
number for complex-valued signals and systems).
2. Additivity: If y1 = f(x1) and y2 = f(x2), then y1 + y2 = f(x1 + x2).
3. For x = 0, then y = f(0) = 0.
If a system satisfies all of these criteria stated above, it is a linear system.
(b) Let m = 2, n = 1, then y = 2x + 1, then
x x1 = 0 x2 = 1 x3 = 2 x4 = 3
y y1 = 1 y2 = 3 y3 = 5 y4 = 7
All criteria are violated. For example, y(x2 + x3) 6¼ y(x2) + y(x3).
Therefore, this system is “incrementally linear” so that the output is a scaled
reproduction of the input except for a fixed offset in the output.
Problem 2.3.5 What can be said about the linearity of the modified voltage divider
circuit shown in Fig. 2.58?
2.3 Linearity and Superposition 143
Solution
R2 R1
Va ðU Þ ¼ Uþ Uref ! y ¼ mx þ n; where x ¼ U:
R1 þ R2 R1 þ R2
VC ¼ 4 i ¼ 4 1 ¼ 4 V
VC 4
iR3 ¼ ¼ ¼ 4A
R3 1
iBC ¼ iR3 þ i ¼ 4 þ 1 ¼ 5 A
VB ¼ iBC 4 þ Vc ¼ 5 4 þ 4 ¼ 24 V
VB 24
iR2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 24 A
R2 1
VA
iR1 ¼ ¼ 140 A
R1
i0s 1 2
i0s ¼ iR1 þ iAB ¼ 140 þ 29 ¼ 169 A ! ¼ ! i¼ ¼ 0:011834 A
is i 169
VC ¼ i 4 ¼ 0:04734 V:
Problem 2.3.7 Find the current through resistor R5 in the circuit shown in
Fig. 2.60 (use linearity principle). Vs ¼ 10 V; R1 ¼ 0:5 X; R2 ¼ 8 X; R3 ¼ 2 X;
R4 ¼ 2 X; R5 ¼ 1 X:
Solution
Let i5 ¼ 1 A; v5 ¼ i5 R5 ¼ 1 V
v5
i4 ¼ ¼ 0:5 A
R4
i3 ¼ i4 þ i5 ¼ 1:5 A
v3 ¼ i3 R3 þ v5 ¼ ð1:5Þð2Þ þ 1 ¼ 4 V
v3 4
i2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 V
R2 8
i1 ¼ i2 þ i3 ¼ 0:5 þ 1:5 ¼ 2 A
Vsx ¼ i1 R1 þ v3 ¼ ð2Þð0:5Þ þ 4 ¼ 5 V
When Vs ¼ 5 V; i5 ¼ 1 A
But vs ¼ 10 V; then i5 ¼ 2 A:
Problem 2.3.8 Determine the current (IX) in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.61. Use
linearity principle.
R = 10 X, U = 20 V.
2.3 Linearity and Superposition 145
Solution
Let Ix ¼ 1 A;
Vb ¼ 2R 1 ¼ 20 V
Va ¼ U ¼ iab R þ Vb ¼ ð1 þ 1ÞR þ 20 ¼ 2 10 þ 20 ¼ 40 V:
R1
iR31 ¼ I1 :
R1 þ R2 þ R3
R2
iR32 ¼ I2 :
R1 þ R2 þ R3
1 1
iR3 ¼ iR31 þ iR32 ¼ ðI1 R1 I2 R2 Þ ¼ ð9 1 1 1Þ ¼ 2 mA:
R1 þ R2 þ R3 1þ1þ2
iR3 ¼ 7 mA:
Solution
Step 1. (Fig. 2.64), i0 ¼ 0 A ! V1 þ iR1 þ iR2 þ kV1 ¼ 0
V1 ð1 k Þ
iðR1 þ R2 Þ ¼ V1 kV1 ¼ V1 ð1 k Þ; ! i¼
R1 þ R2
V1 ð1 k Þ ð1 kÞR2
Vx1 ¼ i R2 þ kV1 ¼ R2 þ kV1 ¼ V1 þk :
R1 þ R2 R1 þ R2
Step 2. V1 ¼ 0 V;
R1 R2
Vx2 ¼ i1
R2 þ R2
ð1 kÞR2 R1 R2
a. Vx ¼ Vx1 þ Vx2 ¼ V1 þ k þ i1 ½V
R1 þ R2 R1 þ R2
b. R1 ¼ 0 X; Vx ¼ V1 ½V
c. R2 ¼ 0 X; Vx ¼ kV1 ½V:
Va1 ¼ 2 I 2 ¼ 2 1 ¼ 2 V
Vb1 ¼ 2 I 3 ¼ 2 2 ¼ 4 V:
Va2 ¼ 2 I2 ¼ 2 5 ¼ 10 V
Vb2 ¼ 2 I3 ¼ 2 5 ¼ 10 V
Va3 ¼ 2 I2 ¼ 2 4 ¼ 8 V; Vb3 ¼ 2 I3 ¼ 2 4 ¼ 8 V
Problem 2.3.12
(a) Use superposition theorem and find the value of voltage at node 1 of the circuit
shown in Fig. 2.66 (R1 = R2 = R4 = R5 = 2 Ω, R3 = 1 Ω).
(b) Check your result using SPICE analysis. Print netlist (superposition
check1.cir).
Solution
(a)
(i) See Fig. 2.67.
3
i¼ ¼ 1 A; V12 ¼ 1 1 ¼ 1 V:
1þ1þ1
2 1 4 þ 6 þ 1 11
ðivÞ V11 þ V12 þ V13 ¼ þ1þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1833 V:
3 6 6 6
(b) SPICE netlist,
*OP analysis,superposition check1
v1 1 0 2
v2 3 4 3
v3 5 0 1
R1 1 2 2
R2 2 0 2
R3 2 3 1
R4 4 0 2
R5 4 5 2
Problem 2.3.13 Use superposition theorem and find the value of voltage Vx in the
circuit shown in Fig. 2.70.
Solution
First, voltage source is short circuited (Fig. 2.71).
The current flow in 4 X branch is calculated by current division,
1
i1 ¼ 1 ¼ 0:2 A ! Vx1 ¼ 0:2 2 ¼ 0:4 V:
1þ4
2
V2 ¼ 5 ¼ 2 V:
5
Solution
First, the voltage source is ignored (short circuited, Fig. 2.74).
Then, the current source is ignored (open circuited, Fig. 2.75). By voltage
division,
R1 1
Vx2 ¼ V ¼ 10 ¼ 3:333 V
R1 þ R2 1þ2
Vx 670:33 V
IR 1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:67033 A
R1 1 kX
Problem 2.3.15 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.76, find the value of i (in mA) by
using superposition theorem.
Solution
Deactivated voltage source: (Fig. 2.77). Applying current division,
1
i0 ¼ A
2
1 1
V0 ¼ A 1 V ¼ V:
2 2
32 6
00
V ¼2
3==2
¼2 3 þ 2 ¼2 5 ¼2
6
¼
12 3
¼ V
3==2 þ 2 3 2 6 16 16 4
þ2 þ2
3þ2 5
1 3
V ¼ V0 þ V0 ¼ þ ¼ 1:25 V
2 4
V 1:25
i¼ ¼ ¼ 0:625 A ¼ 625 mA:
2 2
Problem 2.3.16 Use superposition theorem to find the values of voltages at nodes
1 and 2 in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.79.
Solution
(a) Kill the voltage source as shown in Fig. 2.80:
i1X ¼ 1 A; V20 ¼ 1 X 1 A ¼ 1 V
6 6
Rp 5 12 3
V200 ¼2 ¼2 ¼ 2 5 ¼ V ¼ V:
Rp þ 2 6 16 16 4
þ2
5 5
Voltage division:
2 3 2 1
V100 ¼ V200 ¼ ¼ V
2þ1 4 3 2
3
V2 ¼ V20 þ V200 ¼ 1 þ ¼ 1:75 V:
4
Problem 2.3.17 The supply voltage v and output current i are mutually transferable
in a linear passive circuit. A circuit composed of linear bilateral elements (e.g., R, L,
C) is reciprocal.
The ratio of v and i is called the transfer resistance (trans-resistance).
This means that if the positions of a voltage source and an ammeter are inter-
changed, the reading of ammeter remains the same, assuming ideal situation (i.e.,
internal resistance of both the voltage source and ammeter are null).
Alternatively, interchanging a current source and a voltmeter in a linear bilateral
circuit does not change the voltmeter reading.
Reciprocity is based on the symmetry property of nodal conductance (mesh
resistance) matrix. Thus, even a circuit containing dependent sources can be
reciprocal for some specific dependent source coefficients, provided that its con-
ductance or resistance matrix is symmetric.
Application of reciprocity theorem is limited only to circuits containing a single
independent source.
(a) Use SPICE and determine the current flowing through 3 X resistor in the circuit
shown in Fig. 2.82, assuming that an ammeter is placed in that branch. What is
trans-resistance value?
(b) Interchange the ammeter and the voltage source and determine the new
ammeter reading, again. What is new transresistance value?
(c) If the voltage is 50 V in part (b), determine the new ammeter reading.
Solution
(a) The current flowing through 3 X resistor (ammeter reading) is 0.754717 A.
Trans-resistance is 13.24999966 X.
(b) Interchanging the ammeter and the voltage source, the ammeter reading is
0.754717 A, again.
Therefore, trans-resistance is 13.24999966 X, as well.
(c) If the voltage is 100 V in part (b), (due to linearity) the new ammeter reading is
7.54717 A. This is also verified by SPICE analysis.
SPICE netlist (Reciprocity1.cir) is given below.
2.3 Linearity and Superposition 155
Reciprocity
*v1 1 0 10
V1 4 0 0
R1 1 2 2
R2 2 0 4
R3 2 3 1
R4 3 0 2
R5 3 4 3
*VX 4 0 0
VX 1 0 10
Problem 2.4.1 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.83, find the value of node voltage Vx,
if V1 = 3 V, I = 9 A, R = 1 X using source transformation.
Solution
Applying source transformation to the given circuit gives the circuit shown in
Fig. 2.84; then,
V1 V1 Vx
Iþ þ I ¼ 3 ¼ 3Vx
R R R
2V1 ¼ 3Vx
2 2
Vx ¼ V1 ¼ 3 ¼ 2 V:
3 3
Problem 2.4.2 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.85, use source transformation method
and determine the current through resistor R2.
Solution
By source transformation and KVL, (see Fig. 2.86),
V1 V2 V3 ¼ iðR1 þ R2 þ R3 Þ
I1 R1 V2 V3 ¼ iðR1 þ R2 þ R3 Þ
I1 R1 V2 V3
i¼ :
R1 þ R2 þ R3
Problem 2.4.3 Use source transform to calculate the value of node voltage Va in
the circuit shown in Fig. 2.87. R1 = R2 = 2R3 = 8 X, I1 = I2 = 1 A.
Solution
I1 R1 I2 R3 4Va 8 4 4Va 4 1 Va
i¼ ¼ ¼ ð1 Va Þ ¼ ð2:77Þ
R1 þ R2 þ R3 8þ4þ4 20 5
Va ¼ iR3 þ I2 R3 : ð2:78Þ
2.4 Source Transformation 157
1 Va 4 4Va
Va ¼ 4þ1 4 ¼ þ4
5 5 5
9 24 24 8
Va ¼ ! Va ¼ ¼ ¼ 2:667 V:
5 5 9 3
Problem 2.4.4 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.88, find the value of voltage Vx using
source transformation.
U1 = 3 V, U2 = 5 V, I1 = 2 A, R1 = R3 = 2R2 = 4 X.
Solution
Application of source transformation to voltage sources results in with the fol-
lowing circuit equation:
3 5 Vx
þ þ2 ¼ :
4 2 4
Solution
By source transformation, (Fig. 2.90), R1 kR2 ¼ 2X:
KCL at node x:
Vx Vx
1þ ¼0
3 2
1 1
Vx ¼ 1
3 2
1
Vx ¼ ¼ 6 V:
1
6
Problem 2.4.6 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.91, find the value of node voltage
using superposition theorem, and source transformation (E1 = 20 V, R2 = 10 Ω,
R1 = 10 Ω, I1 = 2 A).
Solution
First, the current source is deactivated, and voltage source is transformed to current
source. By KCL,
E1 Vx1 Vx1
þ ¼ 0; Rp ¼ R1 ==R2 ¼ 10==10 ¼ 5 X
R2 10 Rp
E1 20
E1 1 1
R2 10 ¼ 20 V:
þ Vx1 ¼0 ! Vx1 ¼ ¼
R2 10 Rp 1 1 1 1
10 Rp 10 5
Then, the voltage source is deactivated by short circuiting it; and using KCL
(Fig. 2.92),
Vx2 Vx2 1 1 I1
I1 þ ¼0 ! I1 þ Vx2 ¼0 ! Vx2 ¼ ¼ 20 V:
10 Rp 10 Rp 1 1
10 Rp
R1 ¼ R2 ¼ 2R3 ¼ R4 ¼ R5 ¼ 2R2 ¼ 2 X; U1 ¼ U2 ¼ U3 ¼ 2 V; I1 ¼ 1 A:
Solution
The voltage sources are transformed into 1 A current sources (Fig. 2.94), and
simplified as shown in Fig. 2.95.
½I ¼ ½G½V
1þ1 1 þ 1 1 Vx
¼
21 1 1 þ 1 Vy
D¼2211¼41¼3
Dx ¼ 2 2 ð1Þð1Þ ¼ 5
Dx 5
Vx ¼ ¼ V ¼ 1:667 V:
D 3
Problem 2.4.8 Determine the value of voltage at node 2 in the circuit shown in
Fig. 2.96.
Use source transformation and Cramer’s rule, when necessary.
Solution
GV ¼ I
2 32 3 2 I I 3
1=R1 þ 1=R2 1=R2 0 V1 1 2
4 1=R2 6 U 7
1=R2 þ 1=R3 þ 1=R4 1=R4 54 V2 5 ¼ 4 5
R3
0 1=R4 1=R4 þ 1=R5 V3 I 2
2 32 3 2 3
3 2 3
1=2 þ 1=2 1=2 0 V1 ð4 1Þ 10 3
103 4 1=2 1=2 þ 1=2 þ 1=4 1=4 54 V2 5 ¼ 4 2 103 5 ¼ 4 2 5 103
0 1=4 1=4 þ 1=4 V3 103 1
or
2 1 3
1 0 2 3 2 3
6 2 7 V1 3
6 7
3 6 1 5 1 76 7 6 7 3
10 6 74 V2 5 ¼ 4 2 5 10
6 2 4 47
4 5 V3 1
1 1
0
4 2
D2 2 32
V2 ¼ ¼ ¼ V ¼ 4:571 V:
D 7 7
16
Problem 2.4.9 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.97, find the value of current I using
source transformation method 2R1 ¼ 2R2 ¼ R3 ¼ R4 ¼ 2 X; I1 ¼ 1 A; U ¼ 2 V
(matrix_solve.xlsx).
Solution
2 V voltage source is transformed to 1 A independent current source, VCVS is
transformed and circuit is simplified by taking only equivalent resistance of parallel
resistors into consideration, see Fig. 2.98.
162 2 Analysis Methods
2V1 V2 ¼ 1: ð2:79Þ
At node 2: V1 þ 1 þ V1 V2 V2 ¼ 0
1
V1 V2 ¼ : ð2:80Þ
2
V1 ¼ 1:5 V; V2 ¼ 2 V;
Problem 2.4.10 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.99, use source transformation to find
the value of node voltage Vx, if V1 = V2 = 10 V, I1 = 1 A, R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 kΩ.
2.4 Source Transformation 163
Solution
If source transformation is used for the circuit (Fig. 2.100),
V1 is transformed into Ia and V2 transformed into Ib
10 V
Ia ¼ ¼ 102 A
103 X
10 V
Ib ¼ ¼ 102 A; I1 þ Ia þ Ib ¼ 1:02 A
103 X
1 1 1 1 3
¼ þ þ ¼ ! Rt ¼ 333:
3 X;
Rt 103 103 103 103
Problem 2.4.11 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.101, find the value of current
through resistor R1 using source transformation method (E1 = 20 V, R1 = 2 Ω,
R2 = 3 Ω, R3 = 5 Ω, I1 = 8 A).
Solution
Source transformation is applied on E1 and R3 (see, Fig. 2.102).
E1 20 V
I2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 4A
R3 5X
VReq 30 V
IR1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 6 A:
R1 þ R2 5X
Problem 2.4.12 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.103, VS = 1 V,
R1 = R2 = R3 = R4 = 1 Ω, f = 4 A/A.
V1 = ?, Va = ?, i = ? Use source transformation and node voltage method.
Solution
Use source transformation and note that Va ¼ V2 (see, Fig. 2.104),
Vs V2 V1 V1 V2
f ¼0 ð2:81Þ
R1 R3 R1 R2
V2 V1 V2 V2
f þ ¼ 0: ð2:82Þ
R3 R2 R3
V2 1
V1 ¼ 2 V; V2 ¼ Va ¼ 1 V; i¼ ¼ ¼ 1 A:
R3 1
VT 103 103
Rs ¼ ¼ 9
¼ 7 ¼ 104 X ¼ 10 kX:
IN 100 10 10
Problem 2.5.2 For which one of the following circuits in Fig. 2.105, Thévenin’s
theorem cannot be applied?
Solution
Thévenin’s theorem helps to reduce any one-port linear electrical network to a
single-voltage source and a single impedance. The circuit in Fig. 2.105c contains a
nonlinear-dependent source. Therefore, it does not suit for the application of this
theorem.
Problem 2.5.3 A carbon–zinc battery can be thought of its Thévenin’s equivalent
circuit with Thévenin resistance being the internal battery resistance, see Fig. 2.106.
In an experiment, the open-circuit voltage of a battery is measured as 1.596 V.
When a resistor of R = 33.0 X is connected across its terminals, the load voltage is
measured as 1.580 V. What is the internal battery resistance?
Solution
Assuming that measuring equipment probes and battery terminals have no contact
resistances, internal resistance of the battery is serially connected to the load. The
load current is
VTh VL
IL ¼ ¼
RTh þ RL RL
1:596 1:580
IL ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:47878 A
RTh þ 33 33
RTh ¼ ð28:886Þð1:596Þ 33
RTh ¼ 0:334 X:
Problem 2.5.4 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.107, determine the current through RL
at maximum power transfer condition if I = 4 A.
Solution
Turning off the current source and calculating Thévenin resistance gives
RTh ¼ 2R:
VTh IR I
iRLpmax ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 A:
RTh þ RL 2R þ 2R 4
Problem 2.5.5
(a) Determine the Thévenin and Norton equivalents for the circuit shown in
Fig. 2.108, between a and b terminals.
(b) Find the power delivered to a load resistance, if RL ¼ 5 X:
(c) Determine the value of load resistor for maximum power transfer.
R1 ¼ R2 ¼ 6 X; R3 ¼ 12 X; U ¼ 10 V:
Solution
(a) Thévenin equivalent circuit values are
RTh ¼ 12 þ 6k6 ¼ 12 þ 3 ¼ 15 X
6
VTh ¼ Vab ¼ Voc ¼ 10 ¼ 5 V:
6þ6
VTh 5 1
IN ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:333 A
RTh 15 3
VTh 5 1
(b) I ¼ ¼ ¼ A
RTh þ RL 15 þ 5 4
2
1 5
P ¼ I RL ¼
2
5 ¼ ¼ 0:3125 W
4 16
Problem 2.5.6 Use Thévenin’s theorem to find the value of current, iR6
(Fig. 2.109).
ðR1 ¼ 50 X; R2 ¼ 5 X; R3 ¼ R4 ¼ 10 X; R5 ¼ 4 X; R6 ¼ 2 X; V1 ¼ 20 V Þ:
Solution
Remove R6 from circuit: R3 ==R4 ¼ 5 X; Vab ¼ VTh
Voltage division:
R3 ==R4
Vab ¼ 20
R2 þ R3 ==R4
5
VTh ¼ Vab ¼ 20 ¼ 10 V:
5þ5
VTh 10 10
iR6 ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:177 A:
RTh þ R6 6:5 þ 2 8:5
Problem 2.5.7 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.111, use Thévenin’s Theorem and
source transformation method to determine the current through the resistor RL.
R1 ¼ R2 ¼ 2 X; R3 ¼ RL ¼ 1 X; V1 ¼ 1 V; I1 ¼ 0:5 A:
Solution
First calculate Thévenin resistance for the circuit to the left of RL (Fig. 2.112):
Then, determine Thévenin voltage, noting that R3 has no current flow at the
output terminals (a-ground), as shown in Fig. 2.113.
The node voltage Vx becomes the open-circuit voltage.
Using KCL at this node,
V1
þ I1
V1 Vx Vx R
þ I1 ¼ þ ! Vx ¼ VTh ¼ 1 :
R1 R1 R2 1 1
þ
R1 R2
The load current through the resistor RL is found using Fig. 2.114:
V1 1 1
þ I1 þ
R1 2 2
1 1 1 1
þ þ
VTh R1 R2 2 2 1
iRL ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ A:
RTh þ RL ðR1 kR2 Þ þ R3 þ RL ð2k2Þ þ 1 þ 1 3
Thévenin equivalent voltage between (a) and (b) terminals of the circuit can be
found by applying source transformation to the current source, and then deter-
mining the voltage at node (c). This is due to the fact that the voltage at terminal
(a) equals to voltage at node (c), Vcb ¼ Vab (Fig. 2.116).
By KVL, i ¼ ð2 1Þ=ðR þ R þ 2RÞ ¼ 1=8 ¼ 0:125 A
Solution
For Thévenin’s equivalent circuit to the left of terminals a and b, the voltage source
is removed, the first circuit becomes a short circuit, so the RTh only depends on R3
(Fig. 2.118).
RTh ¼ R3 ¼ 100 X:
V1 V1 V1
iTh ¼ k iR2 ¼ k ¼ 0:1 ¼ 104 A
R1 þ R2 2000 2
V1
VTh ¼ 100 104 ¼ 50 104 V1
2
VTh 50 104 V1
iL ¼ ¼ ¼ 4:6 106 V1 A
R3 þ RL 100 þ 1000
Solution
V1 V1
(a) i ¼ ; Voc ¼ VT ¼ k i ¼ k
R1 R1
RT ¼ R2 ;
VT kV1 k V1 RL
IR L ¼ ¼ ; VRL ¼ I RL ¼ :
R2 þ RL R1 ðR2 þ RL Þ R1 ðR2 þ RL Þ
V1 2
VT ¼ k ¼2 ¼ 0:4 V; RT ¼ RN ¼ R2 ¼ 5 X:
R1 10
RL RL
VTh 5 ! 12 5 ! 7RL 50 ! RL 7:14 X:
RTh þ RL 10 þ RL
VTh 12
i¼ 0:5 A ! 0:5 ! 12 5 þ 0:5RL !
RTh þ RL 10 þ RL
RL 14 X:
Therefore, 7:14 X RL 14 X:
A proper value of load resistance is to choose the arithmetic mean of limiting
values. This allows for component variations in the circuit. In that case, RL ¼ 10 X
can be a suitable value of the load resistance.
Problem 2.5.12 Maximum power delivered by a DC circuit to a resistor of
R = 20.25 Ω is 1 W. Find the open-circuit voltage at the output of the circuit. Draw
its Thévenin’s equivalent circuit.
Solution
Vth2
Pmax ¼ ; VTh ¼ Voc ; R ¼ RTh
4RL
2
Voc V2
1¼ ¼ oc ! 2
Voc ¼ 81 ! Voc ¼ 9 V:
4 ð20:25Þ 81
Solution
First, determine the loop current under open-circuit conditions (i.e., no load is
connected between terminal b and ground). By KVL and assuming clockwise
current flow in the loop,
When dependent source is shorted to ground, one can determine the short-circuit
current at the output port, as
8 8
isc ¼ ¼ A:
4þ2 6
Then,
Voc 16 Vth 16
Rth ¼ RN ¼ ¼ ¼ 12 X; IN ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:333 A:
isc 8 Rth 12
6
Problem 2.5.14 For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.125, find
Solution
(a) Thévenin resistance (see Fig. 2.126)
24 104
RTh ¼ ð6==4Þ þ 8 ¼ þ8 ¼
10 10
RL ¼ RTh ¼ 10:4 X:
4 8
VTh ¼ Voc ¼ 2 ¼ ¼ 0:8 V
4 þ 6 10
VTh 0:8 0:8
i¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:038 A:
RTh þ RL 10:4 þ 10:4 20:8
Problem 2.5.15 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.129, all resistors (except Rx) have
the same resistance of R = 10 Ω, and V1 = 10 V. Find the value of Rx for maximum
power transfer (matrix_solve.xlsx) (Fig. 2.130).
Solution
Thévenin’s equivalent circuit
voc
Rx ¼ RTh ¼ :
isc
isc ¼ 0:195 A
Voc 2:2
Rx ¼ RTh ¼ ¼ ¼ 11:282 X:
isc 0:195
Problem 2.5.16 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.133,
(a) Determine Thévenin’s equivalent circuit parameters.
(b) If R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 Ω, V1 = 2 V, I1 = 1 A, RTh = ?, VTh = ?
178 2 Analysis Methods
Solution
(a) De-activate all independent sources (see, Fig. 2.134):
R1 R2 þ R1 R3 þ R2 R3
RTh ¼ R2 þ ðR1 ==R3 Þ ¼ :
R1 þ R3
1þ1þ1
RTh ¼ ¼ 1:5 X
1þ1
2
1
VTh ¼ Va ¼ 1 ¼ 0:5 V
1þ1
V1
(c) If \I1 ; VTh ¼ Va \0:
R1
(d) Norton equivalent circuit parameters are
VTh 0:5
ITh ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:333 A
RTh 1:5
RN ¼ RTh ¼ 1:5 X:
Problem 2.5.17
(a) Find Thévenin equivalent circuit for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.136.
(b) Find the limiting value of k if R1 = R2 = 1 Ω.
(c) Norton equivalent circuit?
Solution
(a) The circuit has no independent sources. Apply source transform to dependent
source and 1 A current at terminals a, b (Fig. 2.137).
KCL at terminal (a), with i ¼ Va =R2
kVa Va Va k 1 1
þ1 ¼0 ! Va ¼ 1
R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R2
1
VTh ¼ Va ¼
k 1 1
þ
R1 R2 R1 R2
Va 1
RTh ¼ ¼ :
1A 1 1 k
þ
R1 R2 R1 R2
k 1 1
6¼ þ :
R1 R2 R1 R2
If R1 = R2 = 1 Ω, then k 6¼ 2
(c) Norton equivalent circuit = Thévenin equivalent circuit (Fig. 2.138).
Problem 2.5.18 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.139, determine the inequality con-
dition on parameter C in terms of known quantities of the circuit so that, Rab < 0 X.
Solution
The circuit does not contain an independent source, therefore its Thévenin equiv-
alent circuit has only a Thévenin resistance. We assign a current source at the
output, and source transform-dependent source (Fig. 2.140a, b),
Nodal equation:
C Va
I0 þ Ix þ Ix ¼ 0; ðVb ¼ 0 VÞ:
2 2
Fig. 2.140 Assign a current source at the output, and source transform-dependent source
But,
Va
Va ¼ 8Ix ! Ix ¼
8
Va C Va Va
I0 þ ¼ 0;
8 2 8 2
CVa Va Va C 1 1 C þ 10
I0 ¼ þ þ ¼ Va þ þ ¼ Va
16 8 2 16 8 2 16
16I0
Va ¼ :
10 þ C
Vs V2 V1 V1 V2
f ¼0 ð2:83Þ
R1 R3 R1 R2
V2 V1 V2 V2
f þ ¼ 0: ð2:84Þ
R3 R2 R3
182 2 Analysis Methods
V2 ¼ VTh ¼ 1 V ¼ Voc
Voc
RTh ¼ :
Isc
V1 þ V2 ¼ 0: ð2:89Þ
V2 1
V2 ¼ 1 V; Isc ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 A:
R4 1
Voc 1
RTh ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 X:
Isc 1
Problem 2.5.20 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.145, determine the maximum power
(in Watts) that can be transferred to load resistance RL. Given that, when RL is
removed from the circuit, the voltage at node 4 is measured as 4.25 V:
R1 ¼ R5 ¼ R6 ¼ R7 ¼ 1 X; R2 ¼ R3 ¼ R4 ¼ 2 X; I1 ¼ I2 =2 ¼ 2 A:
Solution
2
VTh 4:252
Pmax ¼ ¼
4RTh 4 RTh
4:252 18:0625
Pmax ¼ ¼ ¼ 4:516 W:
41 4
Problem 2.5.21 In the circuit shown in Fig. 2.145, determine the maximum power
transferred to RL :
R1 ¼ R5 ¼ R6 ¼ R7 ¼ 1 X; R2 ¼ R3 ¼ R4 ¼ 2X; i1 ¼ 2 A; i2 ¼ 4 A (matrix_-
solve.xlsx).
Solution
Rth ¼ 1 X
2 32 3 2 3
2 1 0 0 V1 2
6 1 2:5 1 07 6 V2 7 6 0 7
6 76 7 ¼ 6 7:
4 0 1 2:5 1 54 V3 5 4 0 5
0 0 1 1:5 V4 4
Problem 3.1.1
(a) In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.1, C2 ¼ C3 ¼ 4C; C1 ¼ 2CðFÞ; determine the
voltage across each capacitor, in terms of U.
(b) If U = 100 V, calculate the voltage across each capacitor.
Solution
(a) Q = Total charge = Ceq U
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
¼ þ þ ¼ þ þ ¼ ; Ceq ¼ CðFÞ
Ceq C1 C2 C3 2C 4C 4C C
Q CU U Q CU U
V1 ¼ ¼ ¼ V; V2 ¼ V3 ¼ ¼ ¼ V
C1 2C 2 C2 4C 4
Problem 3.1.2 In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.2, series-connected four capacitors are
fed by 12 V DC voltage source. Voltage readings across each capacitor are:
DV 1 ¼ 1 V; DV 2 ¼ 2 V; DV 3 ¼ 5 V; Ceq ¼ 0:1 F:
(a) ΔV4 = ?
(b) How much charge is stored in each capacitor?
(c) What is the capacitance of each capacitor?
(d) Vx = ?
Solution
(a) DV4 ¼ 12 1 2 5 ¼ 4 V
12
(b) DV ¼ Vdc ¼ Ceq Q ! 12 V ¼ 0:1FQ ! Q¼ ¼ 120 C
0:1
(c) DV C1 DV2 C2 DV3 C3 DV4 C4 ¼ Q
DV1 1V 1 DV2 2V 1
C1 ¼ ¼ ¼ F; C2 ¼ ¼ ¼ F
Q 120 C 120 Q 120 C 60
DV3 5 1
C3 ¼ ¼ ¼ F; C4 ¼ DV
Q ¼ 120 C ¼ 30 F
4 4 1
Q 120 C 24
Problem 3.1.3
(a) In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.3, find the relationship between the capacitor
values in order that the equivalent capacitance has the value of capacitance of
capacitor C2.
(b) If C2 = 1 nF, C1 = ?
Solution
C1 ðC1 þ C2 Þ
Cab ¼ Ceq ¼ ! C12 þ C1 C2 ¼ 2C1 C2 þ C22
(a) C1 þ ðC1 þ C2 Þ
C22 þ C1 C2 C12 ¼ 0 ! x2 þ xy y2 ¼ 0
Solving last equation for x (=C2) yields,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi
y y2 4ðy2 Þ y 5 y 1 pffiffiffi
x¼ ¼ ¼ 5 1 y ¼ 0:618y
2 2 2 2 2
(b) 1 nF ¼ 0:618 C1
1
C1 ¼ nF ¼ 1:618 nF
0:618
Problem 3.1.4
(a) Find the equivalent capacitance of the infinite capacitor ladder network shown
in Fig. 3.4.
(b) If Ceq = 10 pF, C = ?
Solution
(a) If the ladder equivalent capacitance is Ceq and one more L section is added to
the left of it, equivalent capacitance does not change, see Fig. 3.5.
C C þ Ceq
Ceq ¼ C k C þ Ceq ¼
2C þ Ceq
2Ceq C þ Ceq
2
¼ C 2 þ Ceq C
2
Ceq þ Ceq C C2 ¼ 0
1 pffiffiffi
Ceq ¼ 5 1 C ¼ 0:618 C
2
(b) 10 pF ¼ 0:618 C
10
C¼ pF ¼ 16:18 pF
0:618
Problem 3.1.6 Find the capacitance (in pF) if the areas of parallel plates are
10 cm2 and the separation distance is (a) 1 cm. (b) 1 mm. (c) 0.1 mm. ðr ¼ 5Þ
Solution
0 ¼ 8:8542 1012 ½F/m is the permittivity of vacuum.
A ¼ 10 cm2 ¼ 103 m2
3.1 Capacitors, Permittivity, Capacitance 189
A A A
C ¼ r :0 ¼ 5 8:8542 1012 ¼ 44:271 1012
d d d
44:271 1015
¼ F
d
44:271 1015
(a) d ¼ 1 cm ¼ 102 m; C¼ ffi 4:427 pF
102
44:271 1015
(b) d ¼ 1 mm ¼ 103 m; C ¼ ffi 44:27 pF
103
44:271 1015
(c) d ¼ 0:1 mm ¼ 104 m; C ¼ ffi 442:7 pF
104
A
C ¼ r o ;
d
100 104 m2
C ¼ 3 8:85 1012
104 m
10
¼ 26:55 10 F ¼ 2:655 nF
Problem 3.1.8 One plate of a parallel plate capacitor (in air) is connected to a
spring with the spring constant of k. The system is initially at rest. If the capacitor is
charged by q, neglecting any friction, what is the expression for the expansion of
the spring? (Fig. 3.6)
Solution
Force on plate a due to spring is
Fs ¼ kx ð3:1Þ
If the charges on plates a, b are q+ and q−, respectively, the electrostatic force due
to electric field generated by b is given as:
Fe ¼ qE ð3:2Þ
q2 q2
Fe ¼ Fs ! ¼ kx ! x¼
2A0 2k0 A
Problem 3.1.9 Determine the resistance of material of permittivity and con-
ductivity r placed between two concentric spheres (a = radius of inner sphere,
b = radius of outer sphere), Fig. 3.7.
Solution
By Ohm’s law, J ¼ E; and assuming that a potential difference U is applied
between two spheres,
Z Z Z
q CU
I¼ JdS ¼ rEdS ¼ r EdS ¼ r ¼ r
s s s
4p
C¼
1 1
a b
r 4pU 4prU
I¼ ¼
1 1 1 1
a b a b
The resistance is
1 1
U U
R¼ ¼ ¼ a b ½X
I 4prU 4pr
1 1
a b
Problem 3.1.10 Determine the capacitance of spherical capacitor with two con-
centric dielectric materials with relative permittivities of r1 and r2 :
Solution
Let
V
Electric field ¼ E ¼ ! V ¼ Er ! dV ¼ Edr
r
1 q 1 q
E1 ¼ ; E2 ¼
4p0 r1 r 2 4p0 r2 r 2
Potential at radius r2 ,
Z Zr1 Zr1
1 q q dr
V1 ¼ dV1 ¼ dr ¼
4p0 r1 r 2 4p0 r1 r2
r2 r2
r1
q 1 q 1 1
V1 ¼ ¼
4p0 r1 r r2 4p0 r1 r1 r2
Potential at radius r3
r2
q 1 q 1 1
V2 ¼ ¼
4p0 r2 r r3 4p0 r2 r2 r3
192 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
Total capacitance:
q q 4p r
C¼ ¼
¼ 0 2
V1 þ V2 q 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r2 1 r2
þ 1 þ 1
4p0 r1 r1 r2 r2 r2 r3 r1 r1 r2 r3
4p r
C¼ 0 2
1 r2 1 r2
1 þ 1
r1 r1 r2 r3
Solution
(a) The capacitance of each sphere is C ¼ 4pr
(b) Due to symmetry, the changes are q and potentials are U/2,
Therefore, the charge of each sphere is
U U
j qj ¼ C ¼ 4pr ¼ 2prU
2 2
Z Z Z
q 2prU
I¼ JdS ¼ rEdS ¼ r EdS ¼ r ¼ r ¼ 2prrU
s s s
U U 1
R¼ ¼ ¼
I 2prrU 2prr
1
Rs ¼
4pr
1
s ¼ CR ¼ ð4prÞ ¼
4prr r
Problem 3.1.12 Determine the resistance of a circular disc with Radius r, con-
ductivity r and relative permittivity r .
Determine the capacitance and resistance of a thin circular graphite disc with
diameter of 2 cm. ðr ¼ 10; r ¼ 1350 lX cmÞ, see Fig. 3.9.
Solution
Assuming that a potential difference U is applied, the capacitance of disc is
C ¼ 8o r r.
q CU ð8o r rÞU
I¼r ¼r ¼r ¼ 8rrU
o r o r o r
U U 1
R¼ ¼ ¼
I 8rrU 8rr
1 1
R¼ ¼ ¼ 9:26 105 X ¼ 926 kX
8rr 8 1350 108 102
Problem 3.1.13
(a) Find the resistance of a spherical cell membrane if the radius of the cell is
r = 25 microns, membrane thickness, d = 6 nm, and resistivity of 35 MX m
(see, Fig. 3.10).
(b) Determine the electric field inside the resting cell, if the potential difference
across the membrane is U = −60 mV,
(c) Determine the capacitance of the membrane if its relative dielectric constant
is 9.
(d) Determine the electrical charge over the cell.
(e) Calculate the electric charge density on the membrane.
(f) What is the membrane capacitance/cm2?
(g) Determine the time constant of cell membrane (ms) and comment on this value.
(h) How much leakage current flows through the membrane? What is the direction
of this current flow?
Solution
(a) The cell area,
U 60 103
E¼ ¼ ¼ 10 106 V/m ¼ 10 MV/m
d 6 109
Q 6258 1015
r¼ ¼ ¼ 0:7968 103 C/m2 ¼ 79:68 nC/cm2
A 7853:98 1012
Solution
(a) Dielectric constant of water and the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
(plates’ area = 1000 cm2, distance between the plates = 0.5 cm, water filled)
between 0 and 100 °C are displayed in Fig. 3.11.
(b) Using capacitance formula for parallel plate capacitor,
A A
C ¼ 0 r ¼ 0 BebT
d d
Cd
¼ ebT
0 AB
When temperature of pure water (dielectric material between the plates) is less
than 39.19 °C, capacitance of the capacitor is larger than 13 nF.
75 13
70 12
65 11
60 10
55 9
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature ºC
3.1 Capacitors, Permittivity, Capacitance 197
A 5 1012 102
Cx ¼ 0 r ¼ 8:85 1012 r ¼ 22:125 r ¼ 910 ½pF
d 2 103
910
r ¼ ¼ 41:13
22:125
3f ðs Þ
s þ 2
eff ¼ þ
f ðs Þ
1
s þ 2
70
60
Relative permittivity
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Volume fraction, %
Solution
The permittivity for the mixture of polystyrene beads in water as a function of the
volume fraction of the beads using MG model is displayed in Fig. 3.12.
Problem 3.1.17 Voigt model for the permittivity of dielectric mixtures (two-phase
formulation at a constant temperature and pressure) can be stated as
eff ¼ s f þ m ð1 f Þ
where,
f volume fraction of inclusion;
eff relative permittivity of mixture ðcompositeÞ;
s relative permittivity of inclusion ðgrainÞ;
m relative permittivity of matrix ðbackground-host-mediumÞ:
(a) Derive the preceding equation (Voigt model for mixtures) using the concept of
parallel-connected capacitors.
(b) Plot the variation of composite static relative permittivity as a function of
volume fraction of air bubbles in water ðs ¼ 1; m ¼ 78:5Þ, using Voigt model
and also Maxwell–Garnett (MG) model.
Display composite static relative permittivity as predicted by both models as a
function of volume fraction of air bubbles in water, for different air volume fraction
values ð0 f 1Þ (emix1.m, emix2.m, emix3.m).
3.1 Capacitors, Permittivity, Capacitance 199
Solution
(a) Consider two parallel-connected capacitors with different permittivities, and
having the same distance (=d) between the parallel plates with a composite area
of A = xw, while electric field vector E is aligned in parallel to inclusions. See,
Fig. 3.13.
Effective capacitance is
Ceff ¼ Cs þ Cm
0 eff A 0 s As 0 m Am
¼ þ ;
d d d
where As and Am are the area of inclusion and matrix (background). This further
simplifies to
eff x ¼ s t þ m ðx tÞ
t ðx tÞ
eff ¼ s þ m
x x
eff ¼ s f þ m ð1 f Þ
This gives the permittivity of dielectric mixtures in ROM for Voigt Model.
(b) Static relative permittivity in air–water mixture as a function of volume fraction
of air bubbles in water, using “Maxwell Garnett (MG) model for one type of
embedded spherical inclusions”, (two-phase formulation at a constant temper-
ature and pressure) is calculated using following equation:
3f m ðs m Þ
s þ 2m
eff ¼ m þ
f ðs m Þ
1
s þ 2m
The meanings of the terms in this equation are given in part (a). This model
assumes that the particles are solid homogeneous objects in an isotropic medium.
Substituting static permittivity values of water and air into this formula, and plotting
it by changing volume fraction of air bubbles parameter (f) yields the graph shown
in Fig. 3.14.
Problem 3.1.18 Permittivity of a composite material (mixture) can be described
using “the rule of mixtures-ROM-” and with the following assumptions:
(1) Inclusions in the composite material are continuous and uniformly distributed
throughout the base matrix. (2) Perfect bonding between inclusions and matrix
exists. (3) Matrix is void free. (4) Linearity applies to both inclusions and the
matrix.
Based on the Wiener theory for bounds of effective dielectric permittivity of
two-phase composite materials, a general permittivity equation is given as:
The parameter n varies within the [1, −1] range, and describes a specific
topology of a composite,
80
Voigt
70 Maxwell-Garnett
60
50
permittivity
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Volume fraction, %
Fig. 3.14 Static relative permittivity as a function of volume fraction of air bubbles in water
3.1 Capacitors, Permittivity, Capacitance 201
V
f The volume fraction of fibers ¼ V f þf V m
eff relative permittivity of mixture ðcompositeÞ;
s relative permittivity of spherical inclusions ðgrains dispersed phaseÞ;
m relative permittivity of matrix ðbackground-host-mediumÞ:
Vs Volume of inclusions
Vm Volume of matrix
Here, n = 1 corresponds to electric field parallel to the inclusion (Voigt model).
When n = −1, the lower bound of permittivity for the composite material, which
corresponds to electric field perpendicular to the inclusion (Reuss model or inverse
ROM model) is
1
eff ¼ ð3:7Þ
1f
f
s þ
m
Therefore,
1
eff f s þ ð1 f Þm ð3:8Þ
1f
f
s þ
m
Krawzenski model has n = 1/2 [3] while Looyenga model has parameter n = 1/3
in Eq. (3.6) [4].
(a) Derive Eq. (3.7) [i.e., Eq. (3.6) for n = −1] for composite permittivity using the
concept of series-connected capacitors.
(b) Plot the variation of composite static relative permittivity as a function of
volume fraction of air bubbles in water ðs ¼ 1; m ¼ 78:5Þ, using four different
mixture models mentioned above (emix4.m).
Solution
(a) Assume that capacitance of the composite material is made out of two capac-
itors connected in series (see, Fig. 3.15). In this case, direction of electric field
is perpendicular to the plane of inclusions (Reuss model of composites).
1 1 1
¼ þ ð3:9Þ
Ceff Cs Cm
Vs d1
f ¼ ¼ ð3:10Þ
Vs þ Vm D
s A m A
Cs Cm d D d1 s m A 2
Ceff ¼ ¼ o 1 ¼ o
Cs þ Cm s A m A A½s ðD d1 Þ þ m d1
d1 þ D d
1
s m A
Ceff ¼ o ð3:11Þ
s ðD d1 Þ þ m d1
eff A
Ceff ¼ o ð3:12Þ
D
eff A s m A
o ¼ o
D s ðD d1 Þ þ m d1
eff s m
¼
D s ð D d1 Þ þ m d1
1 s ðD d1 Þ þ m d1 d1 ð D d1 Þ
¼ ¼ þ
eff s m D s D m D
1 f ð1 f Þ
¼ þ
eff s m
composite permittivity
80
Voigt
70 Krawzenski
Looyenga
Reuss
60
50
permittivity
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Volume fraction, %
Fig. 3.16 Variations of composite static relative permittivity as a function of volume fraction of
air bubbles in water (s ¼ 1; m ¼ 78:5), using four different mixture models
204 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
Problem 3.1.19 For air bubbles in water, determine and plot the capacitance of the
sensor and capacitance difference to the initial capacitance as a function of f = air
volume fraction, with 1% increments up to f = 10%. Assume that Voigt model is
valid for the mixture. (emix5.m)
Area of the parallel plates = 1 cm2, distance between parallel plates = 1 mm.
Solution
Capacitance of the air free sensor is
A 104
C ¼ 0 m ¼ 8:85 1012 78 3 ¼ 69:03 pF
d 10
A
Ceff ¼ 0 eff ; DC ¼ C Ceff ;
d
Voigt model
70
69
68
Capacitance pF
67
66
65
64
63
62
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Volume fraction, %
Fig. 3.17 Capacitance for air bubbles in water versus volume fraction
12
10
8
dC/C percent
0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Volume fraction, %
(a) For air bubbles in water, plot effective mixture permittivity as a function of
inclusion volume fraction for full range. (emix_Lichtenecker.m,
emix_Lichtenecker2.m)
(b) Determine the capacitance of the sensor and the ratio of capacitance difference
to the initial capacitance as a function of f = air volume fraction, with 1%
increments up to f = 10%. Assume that Lichtenecker model is valid for the
mixture.
Area of the parallel plates = 1 cm2, distance between parallel plates = 1 mm.
Solution
(a) Applying the formulation for the full range of (f) values, yields the result as
displayed in Fig. 3.19;
(b) Capacitance of the air free sensor is
Lichtenecker model
80
70
60
50
permittivity
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Volume fraction, %
Fig. 3.19 Effective mixture permittivity as a function of inclusion volume fraction (air bubbles in
water)
3.1 Capacitors, Permittivity, Capacitance 207
A 104
C ¼ 0 m ¼ 8:85 1012 78 3 ¼ 69:03 pF
d 10
A
Ceff ¼ 0 eff ; DC ¼ C Ceff ;
d
f eps C k
0 78.0000 69.0300 0
0.0100 74.6747 66.0871 4.4530
0.0200 71.4912 63.2697 9.1043
0.0300 68.4434 60.5724 13.9627
0.0400 65.5256 57.9901 19.0375
0.0500 62.7321 55.5179 24.3382
0.0600 60.0577 53.1511 29.8750
0.0700 57.4974 50.8852 35.6584
0.0800 55.0462 48.7159 41.6993
0.0900 52.6995 46.6390 48.0091
0.1000 50.4528 44.6507 54.6000
Problem 3.1.21 Show that for an RC circuit, the unit for time constant s is in
seconds.
Solution
Since time constant expression is given as
V VC Q
s ¼ R:C ¼ C ¼ ¼ ¼ t; s¼t
I I I
C 2pr 0
¼ ;
L b
ln
a
Solution
(a) Capacitance (in air) is,
2pr 0 L 2 p 8:85 1012 1:5
C¼ ¼
b 5
ln ln
a 2
¼ 9:103 1011 Fm1 ¼ 91:03 pF
(b) Glycerol is a covalently linked molecule, it does not ionize and conduct elec-
tricity. Since measured capacitance value is 2.21 nF, and the relative
3.1 Capacitors, Permittivity, Capacitance 209
permittivity of glycerol is much higher than that of the air, one may neglect the
effect of air capacitance, as a simplification. In this case,
This means that 857/1500 = 57.13, i.e., 57.13% of the vertical cylindrical
container is filled with glycerol.
(c) Equivalent circuit of the sensor can be taken as parallel-connected capacitors,
2pr 0 f 2pr 0 ð1 f Þ
Cmeasured ¼ Cglycerol þ Cair ¼ þ
b b
ln ln
a a
2p0
¼ ð r f þ 1 f Þ
b
ln
a
2p0
Cmeasured ¼ r Lglycerol þ 1 Lglycerol
b
ln
a
Substitution of values into this equation and solving for glycerol level,
2 p 8:85 1012
2:21 109 ¼ 42:5 Lglycerol þ 1 Lglycerol
5
ln
2
5
2:21 109 ln
2
1
¼ 2 p 8:85 10
12
Lglycerol ¼ 0:853 m
41:5
DC ¼ Cactual Capprox ¼ 853 857 ¼ 4 mm
(d) Given C = 2.21 nF, R = 100 kX; Settling time of the measuring pulse wave-
form is
This value is the minimum time for a stable level measurement in a sampled
pulsed mode of operation.
Problem 3.1.23 Determine the time constant (in ms) of two concentric conducting
cylinders with outer and inner diameters 64 and 50 mm, respectively, and height of
each 90 mm, inner spacing is fully filled with distilled water at 20
C (conductivity
¼ 1 ls=m). Bottom of each cylinder is nonconducting.
Solution
For water, r ffi 80 at 20
C (Data is found in handbooks and on the web), and
noting that the ratio of diameters equals to the ratio of radii,
2p0 r L 9 102
C¼ ¼ 2p 8:85 80 ¼ 1621:83 pF
rb 64
ln ln
ra 50
Z Zrb
dr q dr q rb
dR ¼ q ! R¼ dR ¼ ¼ ln
2prL 2prL r 2prL ra
ra
1
10 6 64
R¼ 2
ln ¼ 0:4365 MX
2p 9 10 50
0.0
-2.0
-4.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
time [sec]
Solution
Current and voltage equations on a capacitor are
Zt
dvC ðtÞ 1
iC ðtÞ ¼ C ; vC ðtÞ ¼ iC ðt0 Þdt0 þ vC ð0Þ
dt C
t0
Zt
1 1 1
4t ¼ 2dt0 ¼ 2t ! C¼ F
C C 2
0
As a check for this result, use data for 1 t\2, and find the voltage across the
capacitor,
Z
1
vC ðtÞ ¼ ð2Þdt0 þ 4V ¼ 2ð2tÞ þ 4 ¼ 4t þ 4 V
0:5
voltage-current on a capacitor
*transient analysis
I1 0 1 PWL( 0 2 1 2 1.001 -2 1.999 -2 2 -2)
vref 1 2 0
C 2 0 0.5
212 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
dv
ic ðtÞ ¼ C ; C ¼ 10 mF ¼ 102 F;
dt
ic ðtÞ ¼ 0 for t\0 and t [ 2:
For 0 t 1;
d
ic ðtÞ ¼ 102 ð5tÞ ¼ 0:05 A ¼ 50 mA:
dt
For 1 t 2;
d
ic ðtÞ ¼ 102 ð10 5tÞ ¼ 0:05 ¼ 50 mA
dt
in summary,
8
>
> 0 t¼0
<
50 mA 0 t 1
iðtÞ ¼
>
> 50 mA 1 t 2
:
0 t2
8
<0 t\0
ic ðtÞ ¼ 1 mA 0 t 1
:
0 t[1
Zt
1
vC ðtÞ ¼ ic ðt0 Þdt0 þ Vc ðt0 Þ; t [ t0
C
t0
3.1 Capacitors, Permittivity, Capacitance 213
For 0 t 1 s;
103 103
vC ðtÞ ¼ t þ 5 ¼ 3 t þ 5 ¼ t þ 5 ¼ 1 þ 5 ¼ 6 V
C 10
in summary,
tþ5V 0 t 1
Vc ðtÞ ¼
6V t[1
Final capacitor voltage value after the current has stopped charging it depends on
the initial value of the capacitor voltage (besides the current history). The voltage
across the capacitor then remains at the maximum value of 6 V.
Problem 3.1.27 Current through a capacitor with capacitance C is given by
ic ðtÞ ¼ I 0 et=s uðtÞ; where u(t) (switching) unit step function, and s has a unit
of time.
Determine the final value of voltage and stored charge on the capacitor, then find the
capacitor’s energy. Assume that there is no energy stored initially on the capacitor.
Solution
Zt Zt
1 0 01 I0 s t=s t
vC ðtÞ ¼ vc ð0Þ þ ic ðt Þdt ¼ ic ðt0 Þdt0 ¼ e
C C C 0
0 0
I0 s
¼ 1 et=s
C
Therefore,
I0 s
vC ð1Þ ¼ V
C
I0 s
q ¼ C vC ð1Þ ¼ C ¼ I0 s C
C
Capacitor’s energy is
1 1 I0 s 2 I02 s2
W ¼ C vC ð1Þ ¼ C
2
¼ J:
2 2 C 2C
Solution
VC ðt0 Þ ¼ 4 V;
1 1
W ðt0 Þ ¼ C VC2 ðt0 Þ ¼ 2:2 106 ð4Þ2 ¼ 17:6 lJ
2 2
A plot of this function in MATLAB verifies the graph and numerical result.
Evaluating it at t ¼ 1:3 s yields vC ð1:3Þ ¼ 0:132 V:
Energy stored at t ¼ 1:3 s is
1 1
Wð1:3Þ ¼ CVC2 ð1:3Þ ¼ 103 ð0:132Þ2 ¼ 8:7 lJ
2 2
0.8
0.6
Vc(t) [V]
0.4
0.2
-0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t [s]
C = 1e-3; t = 1.3;
Vc = -exp(-t)+2*exp(-2*t)-2*exp(-4*t)+2*exp(-5*t)
W = 0.5 * C * Vc^2
Problem 3.2.1 In a first-order source free RC circuit, find the power dissipated
(mW) in 1 kX resistor 0.5 s after discharge begins, if the initial voltage over the
1 mF capacitor is V0 = 10 V.
Solution
V0 t 2 V2 100 1
e s : R ¼ 0 e s ¼
2t
pðtÞ ¼ iðtÞ2 R ¼ e
R R 1000
¼ 0:1 0:03679 ¼ 36:79 mW
V0 t 2 V2
e s :R ¼ 0 e s
2t
pðtÞ ¼ iðtÞ2 R ¼
R R
1 1
W ¼ Cvð0Þ2 ¼ CV02
2 2
Zt Zt Zt t
vðtÞ2 2 V02 2t sV02 2t
Wt ¼ dt ¼ iðtÞ Rdt ¼ e s dt ¼ e s
R R 2R 0
0 0 0
1
Wt ¼ CV02 1 e s ¼ W 1 e s
2t 2t
Wt
¼ 1 e s
2t
W
h i
100 1 e s percentage of the initial energy stored on the
2t
which means
capacitor is dissipated on the resistor at the end of t seconds following the closure of
switch S.
Problem 3.2.3 In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.24, power supply voltage value is
10 V, R = 1 MΩ, C = 1 pF. Determine the current (lA) flowing through resistor
for t < 0 and t 0.
Solution
Vdc 10
t\0; I0 ¼ ¼ 6 ¼ 105 A
R 10
t 0; iR ðtÞ ¼ I0 et=RC
Problem 3.2.4 In the source-free circuit shown in Fig. 3.25, vC1 ð0 Þ ¼ 9:5 V;
C1 = 10 F, C2 = 5 F, C3 = 3 F.
Solution
(a)
for t\0; V2 ¼ V3 ¼ 0 V; V1 ¼ 9:5 V
C1 C2 C3 10 5 3 150
for t 0; Ceq ¼ ¼ ¼ F
C1 C2 þ C1 C3 þ C2 C3 50 þ 30 þ 15 95
qc10 ¼ C1 Vc10 ¼ 10 9:5 ¼ 95 C
150
q1 ¼ Ceq Vc10 ¼ 95 ¼ 15 C
95
Dq ¼ qc10 q1 ¼ 95 15 ¼ 80 C
Dq 80
Vc11 ¼ ¼ ¼ 8V
C1 10
V1 ¼ Vc11 ¼ V2 ¼ 8 V
C2 5
V3 ¼ Vc31 ¼ Vðc11Þ ¼8 ¼ 5V
C1 þ C2 5þ3
(b) Figure 3.26 displays circuit voltages against time.
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
time [sec]
218 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
SPICE Netlist
C_dischargeR.cir
*.tran 1M 5 0 10M uic
*C split at dc
C1 1 0 10 ic 9.5v
R1 1 2 0.5
C2 2 3 5
C3 3 0 3
VC1 ð0Þ t
iðtÞ ¼ I0 es ¼
t
e s
R
150 75
s ¼ RCeq ¼ 0:5 ¼ ¼ 0:78947 ¼ 789:47 ms
95 95
9:5 t
iðtÞ ¼ e 0:78947 ¼ 19e1:267t
0:5
ið0Þ ¼ 19e1:2670 ¼ 19 A
ið1Þ ¼ 19e1:2671 ¼ 0 A
(d) The current waveform in the circuit is plotted in Fig. 3.27, using SPICE
analysis.
10
0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
time [sec]
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 219
SPICE Netlist,
C_dischargeR2.cir
Analysis: Transient
Current waveform in C split circuit
C1 1 0 10 ic 9.5v
R1 4 2 0.5
C2 2 3 5
C3 3 0 3
v1 1 4 0
*.tran 1M 5 0 10M uic
Problem 3.2.5 For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.28, (a) Vc(0−) = ? (b) Vc(0+) = ?
(c) Vc(t) = ?, t > 0 (d) Vc(∞) = ?
(R1 = 1 Ω, R2 = 2 Ω, C = 2 F, Vdc = 10 V)
Solution
R2 2 20
(a) Vc ð0 þ Þ ¼ Vdc ¼ 10 ¼ ¼ 6:667 V
R1 þ R2 1þ2 3
(b) Vc ð0 þ Þ ¼ Vc ð0 Þ ¼ 6:667 V
(c) Vc ðtÞ ¼ Vc ð0 Þ es ¼ Vc ð0 Þ eRC ¼ 6:667 e22 ¼ 6:667e0:25t
t t t
(d) Vc ð1Þ ¼ 0 V
Problem 3.2.6 In the circuit of Fig. 3.29, switch (S0) has been in the position
(01) for long time. At t = 0, it is brought to position (02).
For t 0,
(a) What is the time constant of the circuit?
(b) What is the equation of voltage over resistance?
(c) What is the value of current through resistor at t = 1 ms? (in mA)
(d) What is the value of initial current flowing through resistor? (in mA)
Solution
(a) s ¼ RC ¼ 103 106 ¼ 103 s ¼ 1 ms
(b) vR ðtÞ ¼ 10 es ¼ 10 e103 ¼ 10 e10 t ¼ 10 e1000t
t t 3
vR ðtÞ
3
10 e10 10
3
Problem 3.2.7 In Fig. 3.30, which represents a monophasic defibrillator circuit, the
switch S was in position A for a long time. It is thrown into position B at t = 0 s. Find;
(a) Capacitor current, ic(0−) = ?
(b) Capacitor voltage, vc(0−) = ?
(c) Capacitor current, ic(0+) = ?
(d) Capacitor voltage, vc(0+) = ?
(e) Capacitor voltage, vc(∞) = ?
(f) Maximum magnitude of charging current, ic(− ∞) = ?
(g) Maximum magnitude of discharging current, ic(∞) = ?
(h) Energy stored on capacitor at t = 0?
(i) Energy dissipated on resistor R2 at t = ∞?
(j) Average power dissipated on resistor R2, T seconds after switch S is closed?
(k) Time constant of charging circuit?
(l) Time constant of discharging circuit?
Solution
(a) Capacitor current, ic(0−) = 0 A
(b) Capacitor voltage, vc(0−) = Vdc V
Vdc
iC ð0 þ Þ ¼ A
R2
Vdc
iC ð1Þ ¼ A
R1
(j) Average power dissipated on resistor R2, T seconds after switch S is closed?
W C ð0 þ Þ
PR2 ðTÞ ¼
T
Problem 3.2.8 In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.31a, the switch has been closed for a
long time. It is opened at t = 0. Find the voltage variation across the capacitor,
t 0. (Vdc = 20 V, C = 20 mF).
Solution
For t\0; the capacitor is open circuit to dc (Fig. 3.31b),
By voltage division rule; for t\0;
9
Vc ðtÞ ¼ 20 ¼ 15 V
3þ9
222 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
Since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously, Vc ð0Þ ¼
V0 ¼ 15 V: At t ¼ 0; the switch is opened: (Fig. 3.31c), Req ¼ 1 þ 9 ¼ 10 X
Solution
105
(a) s ¼ RC ffi 10 ls; ! C¼ ¼ 109 ¼ 1 nF
104
vc ðtÞ vc ð0Þ 10
(b) ic ðtÞ ¼ ! ic ð0Þ ¼ ¼ 4 ¼ 103 A ¼ 1 mA
R R 10
Solution
For t < 0, the capacitor is open circuit, therefore no current flows through R3.
Voltage drop across resistor R2 is equal to the voltage across the capacitor, see,
Fig. 3.33.
R2
Vc ¼ :Vdc t\0 ! Vc ð0Þ ¼ V0 ¼ Vdc
R2 þ R1
10
Vc ¼ :12 ¼ 10 V t\0 ! Vc ð0Þ ¼ V0 ¼ 10 V
10 þ 2
VðtÞ ¼ Vc ð0Þ:et=s ¼ 10:e83333;3t V
Problem 3.2.11
(a) What is a supercapacitor? Draw its equivalent circuit.
(b) Compare the energy storing performance of a supercap with C = 1 F, nominal
voltage of 5.5 V with that of a tantalum capacitor, C = 1500 lF rated at 6.3 V.
(c) Compare the charge storage performance of the two capacitors, given in (b).
Solution
(a) A supercapacitor (supercap) stores energy by polarizing an electrolytic solution,
without involving a chemical reaction [5–8]. It can be viewed as two porous
plates within an electrolyte. The applied voltage on the (+) plate attracts the
negative ions in the electrolyte. The positive ions are attracted by the voltage on
the (−) plate. This creates two layers; one where the positive and negative
charges are separated on positive plate and the other at the negative plate. The
porous carbon-based electrodes provide a larger area per mass (typically,
2000 m2/g), while the charge separation distance depends on the size of the
ions in the electrolyte, (about 10 Å). Simplified electrical equivalent model of
a supercap is shown in Fig. 3.35.
Here, Rs = series resistance, Ri = insulation resistance.
A detailed equivalent circuit model has multiple series resistors and capacitors,
as shown in Fig. 3.36. Such capacitors can be used in defibrillators.
(b) Esc ¼ 12 CV 2 ¼ 12 1 ð5:5Þ2 ¼ 15:125 J
1
Et ¼ 1500 106 ð6:3Þ2 ¼ 19:845 1:5 103 ffi 0:0298 J
2
Esc 15:125
¼ ffi 507:6
Et 0:0298
Energy storing capacity of 1 F/5.5 V supercap is 507.6 times higher than the
energy storing capacity of a 1.5 mF/6.3 V tantalum capacitor.
The charge storing performance of 1 F/5.5 V supercap is 582 times better than
the charge storing performance
of a 1.5 mF/6.3 V tantalum capacitor.
dV DV I DV
(d) I ¼ C !
! Dt ¼ C
dt Dt C I
4:2
Dt ¼ 1 ¼ 420 s ¼ 7 min
0:01
Solution
(a) Capacitor accumulated charge: Q ¼ CV ¼ 10 103 35 ¼ 0:35 C
V ð 0Þ 36
Rð0Þ ¼ 3
¼ 3 ¼ 36 kX
10 10
Solution
(a) Since voltage across a capacitor cannot change abruptly, vC ð0Þ ¼ vR ð0Þ ¼ 5 V
Time constant of the circuit is s ¼ RC ¼ ð1Þð1Þ ¼ 1 s:
Using given data,
vC ð4:5Þ ¼ 1:116e1:5
1
W ¼ Cvð0Þ2 ¼ 0:5ð1Þ 52 ¼ 12:5 J
2
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 227
This means that 95% of the initial energy stored on the capacitor is dissipated at
the end of first 1.5 s following the closure of switch S.
(d) The voltage variation across the capacitor (red) and the switching time (green)
are shown in Fig. 3.39.
(e)
SPICE net list SW3.cir
Analysis: Transient
truncated exponential monophasic waveform
C1 1 0 1 IC=5v
s2 1 2 3 0 sm2
*v5 3 0 dc 1
r1 2 0 1
*pulse(V1 V2 TD TR TF PW PER)
v5 3 0 pulse(0 2 0 0 0 1.5 3)
.MODEL sm2 SW(Ron=1u)
.tran .01 10 0 .01 uic
Analysis Parameters
*Stepsize ………… : .01
*Final time ………. : 10
*Display start time .. : 0
*Maximum step size … : .01
*Use Initial Conditions: On
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
time [sec]
228 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
Solution
(a) See Fig. 3.40
(b) Timing diagram for switches is shown in Fig. 3.41;
Cvð0Þ2 1 52
(c) W ¼ ¼ ¼ 12:5 J
2 2
v ð 0Þ 5
ið0Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 5A
R1 1
iðtÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 5et
R1 R1 1
(f) The current at time t = 1.5 s is calculated from the following equation:
(g) The percentage value of current flowing through the resistor R1 at t = 1.5 s to
the initial current is
ið1:5Þ 1:116
p¼ ¼ ¼ 22:31%
i ð 0Þ 5
Z1:5 Z1:5
W1:5 ¼ iðtÞ Rdt ¼ ð5et Þ2 dt
2
0 0
W1:5 ¼ W 1 e2ð1:5Þ ¼ 12:5 1 e3 ¼ 12:5ð0:95Þ J ¼ 11:875 J
This means that 95% of the initial energy stored on the capacitor is dissipated at
the end of first 1.5 s following the closure of switch S.
(i) The energy dissipated by resistor R2 can be calculated as
(j) The voltage variation across the resistor R1(red) R2 (blue) and switching
waveform for S1 are shown in Fig. 3.42.
SPICE netlist;
*Transient analysis
truncated exponential monophasic waveform SW1.cir
C1 1 0 1 IC=5v
R1 2 0 1
s1 1 2 3 0 sm2
*PULSE(V1 V2 TD TR TF PW PER)
230 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
voltage [V]
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
time [sec]
vx 3 0 pulse(0 2 0 0 0 1.5 3)
*s2 totally discharges C1 (residual discharging)
R2 4 0 .1
s2 1 4 0 3 sm2
.MODEL sm2 SW(Ron = 1u)
.tran .01 10 0 .01 uic
*Stepsize ………… : .01
*Final time ………. : 10
*Display start time .. : 0
*Maximum step size … : .01
*Use Initial Conditions: On
(h) What is the amount of dissipated energy on patient’s trunk within the first
10 ms?
(i) How much energy is dissipated by resistor R2?
Solution
(a) The circuit is shown in Fig. 3.43.
(b) Timing diagram for switches is shown in Fig. 3.44.
Cvð0Þ2 48 106 vð0Þ2
(c) W ¼ ¼ ¼ 360 J
2 2
360 15
vð0Þ2 ¼ 6
¼ 6 ¼ 15 106 J
24 10 10
vð0Þ ¼ 3873 V
vð0Þ 3873
ið0Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 77:46 A
R1 50
iðtÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 77:46e416:7t
R1 R1 50
(g) The percentage value of current flowing through the patient trunk at t = 10 ms
to the initial current is
This means that 99.98% of the initial energy stored on the capacitor is dissi-
pated at the end of first 10 ms following the closure of switch S.
(i) Energy dissipated by resistor R2
Problem 3.2.16 In the circuit of Fig. 3.45, find the voltages vC1 ðtÞ; vC2 ðtÞ across
both of the capacitors after the switch is closed. R = R1 = R2 = 10 kΩ,
C = C1 = C2 = 100 µF, Vi = 1000 V, VC1 ð0Þ ¼ 0 V, VC2 ð0Þ ¼ 400 V. Check the
results using SPICE analysis, print the netlist. (RCx2.cir)
Solution
U ¼ 10 V; R ¼ 100 X; C¼?
Solution
During charging of a capacitor, the current through the capacitor decreases
exponentially,
U t 10 3060
103 ¼ e 100C ¼ 101 e C 102 ¼ e C
18 18
ic ¼ e s ! !
R 100
234 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
18 18
lnð102 Þ ¼ ! C¼ ¼ 3:909 F
C lnð0:01Þ
R U
vX ð0 Þ ¼ vC ð0 Þ ¼ U ¼ V
RþR 2
This means that the capacitor voltage is initially at half the value of input
voltage, (=U/2) and after the switch is closed, it exponentially charges up to U volts,
within approximate duration of 5RC seconds. For example, if U = 10 V, R = 1 X,
C = 0.1 F, Fig. 3.47b displays vX ðtÞ; t [ 0:
(b) 10.0
Vx(t) [V]
5.0
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
time [sec]
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 235
C1 vð0Þ2 1 52
W¼ ¼ ¼ 12:5 J
2 2
Since C2 = C1 and initial charges are the same, initial energy stored on C2 is the
same as that on C1.
(d) Maximum magnitudes of currents flow at time t = (0+) = (1.5+) s
vð0 þ Þ 5
ið0Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 5A
R 1
vð1:5 þ Þ 5
ið1:5 þ Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 5 A
R 1
236 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
s1 ¼ RC1 ¼ 1 1 ¼ 1 s
s2 ¼ RC2 ¼ 1 1 ¼ 1 s
(h) The percentage value of current flowing through the resistor R at t = 1.5− s to
the initial current is
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 237
ið1:5Þ 1:116
p¼ ¼ ¼ 22:31%
ið0 þ Þ 5
Z1:5 Z1:5
W1:5 ¼ 2
iðtÞ Rdt ¼ ð5et Þ2 dt ¼ W 1 e2ð1:5Þ
0 0
¼ 12:5 1 e3 ¼ 11:875 J
This means that 95% of the initial energy stored on the capacitor is dissipated at
the end of first 1.5 s following the closure of switch S.
(j) The amount of dissipated energy within the second 1.5 s switching period (due
to S2) is the same as that of the dissipated energy within the first 1.5 s switching
period, although the direction of current for t > 1.5 s is opposite that of the
current for 0 < t < 1.5 s.
(k) Truncated biphasic exponential voltage variation across resistor R and
switching waveforms are shown in Fig. 3.49.
0.0
-2.0
-4.0
-6.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
time [sec]
238 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
s2 4 2 6 0 sm2
.MODEL sm2 SW(Ron=1u)
*Analysis Parameters
* .tran .01 10 0 .01 uic
Problem 3.2.20 In the RC circuit shown in Fig. 3.51, the capacitor is initially
uncharged.
R = 1 kX, C = 1 mF, Vdc = 12 V
(a) What is the equation of current in the circuit for t 0?
(b) How long does it take approximately to charge the capacitor?
(c) Determine the voltages over resistor and capacitor for t 0.
-2.0
-4.0
-6.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
time [sec]
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 239
(d) Determine the voltage over capacitor for t 0, if the initial voltage over the
capacitor is 4 V.
(e) Plot the voltage variation across the capacitor in part (c) using SPICE analysis
and print the netlist. (SW4.cir)
Solution
Vdc t
(a) i ¼ e s
R
s ¼ RC ¼ 103 103 ¼ 1 s
12 t
i¼ e ¼ 12et mA
103
(b) Time to charge the capacitor
5s ¼ 5 s: Note that this is approximate time to
charge the capacitor. Actually this is 99.3% of time to charge the capacitor, but
for practical purposes
it is a satisfactory assumption.
Vdc t
e s : R ¼ Vdc es ¼ 12et V
t
(c) vR ¼ iR ¼
R
vC ¼ Vdc vR ¼ Vdc Vdc es ¼ Vdc 1 es ¼ 12ð1 et Þ V
t t
vC ¼ 12 þ ð4 12Þes ¼ 12 8et V
t
(e) Voltage variation across the capacitor when VC(0) = 0 V is shown in Fig. 3.52.
240 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
10.0
Vc [V]
5.0
0.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
time [sec]
SPICE Netlist:
SW4.cir
Analysis: Transient
capacitor charging
C 1 0 1m IC=0v
* pulse(V1 V2 TD TR TF PW PER)
v5 3 0 pulse(0 2 0 0 0 5 0 )
Vdc 10 0 12
S 10 11 3 0 sm2
R 11 1 1 k
.MODEL sm2 SW(Ron=1n) *.tran 0.01 6 0 0.01 uic
Problem 3.2.21 A device1 measures the prothrombin time (PT) in blood (plasma),
based on the conductivity variation principle as a function of time. Determine PT
using the concept and definition of RC time constant from the registered conduc-
tance versus time graph, shown in Fig. 3.53. Is this a “normal” value? Comment.
Solution
Prothrombin time, PT, is commonly used parameter to screen bleeding disorders as
well as to monitor the accuracy of blood thinning treatment and the coagulation
with drugs such as warfarin [9]. It measures the time needed to clot formation after
the calcium, phosoholipids and thromboplastin are added to citrated blood plasma.
A reagent includes various activators for causing plasma to experience thrombosis.
Such activators that include thromboplastin and calcium reagents are available
1
Such a device is hypothetical, since there is not a physical equivalence between an RC circuit
behavior and the variation of conductivity as a function of time, as given here. Most existing recent
laboratory instrumentation techniques are either based on optical or rheological (viscosity)
measurements.
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 241
conductance [S]
80.0
plasma
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
time [sec]
2
In systems for whole blood testing, adding calcium ions in the commercial thromboplastin
mixture is immaterial, since the blood calcium is sufficient for the clotting action, in vitro.
However, if citrated venous blood is tested, calcium chloride is added to the thromboplastin
mixture.
242 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
Problem 3.2.22 In the RC circuit shown in Fig. 3.54, the capacitor is initially
uncharged.
R1 = R2 = 2.R3 = 1 kX, C = 1mF, Vdc = 12 V, I = 8 mA
(a) What is the equation of current through the capacitor for t 0?
(b) How long does it take approximately to charge the capacitor?
(c) Determine the voltage over capacitor for t 0.
Solution
(a) Thévenin’s equivalent resistance of the circuit to the left of switch S (after short
circuiting the voltage source and open circuiting the current source),
Open circuit voltage at the left of switch S is calculated by converting the voltage
source to current source (see Fig. 3.55) and noting that
VTh ¼ VX ¼ VOC
Vdc VX
þI ¼0
R1 R
VX Vdc
¼ þI
R R1
Vdc Vdc
VX ¼ R þ I ¼ ðR1 k R2 Þ þI
R1 R1
12
¼ ð0:5 kXÞ þ 8:103 ¼ ð0:5 kXÞð20 mAÞ
103
VX ¼ VTh ¼ 10 V
Note that although Thévenin resistance is placed to the right of the switch in the
equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.56, actual physical placement of this resistor is at the left
side of the switch. Nevertheless, for the calculations, it does not matter which side
of the switch Thévenin’s equivalent resistor is placed.
VTh t
i¼ e s
RTh
10 t
i¼ e ¼ 10et mA
103
VTh t
e s :RTh ¼ VTh es ¼ 10et V
t
vRTh ¼ iRTh ¼
RTh
vC ¼ VTh 1 es
t
vC ¼ 10ð1 et Þ V
Problem 3.2.23 In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.57, the switch was in position 1 for a
long time. After the switch is brought into position 2 at t = 0 s, at what time the
current through R2 reaches 1 mA? (U = 10 V, C = 1 mF, R2 = 10 R2 = 10 kX)
244 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
Solution
mc ð0 Þ ¼ mc ð0 þ Þ ¼ U ¼ 10 V
t0 :
t
mc ðtÞ ¼ V0 es ¼ 10eR2 C ¼ 10e103 103 ¼ 10et
t t
vc ðtÞ U t 10 t
iR2 ðtÞ ¼ ¼ e ¼ e ðmAÞ
R2 R2 1
1
et ¼
10
lnð0:1Þ ¼ t ! 2:3 ¼ t ! t ¼ 2:3 s:
Problem 3.2.24 In the RC circuit shown in Fig. 3.58, the capacitor is initially
uncharged. The switch S is in position (b) for a long time. At time t = 0 it is thrown
to position
(a) What is the equation of current in the circuit for t 0?
(b) How long does it take (approximately) to charge the capacitor?
(c) What is the value of current in the capacitor at t = 60 s?
(d) Determine the voltage over capacitor for t 0.
(e) What is the value of voltage on the capacitor at t = 60 s?
(f) The switch S is thrown from position (a) to (b) at t = 70 s. What is the equation
of voltage across the capacitor?
(h) How long does it take (approximately) to discharge the capacitor?
R = 1 kX, C = 1 mF, Vdc = 12 V.
Solution
Vdc t
(a) i ¼ e s ! s ¼ RC ¼ 103 103 ¼ 1 s
R
12 t
i¼ e ¼ 12et mA
103
vC ¼ Vdc e ¼ 12eðt70Þ V
t70
s
Problem 3.2.25 In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.59, the capacitor is initially
uncharged. Both of the switches are in open position for a long time.
R1 = R2 = 1 kX, C = 1 mF, Vdc = 12 V. At time t = 0, S1 is closed, while S2
remains open.
(a) What is the equation of current in the circuit for t 0?
(b) How long does it take (approximately) to charge the capacitor?
(c) What is the value of current in the capacitor at t = 6 s?
(d) Determine the voltage over capacitor for t 0.
(e) What is the value of voltage on the capacitor at t = 6 s?
(f)The switch S1 is opened and simultaneously switch S2 is closed at t = 6 s. What
is the equation of voltage across the capacitor?
(g) How long does it take (approximately) to discharge the capacitor?
(h) Plot the voltage variation across the capacitor (to check the results found in
parts d, e, f, and g) using SPICE analysis and print the netlist. (SW5.cir)
Solution
Vdc t
(a) i ¼ e s
R2
s ¼ R2 C ¼ 103 103 ¼ 1 s
12 t
i¼ e ¼ 12et mA
103
vC ¼ Vdc e s ¼ 12eðt6Þ V
t6
Problem 3.2.26 A major design condition for a defibrillator is that it would charge
a high-voltage capacitor quickly and efficiently.
(a) A battery rated at 12 V, 2.3 Ah feeds a charging unit to charge the capacitor of
a 360 J adjusted defibrillator device. What is the shortest capacitor charging
time? Comment on this result.
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 247
v1, v3 [V]
4.0
0.0
0.0 3.0 6.0 9.0 12.0
time [sec]
(b) Determine Thévenin’s equivalent circuit of the charging unit for C = 100 uF
(see, Fig. 3.61). What is the maximum charge stored on the capacitor? Plot the
charging (voltage) waveform using SPICE analysis and print SPICE netlist.
(SW6.cir)
(c) Study and give a brief description about construction of high-voltage capacitor
charging section for a defibrillator. Describe earlier design principles for these
sections and state their disadvantages. Describe newer design basics. Give a
short list of reference literature.
Solution
(a) For the battery, in one hour operation available energy capacity is
12 2:3 ¼ 27:6 Wh
Assuming that there is a lossless front-end circuitry and power limit for the
battery is less than half of this value, P = 13 W,
360
t¼ ¼ 27:7 s
13
Note that this is a relatively long-time duration, and it becomes a serious issue
for emergency patient treatment due to limitations for the number of multiple
shocks that can be administered to a patient in a short time. Most modern
external defibrillator units have a charging time of less than 10 s at 360 J
setting, or 5 s or less at 200 J setting.
248 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
v3,v4 [V]
1.5K
1.0K
0.5K
0.0K
0 10 20 30
time [sec]
CV 2 100 106 V 2
(b) W ¼ ! 360 J ¼
2 2
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 360 720 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
V ¼ VTh ¼ ¼ ¼ 102 720 ¼ 2683:3 V
100 10 6 10 4
360
t¼ ¼ 27:7 ¼ 5s ¼ 5RC ¼ Rð500 106 Þ
13
27:7
R ¼ RTh ¼ ¼ 0:2 27:7 104 ¼ 55:4 kX
500 106
*Transient Analysis
Charging capacitor equivalent circuit
C 4 0 100u IC=0v
R 2 4 55.4k
s1 1 2 3 0 sm2
Vdc 1 0 2683
*PULSE(V1 V2 TD TR TF PW PER)
vx 3 0 pulse(0 1k 0 0 0 27.7 0)
.MODEL sm2 SW(Ron=1u)
* Transient Analysis Parameters
*Stepsize ………… : .01
*Final time ………. : 30
*Display start time .. : 0
*Maximum step size … : .01
*Use Initial Conditions: On
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 249
(e) Plot Nernst voltage change (in mV) for sodium ions in part (b) at 37 °C, as a
function of extracellular ionic concentration between 1 and 100 mM, while
intracellular ionic concentration is 1 mM. Make a survey of literature for
common ionic concentrations of an excitable human cell (Nernst2.m).
(Note: Solutes in the body are measured in milligrams and millimoles. When
converting to milliequivalents: 1 meq = 10−3 eq, for monovalent ions,
1 meq = 1 mmol, for divalent ions, 1 meq = 0.5 mmol, for trivalent ions,
1 meq = 0.333 mmol)
Solution
(a) Using Nernst equation;
RT ½ X out
Veq ¼ ln
zF ½ X in
(b) Substituting given data for sodium ions into Nernst equation,
ð8:314Þð273 þ 37Þ 14
VNa ¼ ln
ð1Þð96485Þ 1
¼ 0:0267 lnð14Þ ¼ þ 0:070495 V ¼ þ 70:5 mV
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 251
71.8
71.6
71.4
71.2
Nernst Voltage (mV)
71
70.8
70.6
70.4
70.2
70
35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42
Temperature (C)
(c) Substituting given data for calcium ions into Nernst equation,
ð8:314Þð273 þ 37Þ 14
VCa ¼ ln
ð2Þð96485Þ 1
¼ 0:01335 lnð14Þ ¼ þ 0:03524769 V ¼ þ 35:25 mV
(d) Nernst voltage plot (in mV) for sodium ions in part (a), as a function of
temperature between 35 and 42 °C is shown in Fig. 3.63.
(e) Figure 3.64 shows Nernst voltage change (in mV) for sodium ions in part (b) at
37 °C, as a function of extracellular ionic concentration between 1 and
100 mM while intracellular ionic concentration is 1 mM. Sodium is the most
common extracellular cation in physiological systems.
A typical extracellular Na+1 concentration is around 135–147 mM, while an
intracellular concentration is in 10–15 mM range. This means that extracellular to
intracellular sodium ion concentration ratio is around 10.
As for the potassium cations, typical extracellular K+1 concentration is around
3.5–5.5 mM, while an intracellular concentration is about 140 mM. This means that
intracellular to extracellular sodium ion concentration ratio is around 140/4 = 35.
Table 3.2 lists these concentration levels for common ions in human cellular
environment. (Mean values may differ according to gender, age of the subject, test
methodology and conditions of assay.)
252 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
140
120
Nernst Voltage (mV)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Extracellular ion concentration (mM)
Fig. 3.64 The graph of Nernst voltage as a function of extracellular ion concentration
dv v dv v dv v i
iC ¼0 ! i¼C þ ! þ ¼
dt R dt R dt RC C
(b) Assuming constant current excitation and no initial voltage over the capacitor,
the expression for the voltage change across the membrane of the neuron is
dv v I
þ ¼
dt RC C
(c) If constant current excitation is I = 10 mA, and initial voltage over the
capacitor (membrane) v(0) = −70 mV, with C = 1 mF, R = 10 X,
(i) The time constant of the circuit is
s ¼ RC ¼ 10 103 ¼ 10 ms
(ii) The expression for the voltage change (across the membrane of the neu-
ron) is
Figure 3.66 displays this voltage change as a function of time. SPICE netlist is
also given.
(d) Since the membrane potential is reset to a voltage value of VR = −70 mV and
the integration process starts again with the reset voltage being the initial value
of this recharging period when the membrane potential v(t) reaches a threshold
voltage of VTh = −26 mV, the period of this voltage variation across the cell
membrane is determined by equating the voltage function to its given threshold
voltage and solving the equation for time t = T,
0.0m
-50.0m
-100.0m
0.0m 20.0m 40.0m 60.0m 80.0m 100.0m
time [sec]
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 255
126
e100T ¼ ¼ 0:741 ! 100T ¼ lnð0:741Þ ¼ 0:2995
170
T ¼ 3 ms
This result shows that increasing the excitation current decreases the period of
spiking, in other words, increasing the excitation current increases the frequency of
spikes. In this case frequency of spikes is increased from 3.33 to 5.62 kHz.
A plot for Eq. (3.13) demonstrating this relationship in graphical form is given
in Fig. 3.68.
256 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
-3
x 10
3
2.5
Period (sec)
1.5
0.5
0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Excitation current (A)
1.5
1
voltage, (V)
0.5
-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
time, (sec)
(a) Determine the equation of discharging action of the cell as a function of time.
(fit_exp1.m).
(b) Find the time constant of discharging signal.
Solution
(a) Assuming that observed biological action is a first-order process and applying
curve fitting to recorded experimental data (using MATLAB) yields the fol-
lowing values;
General model for fitting; f ðxÞ ¼ Aebx
Coefficients (with 95% confidence): A = 1.945, b = −0.3808
Equation of fitted data is vðtÞ ¼ 1:945e0:381t V: It will be noted that the
approximation vðtÞ ¼ 2e0:4t will remain within the confidence bounds. The
time unit is in milliseconds due to given time scaling factor of 1000.
(b) The time constant of discharging signal is
1 1
s¼ ¼ ¼ 2:5 ms
r 0:4
Result of curve fitting as well as recorded noisy bioelectrical signal are displayed
simultaneously in Fig. 3.70.
2
data
fitted curve
1.5
1
voltage, (V)
0.5
-0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
time, (sec)
Fig. 3.70 The result of curve fitting and noisy bioelectrical signal
258 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
x = (0:0.04:12)';
%Single exponential
y1 = 2*exp(-0.4*x) + 0.1*randn(size(x)); %Data generator
plot(x,y1);grid on;xlabel('time,(sec)');ylabel('voltage,(V)');figure;
f = fit(x,y1,'exp1')
plot(f,x,y1,'b');grid on; xlabel('time, (sec)'); ylabel('voltage, (V)')
Problem 3.2.30 A capacitor (with no initial voltage across its terminals) is charged
through a resistor of R = 2X in an electrically noisy environment Fig. 3.71. The
charging voltage is sampled and recorded in a storage oscilloscope, as displayed in
Fig. 3.72. Determine dc voltage of the battery and the value of capacitor. (fit_exp2.m).
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
voltage,(V)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time,(sec)
Solution
Applying curve fitting to recorded experimental data (using MATLAB curve fitting
toolbox) yields the following values;
General model: vðtÞ ¼ AeBt þ CeDt
Coefficients (with 95% confidence bounds):
1 1
s ¼ RC ¼ ! 2C ¼
r 0:75
1 2
C¼ ¼ ¼ 0:6667 F
2 0:75 3
Result of curve fitting as well as recorded noisy capacitor voltage signal samples
are displayed concurrently in the Fig. 3.73.
MATLAB script for the m file (fit_exp2.m);
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
voltage, (V)
0.8
0.6
0.4
data
0.2 fitted curve
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time, (sec)
Fig. 3.73 Display for the result of curve fitting and noisy capacitor voltage signal samples
(a) What is the differential equation describing the behavior of the circuit
(No initial conditions)?
(b) What will be the steady-state voltage at node 1, if I = 0 A?
(c) What is the time constant of the circuit?
(d) For i(t) = 0.1e(−t/s) (mA), s = 100 ms, C = 10 nF, R = 1 kΩ, E = −72 mV.
Plot v(t).
Solution
(a) By KCL,
ðdvÞ V E dv V E
IC ¼0 ! C þ ¼I
dt R dt R
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 261
(b) V = E
(c) s = RC
(d) For iðtÞ ¼ ð104 Þes , with s = 100 ms, C = 10 nF, R = 1 kΩ, E = −72 mV,
t
Problem 3.2.32 When there is no excitation current, the conductance values for
sodium, potassium, and leakage (chloride) ion channels at a specific instant of a cell
membrane are 100, 10, and 0.3 mS/cm2, respectively. For this cell, Nernst poten-
tials for sodium, potassium, and leakage (chloride) ions are 55, −72, and −49 mV,
respectively.
If a steady state is reached under these circumstances, and considering a
Hodgkin–Huxley model for this excitable cell (Fig. 3.76), determine the membrane
potential and ionic currents at each channel. (Hodgkin–Huxley3.cir)
Solution
If a dc steady state is reached, KCL at the node yields,
-20.0m
-40.0m
-60.0m
-80.0m
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
time [sec]
4765:3
U¼ ¼ 43:2 mV
110:3
Solution
(a) Assuming a 0.1 V amplitude and 20 ns duration of a pulse due to radiation
(blue), one obtains the curves in Fig. 3.78.
Time constant of the circuit = R2.C2
(b)
The SPICE netlist:
* plot v3,v6
GEIGER1
v1 1 0 dc 500
R1 1 2 1MEG
R2 2 4 1
C2 4 5 4P
C1 2 3 1U
R3 3 0 1K
S1 5 0 6 0 SW1 ON
vin 6 0 pulse(0 0.1 0 1ns 1ns 20n 800u)
*PULSE(V1 V2 TD TR TF PW PER)
.MODEL SW1 SW
* Analysis Parameters
Stepsize ………… : 0.01u
Final time ………. : 4000u
Display start time .. : 0
Maximum step size … : 10U
Use Initial Conditions: On
(c) This crude GM counter electrical equivalent model does not take the Geiger
plateau into account. A GM tube operates only at a constant slope of the
plateau, for example, between 400 and 600 V. However, this model does not
differentiate such a plateau and operates at much wider supply voltage range.
264 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
Problem 3.2.34 A simplified ideal defibrillator circuit with biphasic output current
waveform is shown in Fig. 3.79. This circuit includes both charging and dis-
charging sections. Timing diagram for all switches are also given in Fig. 3.80.
(a) What is the equation of current in the circuit after switch S3 remains closed?
(b) How long does it take to charge the capacitors?
(c) Determine the voltages over resistor R1 and capacitor C1 for 0 t < 30 ms.
(d) Determine the voltage over capacitor after switch S3 is closed for 0 t < 30 ms,
if the initial voltage over the capacitor is 260 V.
(e) What is the initial energy stored on C1? What is the initial energy stored on C2?
(f) Determine the magnitude(s) of maximum current(s) flowing through R.
(g) What is the equation of current within the S1 switching period of 10 ms?
(h) What is the equation of current within the S2 switching period of 10 ms?
(i) Determine the currents at time t = 0.04 s and t = 0.05 s.
(j) What is the percentage value of current flowing through the resistor R at
t = 0.04− s to the initial current at t = 0+?
(k) What is the amount of dissipated energy within the first 1.5 s?
(l) What is the amount of dissipated energy within the second 1.5 s period due to
S2?
(m) Plot the voltage variation across the resistor which represents patient’s torso,
use SPICE analysis and print the SPICE netlist. Modify the timing circuit, if
necessary. Explain the reasons for such modifications. (defib1.cir)
(n) What further timing modification is required to make this model be more
realistic? Redraw timing diagram, if necessary. (defib3.cir)
(o) What is the value of residual voltage across the capacitor C1 after it discharges
over the patient’s torso (resistor R)?
(p) What is the new equation of charging (+) voltage across the capacitor with the
residual voltage, following its first discharge ?
Solution
Vdc t
(a) i ¼ e s1
R1
s1 ¼ R1 C ¼ 50 100 106 ¼ 5 ms
2000 t 1000
i¼ e 5 ¼ 40e200t A
50
Since C2 = C1 and initial charges are the same, initial energy stored on C2 is the
same as that on C1.
(f) Maximum magnitudes of currents flow at time t = 0.030 s, and at t = 0.04 s
vð0:03Þ 2000
ið0:03Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 40 A
R 50
vð0:04Þ 2000
ið0:04Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 40 A
R 50
vðtÞ 2000e200ðt0:03Þ
iðtÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ 40e200ðt0:03Þ 0:03 ms\t\0:04 ms
R 50
vðtÞ 2000e200ðt0:04Þ
(h) iðtÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ 40e200ðt0:04Þ 0:04 ms\t\0:05 ms
R 50
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 267
(i) The current at time t = 0.04 s is calculated from the following equation:
(j) The percentage value of current flowing through the resistor R at t = 0.04− s to
the initial current is
ið0:04Þ 5:413
p¼ ¼ ¼ 13:53%
ið0 þ Þ 40
Z0:04 Z0:04
W0:04 ¼ 2
iðtÞ Rdt ¼ ð40e200ðt0:03Þ Þ2 dt
0:03 0:03
200ð0:02Þ
W0:04 ¼ W 1 e ¼ 200 1 e4 ¼ 200ð0:9817Þ J ¼ 196:34 J
This means that 98.17% of the initial energy stored on the capacitor is dissi-
pated at the end of first 10 ms following the closure of switch S1.
(l) The amount of dissipated energy within the second 10 ms switching period
(due to S2) is the same as that of the dissipated energy within the first 10 ms
switching period, although the direction of current for t > 0.04 ms is opposite
that of the current for (0.03 < t < 0.04) ms.
(m) Truncated biphasic exponential voltage variation across resistor R is shown in
Fig. 3.81. SPICE netlist is given for this waveform.
1.0K
0.0K
-1.0K
-2.0K
0.0m 10.0m 20.0m 30.0m 40.0m 50.0m 60.0m
time [sec]
268 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
Note that this waveform (in blue color) is not the expected one since the negative
truncated discharge does not appear in the time diagram (Fig. 3.82). This is not
corrected by SPICE transient parameter improvement, either (changes in SPICE
netlist portions in red print).
*Cap discharging-
s2 6 5 10 0 sm2
* pulse(V1 V2 TD TR TF PW PER)
vz 10 0 pulse(0 1k 40.0m 0 0 0.01 0 )
.MODEL sm2 SW(Ron=1u)
*.tran 0.01m 60m 0 0.01m uic
1.0K
0.0K
-1.0K
-2.0K
0.0m 10.0m 20.0m 30.0m 40.0m 50.0m 60.0m
time [sec]
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 269
voltage [V]
waveforms are shown for the
improved performance case 0.0K
-1.0K
-2.0K
0.0m 10.0m 20.0m 30.0m 40.0m 50.0m 60.0m
time [sec]
(n) Timing diagram for the charging section of the model shows that it takes
merely 30 ms to fully charge the capacitor with C = 100 microfarads to a
voltage of 2000 V through a resistor of 50 X. This means that an electrical
energy of 200 J is accumulating on the capacitor in that time duration which
requires large equipment volume and electronic switching components with
extreme ratings. Charging durations for external defibrillators recently available
on the market are in the ranges of 5–10 s.
For a charging period of 5 s and using the same capacitor values,
5¼5s
s ¼ R1 C ¼ 1 s
s
R1 ¼ ¼ 10 kX
C
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 271
Voltage [V]
0.0K
-2.0K
4.995 5.000 5.005 5.010 5.015 5.020 5.025
time [sec]
The voltage waveform over the resistor R becomes as shown in Fig. 3.85.
Modified SPICE netlist is also given with highlighted portions indicating the
changed parameter values.
(o) The amount of residual voltage across the capacitor C1 can be calculated using
the equation for a discharging RC circuit,
vC ¼ Vdc es
t
s ¼ RC ¼ 50 100 106 ¼ 5 ms
(p) Following the first discharge, the next charging of the capacitor begins from
270.7 V and goes up to its final value of 2000 V. The new equation of charging
(+) voltage across the capacitor is
vC ¼ 2000 1729:3et
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 273
Solution
(a) KCL at node 1:
dv1 v1 ðv1 v2 Þ
IC ¼ 0;
dt R1 R2
v1 ¼ kv1
dv1 1 1 k
IC v1 þ ¼ 0;
dt R1 R2 R2
1 1 k dv1 I
a¼ þ ; ! þ b v1 ¼
R1 R2 R2 dt C
where
a 1 C
b¼ ¼ ! s¼
C s a
t
(b) v1 ðtÞ ¼ v1 ð1Þ 1 es
274 3 Capacitors and First-Order RC Circuits
Performing dc analysis for the steady-state (final) value of the voltage at node 1,
by source transforming dependent voltage source into dependent current source
(Fig. 3.88),
v1 v1 kv1 1 1 k
I1 þ ¼0 ! I 1 v1 þ ¼0
R1 R2 R2 R1 R2 R2
I1
I1 a v1 ¼ 0; v1 ð 1 Þ ¼
a
I1
1 e s
t
v1 ðtÞ ¼
a
(c) Substitution of given numerical data into these equations yield the following
results:
1 1 k 1 1 3
a¼ þ ¼ þ ¼ 0:1 þ 0:01 0:03 ¼ 0:08
R1 R2 R2 10 100 100
I1 1
v1 ð1Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 12:5 V
a 0:08
C 1
s¼ ¼ ¼ 12:5 s
a 0:08
v1 ðtÞ ¼ 12:5 1 e12:5 ¼ 12:5 1 e0:08t
t
v1 ð20Þ ¼ 12:5 1 e0:0820 ¼ 9:976 V
v2 ðtÞ ¼ 3v1 ðtÞ ¼ 37:5 1 e0:08t
v2 ð20Þ ¼ 29:928 V
3.2 First-Order RC Circuits 275
Voltage [V]
20.0
10.0
0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
time [sec]
(d) A plot of the voltage variations at nodes 1 and 2 is displayed in Fig. 3.89, and
SPICE netlist is given below.
nodal analysis
I1 0 1 1
C1 1 0 1
*voltage controlled voltage source
e1 2 0 1 0 3
* controlling voltage = 1 0
R1 1 0 10
R2 1 2 100
*tran 10m 20 0 10m UIC
References
12. Joseph S, Lawrence B, Richard N (2002) H-bridge circuit for generating a high-energy
biphasic waveform in a external defibrillator. US Patent 6,477,413
13. Power DJ (2001) Apparatus for controlling delivery of defibrillation energy. US Patent
6,230,054
14. Pressman AI (1998) Switching power supply design, 2nd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York
15. FDA Investigations Operations Manual (2015), Appendix C, p 443
16. Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL et al (2000) Molecular cell biology. W. H. Freeman,
New York
Chapter 4
Inductors and First-Order RL Circuits
4.1 Inductors
Problem 4.1.1 In the system shown in Fig. 4.1, one of the two parallel conductors
is attached to an electrically isolated spring with the spring constant of k and
residing on the same plane in the air with the conducting wires. The system is
initially at rest. If wires carry DC currents I1 and I2, neglecting any friction, what is
the expression for the expansion of the spring in balanced condition?
Solution
Force on conductor 1 due to spring is
Fs ¼ kx: ð1Þ
Since the currents in the wires are I1 and I2, the magnetic field density on the
second conductor due to first one is
lo I1
B¼ ; ð2Þ
2pd
lo I1
FB ¼ b I2 B ¼ b I2 : ð3Þ
2pd
lo I1 lo bI1 I2
FB ¼ Fs ! b I2 ¼ kx ! x¼ :
2pd 2pkd
N L
B ¼ l0 nI ¼ l0 I ! N¼ B ¼ kB
L l0 I
20 102 106
k¼ 7
¼ ¼ 0:159 106
4p 10 1 2p
3laz
Br ¼ 5 :
ða2 þ z2 Þ2
Solution
Induced electromotive force on a single-turn loop of radius a,
I
ei ¼ ðv BÞdl ¼ 2pavBr :
Since the radial component of the field at the axial distance z from the magnet is
3laz
Br ¼ 5 :
ða2 þ z2 Þ2
The induced emf is generated in the N-turns of coil of length L where the number
of turns in a differential element of length dz and b is distance from the coil top to
the mid-plane of the magnet at is equilibrium,
N
dN ¼ dz
L
Z bZþ L bZþ L
3azvNdz 3N zdz
ei ¼ 2pavBr dN ¼ 2pa 5 ¼ 2pav 5
ða þ z Þ
2 2 2 L L ða þ z2 Þ2
2
b b
8 9
b þ L > >
2paNlv ð2pa ÞNlv
2 < 1 1 =
¼ ¼ :
Lða2 þ z2 Þ2 b > 2 2>
3 3 3
L : ð a2 þ z 2 Þ 2 a þ ð b þ LÞ
2 ;
Problem 4.1.4 A spring–magnet system with spring constant ks and magnet mass
M and dipole moment m oscillates while interacting with a non-magnetizable
metallic plate of electrical conductivity r, and thickness h as shown in Fig. 4.2. The
vertical distance of the center of magnet to the plate is b, and h b. The radial
component of magnetic field is given as [1]
lq m 3rb
Br ¼ :
4p ðr 2 þ b2 Þ52
where m is the dipole moment of the magnet. The conductance of the ring
hdr
dr ¼ r ;
2pr
rhdr
di ¼ ri dr ¼ ð2prBr vÞ :
2pr
Here, the inductance of the ring is ignored (since the frequency of oscillations is
expected to be small). The vertical magnetic force dFz on the ring,
Z !
dFz ¼ di dl ~
B ¼ 2pBr di ¼ 2pr ðrhvÞB2r dr:
z
Z1 Z1
Fz ¼ dFz ¼ 2prhv B2r rdr:
r¼0 0
Let
r
u¼ ;
b
Z1
3lq m 2 u3
Fz ¼ 2prhvb2 du:
4pb 3
ð l þ u2 Þ 5
0
4.1 Inductors 281
Since
Z1
u3 1 þ 4u4 1
du ¼ j1
0 ¼
ð l þ u2 Þ 5 24ð1 þ u2 Þ4 24
0
Since M is the mass of the magnet, ks = spring constant, the equation of motion is
k ks
M€z þ k_z þ ks z ¼ 0 ! €z þ z_ þ z ¼ 0 ! €z þ 2k_z þ x20 z ¼ 0:
M M
where
rffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
k ks
k¼ ; x0 ¼ ; x¼ x20 k2
2M M
rffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ks 2 x0 4:47
x0 ¼ ¼ ¼ 4:47 rad s1 ; f0 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:711 Hz
M 0:1 2p 2p
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
x ¼ x20 k2 ¼ 4:472 1:592 ¼ 4:178 rad s1 ;
x 4:178
f ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:665 Hz:
2p 2p
282 4 Inductors and Fırst-Order RL Cırcuıts
Problem 4.1.5 In 50-turn coil of radius 10 cm, the magnetic field is changing from
10 to 40 mT in 200 ms. Determine the induced voltage in the coil (The field is
parallel to coil axis).
Solution
di Di ð12 2Þ 103 10
v¼L ¼L ¼L ¼ L ¼ Lð2:5Þ ¼ 240 mV
dt Dt 4 103 4
240 103
L¼ ¼ 96 mH:
2:5
Problem 4.1.7 Current through an inductor L = 1 H has a triangular waveform as
shown in Fig. 4.3. Determine and plot the voltage across this inductor (L_v_i2.cir).
Solution
8
>
> 3t; 0\t\1 s
<
3t þ 6; 1\t\2 s
iðtÞ ¼
> 3t 6;
> 2\t\3 s
:
3t þ 12 3\t\4 s
di di
v¼L ¼1 V
dt dt
8
>
> 1 3 ¼ 3 V; 0\t\1 s
<
1 ð3Þ ¼ 3 V; 1\t\2 s
v¼ :
>
> 1 ð3Þ ¼ 3 V; 2\t\3 s
:
1 ð3Þ ¼ 3 V; 3\t\4 s
A plot of voltage across (in red color) and current through the inductor (in blue
color) is shown in Fig. 4.4. A SPICE net list is also given below.
Solution
8
< 30 t; 0\t\2 ms
iðtÞ ¼ 60; 2\t\5 ms
:
160 20 t; 5\t\8 ms
di di
v¼L ¼ 10 mV
dt dt
8
< 10 30 ¼ 300 mV; 0\t\2 ms
v ¼ 0 mV; 2\t\5 ms
:
10 ð20Þ ¼ 200 mV; 5\t\8 ms
Solution
Zt Zt
1 1
iðtÞ ¼ vðhÞdh þ ið0Þ ¼ ð5h3 3h2 þ 4h 2Þdh þ 2
L 100 103
0 0
5 4 3 3 4 2 5
iðtÞ ¼ 10 t t þ t 2t þ 2 ¼ 10 t4 t3 þ 2t2 2t þ 2
4 3 2 4
iðtÞ ¼ 12:5t4 10t3 þ 20t2 20t þ 2 ! ið1Þ ¼ 12:5 10 þ 20 20 þ 2 ¼ 4:5A
dq
i¼
dt
di d2 q d2 q dq
2
v¼L ¼L 2 ¼2 2 ¼2 9t 4t þ 2 ¼ 2 ð18t 4Þ ¼ 36t 8
dt dt dt dt
vð1Þ ¼ 36ð1Þ 8 ¼ 28 V:
Problem 4.1.11
Voltage across an inductor with L = 3H is vL ðtÞ ¼ 6e2t uðtÞ:
Initial current through the inductor is 1 A.
Determine the current through this inductor element as a function of time.
Determine the current at time zero and infinity. Check the results using SPICE
analysis. Print SPICE netlist. (inductor current1.cir)
Solution
Zt Zt
1 1
iL ðtÞ ¼ vðaÞda þ ið0Þ ¼ 6e2a da þ 1
L 3
0 0
6 1 2a t 1
¼ e þ1 ¼ 2 ðe2t 1Þ þ 1
3 2 0 2
¼ ðe2t 1Þ þ 1 ¼ e2t þ 1 þ 1 ¼ ð2 e2t Þ uðtÞ A
iL ð0Þ ¼ ð2 e0 Þ uðtÞ ¼ 2 1 ¼ 1 A
iL ð1Þ ¼ ð2 e1 Þ uðtÞ ¼ 2 0 ¼ 2 A:
Figure 4.7 displays the current through the inductor. SPICE netlist (inductor
current1.cir) is given below.
286 4 Inductors and Fırst-Order RL Cırcuıts
current [A]
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
time [sec]
inductor current1
L 1 0 3 ic = 1
r 1 2 1m
*v1 2 0 EXP(V1 V2 TD1 TAU1 TD2 TAU2)
V1 2 0 EXP(0 6 0 0 0 0.5S)
Problem 4.1.12 Voltage and current periodic waveforms across an inductor are
shown in Fig. 4.8. What is the inductance? Check the result using SPICE analysis,
print the netlist. (L_v_i1.cir)
Solution
From current waveform,
4t 2; 0\t\1 s
iL ¼ :
6 4t; 1\t\2 s
di 4L; 0\t\1 s
vL ¼ L ¼ :
dt 4L; 1\t\2 s
diðtÞ diðtÞ
vð t Þ ¼ L ¼ :
dt dt
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
time [sec]
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
shown in Fig. 4.10. Here, blue-colored “f” in legend indicates the current passing
through the inductor, while the “first derivative” in red color denotes the voltage
over the inductor.
MATLAB m file script (diff1.m) performing these operations is listed below.
h = 0.5; % step size
x = (0:h:6); % domain
f = 0.5*(1-exp(-x))+0.1*(1-exp(-5*x)) % input signal
Y = diff(f)/h % first derivative
plot(x,f,’o-‘,x(:,1:length(Y)),Y,’ro-‘);grid on;
xlim([0 6-h]); legend(‘f’,’first derivative’);
x(end)=[]; f(end)=[]; A
Problem 4.2.1
(a) For the RL circuit of Fig. 4.11a with an initial current I0, prove that
L
iðtÞ ¼ I0 es ; s ¼
t
(b) Find the voltage on the inductor in the circuit of Fig. 4.11b, for
t [ 0ðR ¼ 100 XÞ:
Solution
di di R
L þ Ri ¼ 0 ! þ i¼0
dt
dt L
i ðt Þ R L
¼ t ! iðtÞ ¼ I0 eLt ; s ¼ ; iðtÞ ¼ I0 es
R t
ln
I0 L R
10 V
(b) iL ð0 Þ ¼ I0 ¼ ¼ 0:1 A
100 X
L 0:1
iL ðtÞ ¼ I0 et=s ; ¼ s¼ ¼ 0:1 ms
R 1000
vL ð0 þ Þ ¼ ið0 þ Þ 10 R ¼ 0:1 10 100 ¼ 100 V
vL ðtÞ ¼ 100et=s ¼ 100e10;000t uðtÞ:
L 103 H
i ð t Þ ¼ I 0 e s ; ¼ 106 s
t
s¼ ¼
R 1000 X
iðtÞ ¼ e10 t mA:
6
source-free RC circuit
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
0.0m 0.5m 1.0m 1.5m 2.0m
time [sec]
290 4 Inductors and Fırst-Order RL Cırcuıts
Solution
(a) Time constant of a discharging RC circuit is the time required to discharge the
capacitor, through the resistor, to its 37% of the difference between the initial
and final values of the voltage across the capacitor. In other words, the voltage
will decrease to 37% of its maximum value in one time constant period. Here,
initial voltage is 100 V, final voltage tends to be 0 V.
Voltage level reaches 37% of its initial value at 1 ms,
(b-i) If this graph was showing the voltage change across the resistor of a
source-free RL circuit (with the same value found in part a), the inductance
could be determined using time constant relationship of a source-free RL
circuit,
L L
s¼ ¼ 3 ¼ 103 ! L ¼ 103 103 ¼ 1 H:
R 10
(b-ii) The equation of discharging current for the RL circuit (Ampere unit) is
v ð 0Þ 100
i ð t Þ ¼ i ð 0Þ e s ¼ es ¼ e103 ¼ 0:1 e1000t A:
t t t
R 1000
voltage [V]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.0m 1.0m 2.0m 3.0m 4.0m 5.0m
time [sec]
Solution
For the source-free circuit with an initial current I0
L
iðtÞ ¼ I0 es ;
t
s¼ :
R
This voltage is reduced to its 37% value in 1 ms, and therefore time constant of
the circuit is 1 ms:
L
s ¼ 1 103 ¼
100
L ¼ 1 103 100 ¼ 0:1 H:
Problem 4.2.5
(a) In a first-order RL circuit, determine the energy–time relationship, if the initial
current I0 A is flowing through the inductor toward ground.
(b) Calculate the steady-state energy, i.e., wR (t = ∞) = ?
Solution
(a) The current and voltage expressions for the resistor,
i ð t Þ ¼ I 0 e s ; vðtÞ ¼ I0 Res ;
t t
where s ¼ L=R. The power dissipated in the resistor, p ¼ vðtÞ:iðtÞ ¼ I02 Re s :
2t
Rt Rt
The energy absorbed, wR ðtÞ ¼ 0 p:dt ¼ 0 I02 Re s dt
2t
1 h i
wR ðtÞ ¼ LI02 1 e2ðLÞt :
R
When t 0;
2
292 4 Inductors and Fırst-Order RL Cırcuıts
1
when t ¼ 1; wR ð1Þ ¼ LI02 :
2
Problem 4.2.6 The electrical circuit shown in Fig. 4.14 is used to model the strain
relaxation of a muscle fiber in an experiment (V = 10 V, R1 = 100 Ω, R2 = 2 Ω,
L = 1 H). Find the voltage across the inductor at
(a) t = 0+ s,
(b) t = 0.5 s.
Solution
V 10
i L ð 0 Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:1 A
R1 100
iL ð0 þ Þ ¼ iL ð0 Þ ¼ iR ð0 þ Þ ¼ 0:1 A
iR ðtÞ ¼ ð0:1Þ es ; t 0
t
L 1
s ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 s
R 2
iR ðtÞ ¼ 0:1e0:5 ¼ 0:1e2t A;
t
t0
vL ðtÞ ¼ vR ðtÞ ¼ iR2 ðtÞ R2 ¼ ð0:1 e2t Þ 2 ¼ 0:2 e2t V; t0
(a) vL ð0 þ Þ ¼ 0:2 V
(b) vL ð0:5Þ ¼ ð0:37Þð0:2Þ ¼ 0:74 V:
Problem 4.2.7 In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.15a, the switch has been closed for a
long time. At t = 0, it is opened. Find the current flowing through inductor with
L = 1.6 H, t [ 0:
4.2 First-Order RL Circuits 293
Fig. 4.15 The circuit of Problem 4.2.7 a for t < 0, b for t > 0
Solution
When t\0; inductor acts as a short circuit, shorting the 2 X resistor, the current
supplied by 12 V voltage source is
12 12 12
i1 ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 A:
10 þ ð4 k 4Þ 44 12
10 þ
4þ4
The inductor attains its initial current and its value is calculated bycurrent
division;
4 4
ið0 Þ ¼ i1 ¼ 1 ¼ 0:5 A at t\0:
4þ4 8
When t 0;
The current through L cannot change instantaneously; therefore
ið0Þ ¼ ið0 Þ ¼ 0:5 A.
8:2 16
Req ¼ ð4 þ 4Þ k 2 ¼ 8 k 2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:6 X
8 þ 2 10
L 1:6
s¼ ¼ ¼ 1 s:
Req 1:6
iðtÞ ¼ ið0Þ et=s ! iðtÞ ¼ 0:5 et A:
Problem 4.2.8 In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.16a, the switch S was closed for long
time. It is opened at t = 0.
(a) i(t) =? t 0.
(b) What is the initial energy stored in L?
294 4 Inductors and Fırst-Order RL Cırcuıts
Fig. 4.16 The circuit of Problem 4.2.8 a for t < 0, b for t >> 0, c The circuit for the calculation of
equivalent resistance, d RL equivalent circuit
Solution
(a) For t < 0,
5V 5 10 5 10
i¼ ¼ A; 10 k 10 ¼ 5 X; I ¼ i ¼ ¼ 0:4617 A
1þ5 6 20 6 20
iðtÞ ¼ 0:4167 et=s
20 10
Req ¼ ffi 6:67 X.
30
L 103
1 mH ¼ 103 H; s¼ ¼ ffi 1:5 104 s; iðtÞ ¼ 0:41
67:e6666:67t A
Req 6:67
Problem 4.2.9 Isotonic (Normal) saline solution (0.9% NaCl) is used for injecting
medicines via the veins (intravenous infusion). If the height of this solution is h in a
cylindrical glass bottle container with area A, its volumetric flow rate q, pressure
values p1 and p2, density of the solution, hydraulic resistance of the exit tube Rh,
gravitational constant g:
(a) Set up differential equation relating the change of height of solution as a
function of time.
4.2 First-Order RL Circuits 295
Solution
ðaÞ p1 p2 ¼ Rh q ¼ hqg
dV dðAhÞ dh
q¼ ¼ ¼ A
dt dt dt
dh
hqg ¼ Rh A
dt
dh
Rh A þ qgh ¼ 0
dt
dh qg
þ h ¼ 0:
dt Rh A
(b) Analogy between a source-free RL circuit and emptying saline bottle container
is
di R
þ i ¼ 0;
dt L
where R is the electrical resistor value and L is the inductance. Therefore, current
change models the height change in the bottle.
(c) Assume that initial height of the solution is h(0). Solving the differential
equation
296 4 Inductors and Fırst-Order RL Cırcuıts
dh qg
þ h¼0
dt Rh A
for h yields (in analogy with the solution of electrical circuit equation)
hðtÞ ¼ hð0Þ:es
t
iðtÞ ¼ ið0Þ:es ;
t
Rh A
s¼ :
qg
L
s¼ :
R
Problem 4.2.10 In an RL circuit, L = 2 H, R = 1 , i(0) = 480 A, i(∞) = 100 A.
Compute the current through the circuit for 0 t 10 s and plot it.
Solution
L 2
s ¼ ¼ ¼ 2s
R 1
iðtÞ ¼ 100 þ ½480 100e2 ¼ 100 þ 380e0:5t A:
t
Figure 4.18 shows the MATLAB plot of current values computed at different
times. The script is given below.
t=[0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10];
i=[480,330.5,239.8,184.8,151.4,131.2,118.9,111.5,106.9,104.2,102.6];
plot(t,i,'o-','linewidth',2);ylim([0 500]);
xlabel('time,[sec]');ylabel('i(t), A');grid on;
Problem 4.2.11 In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.19, the coil of a relay has inductance
of 50 mH and resistance 100. It operates from a 12 V dc source. Determine the
equation of current as a function of time, after switch is closed.
4.2 First-Order RL Circuits 297
500
450
400
350
300
i(t), A
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
time,[sec]
Solution
12V L 50 103 H
ið1Þ ¼ ¼ 120mA; ið0Þ ¼ 0; s ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5ms
100X R 100X
iðtÞ ¼ ið1Þ 1 es ¼ ð120mAÞ 1 e0:51000 ¼ ð120Þ 1 e2000t mA:
t t
Solution
After the switch is closed,
5 L 50mH
ið1Þ ¼ Vdc R ¼ ¼ 0:5 A; s ¼ ¼ ¼ 5 ms
10 t
R
10X
iðtÞ ¼ 0:5 1 es ¼ 0:5 1 e200t A:
5V L 25 103 H
i ð 1Þ ¼ ¼ 100 mA; ið0Þ ¼ 0; s ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 ms
50 X
R 50 X
td td
i ð t Þ ¼ i ð 1 Þ 1 e s ¼ ð100 mAÞ 1 e0:51000 ¼ 60 mA
6
1 e2000td ¼ ¼ 0:6 ! e2000td ¼ 0:4 ! 2000td ¼ lnð0:4Þ
10
lnð0:4Þ ð0:9163Þ
td ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:46 ms:
2000 2000
Problem 4.2.14 In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.22, how much time will pass until a
quick blow 100 mA fuse to break the current flow after the switch is closed?
R = 120 X, L = 60 mH, Vdc = 24 V.
Solution
L 60 mH
s¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 ms ð1Þ
R 120 X
24 V
ið0Þ ¼ 0 A; ið1Þ ¼ ¼ 200 mA
120 X
0:69315
t¼ ¼ 0:347 ms:
2000
Problem 4.2.15
(a) Determine the voltage at node 1 of the circuit of Fig. 4.23 as a function of time,
for t 0 s. R ¼ 10 X; L1 ¼ 1 H; L2 ¼ 2 H; R1 ¼ 0:1 X; R2 ¼ 0:2 X:
(b) Use SPICE analysis to check the result found above. Print the SPICE net list
(LD1.cir).
Solution
L1 L2 12 2
R1 \\R; R2 \\R; Leq ¼ ¼ ¼ H;
L1 þ L2 1 þ 2 3
2
Leq
s¼ ¼ 3 ¼ 0:0667 s
R 10
v1 [V]
-6.0
-8.0
-10.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
time [sec]
L 0:1
Tcharge ¼ 5:s ¼ 5: ¼ 5: ¼ 0:05 s ¼ 50 ms:
R 10
Vdc 38
I¼ ¼ ¼ 3:8 A
R 10
maximum voltage over the spark gap device is observed at the time when switch is
opened,
di Di 3:8
Vsg ¼ L ffi L ¼ ð0:1Þ ¼ 19; 000 V
dt Dt 20:106
1 1
W ¼ LI 2 ¼ ð0:1Þð3:8Þ2 ¼ 722 mJ:
2 2
302 4 Inductors and Fırst-Order RL Cırcuıts
Problem 4.2.17
(a) What is the meaning of the “critical temperature” of a material? Which
biomedical applications of superconductivity are known today?
(b) Assume that a direct current flows in a superconducting closed loop (coil). How
this current can be measured?
(c) A closed loop with inductance L has an initial current Io at t = 0. Assuming that
the circuit has a very small residual resistance R, what will be the time constant
of the circuit? What does it imply in medical imaging area?
(d) What does “quenching” of an MRI system mean? What are the consequences of
quenching a magnet in MRI?
Solution
(a) A material is said to be a superconductor if its resistivity is zero below certain
temperature. This limiting value of temperature is called the critical temperature
of material. For example, its value is 7.2 K for Pb, 4.1 K for Hg, 3 K for Cr,
and 3.7 K for Sn, while some alloys have higher values of Tc (e.g., NbTi:
Tc = 9.8 K, Nb3Sn: Tc = 18.1 K). For certain ceramics such as
thallium-doped mercuric-cuprate, Hg0.8Tl0.2Ba2Ca2Cu3O8.33, Tc = 138 K.
Superconducting electromagnets are employed in magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) systems for diagnostic imaging and in SQUID (superconducting quan-
tum interference device) magnetometers to measure very small magnetic fields
originating from the electro-physiological activity in the brain.
(b) If a current flows round a superconducting loop (coil), it cannot be measured by
inserting an ammeter into the loop, since the current rapidly decays due to
resistance of the ammeter. However, the magnetic field generated by the current
in the coil can be used to measure this current value without consuming energy
in the circuit.
(c) Time constant of the circuit will be ¼ L=R. Since R ffi 0, s ffi 1, and the
current in a source-free RL circuit would exponentially decay with time, this
implies that the current persists as long as the material remains superconduct-
ing. A further consequence of the persistent current in a superconducting coil is
that the magnetic flux that passes through a closed loop of such a
4.2 First-Order RL Circuits 303
where s ¼ T2 is the spin–spin relaxation time for pure liquid water (=2.5 s [5]).
References
Zt
1
mc ð t Þ ¼ iðsÞ ds þ V0 ð5:1Þ
C
1
Zt
dt 1
R iþL þ þ V0 ¼ 0 ð5:2Þ
di C
s
Differentiation,
d2 i R di i
2
þ þ ¼0 ð5:3Þ
dt L dt LC
R 1
s2 þ sþ ¼0 ð5:4Þ
L LC
Its roots
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 ffi
R R 1
s1 ¼ ð5:5Þ
2L 2L LC
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s1;2 ¼ a a2 x20 ð5:6Þ
R
a¼ ð5:7Þ
2L
1
x0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ð5:8Þ
LC
Problem 5.1.2 What is the range of resistor values for overdamped, critical, and
underdamped responses in a series RLC circuit with C = 200 nF, L = 50 mH?
Solution
The roots of the characteristic equation of the series RLC circuit is
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 R
s1;2 ¼ a a2 x20 ; x0 ¼ ; a¼
LC 2L
5.1 Second-Order RLC Circuits 307
R R 1 1 1000
a¼ ¼ ¼ 50R; x0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffi
2L 2 10 103 LC 10 10 0 3 3 10
1000 1000 20
50R ¼ pffiffiffiffiffi ! R¼ pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 6:32 X
10 50 10 10
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
0m 10m 20m 30m 40m 50m
time [sec]
308 5 Second-Order Circuits
v1,v2 [V]
5.0
0.0
-5.0
0m 10m 20m 30m 40m 50m
time [sec]
0.0
-5.0
-10.0
0m 10m 20m 30m 40m 50m
time [sec]
Since i(0+) = 0 A, B1 = 0,
dið0 þ Þ V0
¼ ð5:17Þ
dt L
with a = −a,
d
½B2 eat sinðxd tÞ ¼ ðB2 eat ½ðaÞ sinðxd tÞ þ xd cosðxd tÞ
dt
dið0 þ Þ V0
¼ ¼ B2 e0 ½ðaÞ sinð0Þ þ xd : cosð0Þ ð5:19Þ
dt L
5.1 Second-Order RLC Circuits 309
V0
¼ B2 xd ð5:20Þ
L
V0
B2 ¼ ð5:21Þ
xd L
Zt
di 1
mc ðtÞ ¼ L þ iR ¼ i ds þ V0 ð5:23Þ
dt C
0
Zt
W¼ i2 ðsÞ Rds
0
Zt Zt Zt
as
¼R i ðsÞds ¼ R
2
½B e 2
sinðxd :sÞ ds ¼ R B 2
e2as sin2 ðwd sÞds
0 0 0
ð5:24Þ
(a)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
i (t), A
0
n
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
-0.08
-0.1
0 5 10 15 20 25
t, ms
Fig. 5.4 a A series RLC circuit with initially charged capacitor and b C = 100 nF, L = 0.1 H,
R = 56 X, V0 = 100 V; i(t) = 0.01 exp(−280t) sin(996t)
Solution
1 rad R
x0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 104 ; a¼ ¼ 280 s1
LC s 2L
Problem 5.1.7 For an RLC circuit with C = 0.1 mF, L = 100 mH, R = 56 X,
Vc(0) = 100 V, determine and plot the variation of current flowing in the circuit.
Solution
This is underdamped RLC case, because a < x0
1 R pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
x0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 316 rad=s; a ¼ ¼ 280 s1 ; xd ¼ x0 a2 ¼ 147 rad=s
LC 2L
V0
i ðt Þ ¼ L eat sinðxd tÞ ¼ ð6:80Þe280t sinð147tÞ A
xd
1.2
0.8
i (t), A
0.6
n
0.4
0.2
-0.2
0 5 10 15 20 25
t, ms
Fig. 5.5 C = 100 lF, L = 0.1 H, R = 56 X, V0 = 100 V; i(t) = 6.80 exp(−280t) sin(147t)
Solution
1 R
ðaÞ x0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 316 rad=s; a ¼ ¼ 280 s1 ;
LC
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2L
xd ¼ x0 a2 ¼ 360 rad=s
This is underdamped RLC case, because a < x0.
V0
iðtÞ ¼ L eat sinðxd tÞ ¼ ð2:77Þe280t sinð360tÞ A
xd
V0
iðtÞ ¼ L eat sinðxd tÞ ¼ ð107:45Þe280t sinð360tÞ A
xd
0.8
0.6
i (t), A
n
0.4
0.2
-0.2
0 5 10 15 20 25
t, ms
40
35
30
25
i (t), A
20
n
15
10
-5
0 5 10 15 20 25
t, ms
Fig. 5.7 Natural response of an underdamped series RLC circuit. Dissipation of 360 J of energy
over the resistor R = 56 X, C = 48 lF, L = 0.1 H, V0 = 3873 V; i(t) = 107.45 exp(−280t) sin(360t)
4
x 10 Instantaneous power
10
6
P(t), W
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
t, ms
Fig. 5.8 Instantaneous power over the resistor (in dissipation of 360 J of energy)
Cumulative Energy
400
350
300
250
E(t), J
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
t, ms
Fig. 5.9 Cumulated energy dissipation waveform over the resistor (during the overall dissipation
of 360 J of energy over the resistor). Note that initial stored energy E0 = 360.0031 J, is dissipated
across the resistor element, E = 360.0029 J before 18 ms, while 97.5% of the stored energy in the
capacitor is dissipated across the resistor element within the first 6.4 ms
5.1 Second-Order RLC Circuits 315
VC,VR [V]
resistor. R = 56 Ω, 2.0K
C = 48 lF, L = 0.1 H,
V0 = 3873 V, i(t) = 107.45
1.0K
exp(−280) sin(360t). Note
that initial voltage diminishes
and stored energy is 0.0K
dissipated across the resistor
element, before 18 ms -1.0K
0m 10m 20m 30m
time [sec]
(e) Simultaneous variation of voltage waveforms across the resistor and the
capacitor elements are shown in Fig. 5.10.
(f) MATLAB m-file list to compute and plot the current flowing in the RLC series
circuit:
(g) MATLAB m-file list to compute and plot the cumulative energy dissipation in
the RLC series circuit:
316 5 Second-Order Circuits
Problem 5.1.9 Determine the Inductance for a flat spiral air core (defibrillator) coil
if, A = cross-sectional area = 3 cm2, l = length of the coil = 50 cm, N = number of
turns = 45, l0 = permeability of air (4p 10−7 H/m).
Discuss the influence of the coiled cables’ inductance on discharge current in a
Lown defibrillator circuit with C = 48 lF, L = 0.1 H, initial voltage across the
capacitor V0 = 3873 V, and an overall energy dissipation of 360 J of energy across
the load resistor R = 56 X.
Solution
3 lH. This value is too small as compared to 100 mH inductance of the Lown
circuit. Therefore, its effect can be ignored.
Problem 5.1.10 Determine the maximum current in a Lown defibrillator circuit
with C = 48 lF, L = 0.1 H, initial voltage across the capacitor V0 = 3873 V, and
an overall energy dissipation of 360 J of energy across the load resistor R = 56 X.
Solution
A Lown type defibrillator is a series connected resistor inductor and capacitor
circuit where, the resistance is the sum of coil internal resistance and the
transthoracic resistance between electrodes placed on sternum and apex of the
patient.
With C = 48 lF, L = 0.1 H, initial voltage across the capacitor V0 = 3873 V,
and an overall energy dissipation of 360 J of energy across the resistor R = 56 X,
the current waveform is defined as
Here, a, xd, x0 are Neper Frequency, damped resonance frequency of the cir-
cuit, and the resonance frequency, respectively.
Using given component values and initial condition yields B1 = 0, and the
equation of current waveform is
V0
i ðt Þ ¼ L eat sinðxd tÞ ¼ ð107:445Þe280t sinð360:5tÞ A
xd
diðtÞ
¼ Axd eat cosðxd tÞ aAeat sinðxd tÞ ¼ Aeat ½xd cosðxd tÞ a sinðxd tÞ ¼ 0
dt
xd sinðxd tÞ
xd cosðxd tÞ ¼ a sinðxd tÞ ! ¼ ¼ tanðxd tÞ
a cosðxd tÞ
x
d
xd t ¼ a tan
a
1 x
d
t ¼ tmax ¼ a tan
xd a
Substituting given values in this equation gives t ¼ 2:5 ms. Plugging this value
of time into the current yields
318 5 Second-Order Circuits
1 R
a¼ ðparallel RLC Þ; a¼ ðseries RLC Þ
2RC 2L
Here A1 ; A2 are determined from inital values i(0) and di(0)/dt. Three types of
solutions may exist for both series and parallel RLC circuits Parallel RLC circuits:
1. Overdamped case, a > x0
Problem 5.1.12 The switch in the dc circuit shown in Fig. 5.11 has been closed for
a long time. C = 0.1 F.
It is opened at t = 0.
Find:
(a) iL(0−), mC(0−);
(b) iL(∞), mC(∞);
Solution
(a) Before switch is opened, L is “ short,” C is “open” (Fig. 5.12),
12
i ð 0 Þ ¼ ¼ 2A
4þ2
m C ð 0 Þ ¼ 2 i ð 0 Þ ¼ 2 2 ¼ 4 V
iL ð1Þ ¼ 0 A; mC ð1Þ ¼ 12 V
Problem 5.1.13 In Fig. 5.13, voltage variations at points X and Y are found to be
identical to each other after switches have been closed. C = 2 F, L = 3 H,
vC(0−) = V0 = 10 V, iL(0−) = I0 = 1 A.
(a) Find the values of both resistors.
(b) What is the time constant of each circuit (in milliseconds)?
Solution
10 ¼ R2 1 ! R2 ¼ 10 X; sRC ¼ sRL ¼ s
L L 3
R1 C ¼ ! R1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:15 X
R2 C R2 2:10
L 3
ðbÞ sRC ¼ sRL ¼ s ¼ R1 C ¼ ¼ 0:15 2 ¼ ¼ 0:3 s ¼ 300 ms
R2 10
Solution
(a) When the steady state condition is reached, the circuit becomes a purely
resistive one,
By current divisionCurrent-division principle,
R1 2 200
iL ð1Þ ¼ Idc ¼ 100 mA ¼ mA ¼ 66:667 mA
R1 þ R2 2þ1 3
(b) Because the capacitor becomes shorted by the inductor when steady state
condition is reached,
vC ð 1 Þ ¼ 0 V
Solution
(a) When the steady state condition is reached, the circuit becomes a purely
resistive one,
By current division,
R1 2 200
iL ð1Þ ¼ Idc ¼ 100 mA ¼ mA ¼ 66:667 mA
R1 þ R2 2þ1 3
(b) Because the capacitor becomes opened when steady state condition is reached
(see, Fig. 5.17), by Ohm’s law,
Alternatively,
Solution
U 10
ðaÞ t ¼ 0 þ ; iL ð0 þ Þ ¼ 0 A; iC ð0 þ Þ ¼ iR1 ð0 þ Þ ¼
¼ ¼ 10 mA
R1 1k
vC ð0 þ Þ ¼ 0 V; vR1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ U vC ð0 þ Þ ¼ 10 0 ¼ 10 V
R2 1
t ¼ 1; iC ð1Þ ¼ 0 A; vC ð1Þ ¼ 10 ¼ 10 ¼ 5 V
R1 þ R2 2
VC ð1Þ 5
ðbÞ iL ð1Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 5 mA; vR1 ð1Þ ¼ U vC ð1Þ ¼ 10 5 ¼ 5 V
R2 1
VR1 ð1Þ
iR1 ð1Þ ¼ ¼ 5 mA
R1
Problem 5.1.17 In the circuit of Fig. 5.19, iL1 ðtÞ ¼ iL2 ðtÞ ¼ 0 A and vC ðtÞ ¼ 0 V
for t\0:
Determine;
Solution
Voltage across a capacitor (current through an inductor) can not change abruptly.
On the other hand, inductor is a short and capacitor is an open circuit in steady state
(DC).
R2 1 mx ð 1Þ 5
mx ð 1Þ ¼ U ¼ 10 ¼ 5 V; iL1 ð1Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 5 mA;
R1 þ R2 2 R2 1 kX
iL2 ð1Þ ¼ 0 A
5
(k) iR4 ð0 þ Þ ¼ ¼ 5 mA;
1k
5
(l) iR1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ ¼ 10 mA;
5k
5V
(m) iR2 ð0 þ Þ ¼ ¼ 5 mA
1k
v1 ð0 þ Þ; v2 ð0 þ Þ; iR2 ð0 þ Þ; v3 ð0 þ Þ; iR1 ð0 þ Þ; iC ð0 þ Þ; iL ð0 þ Þ;
iR2 ð1Þ; v2 ð1Þ; v3 ð1Þ; iL ð1Þ; iR1 ð1Þ; iC ð1Þ:
Use SPICE analysis and check the results found for currents through inductor
and capacitor. Print SPICE netlist (inifin1.cir).
Solution
v1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ Vdc V; v2 ð0 þ Þ ¼ 0 V; iR2 ð0 þ Þ ¼ 0 A; v3 ð0 þ Þ ¼ 0 V;
v1 Vdc 10
iR1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 A; iC ð0 þ Þ ¼ iR1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ 1 A; iL ð0 þ Þ ¼ 0 A;
R1 R1 10
R3 10
iR2 ð1Þ ¼ 0 A; v2 ð1Þ ¼ Vdc ¼ 10 ¼ 5 V; v3 ð1Þ ¼ v2 ð1Þ
R1 þ R3 10 þ 10
Vdc 10
iL ð1Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 A; iR1 ð1Þ ¼ iL ð1Þ ¼ 0:5 A; iC ð1Þ ¼ 0 A
R1 þ R3 10 þ 10
Figure 5.23 is obtained using SPICE analysis and proves the values of currents
through inductor and capacitor.
SPICE Netlist (inifin1.cir) is given below.
inifin1
vdc 1 0 10
r1 1 2 10
c1 2 4 1
r2 2 3 10
L1 2 3 1
r3 3 0 10
vref 4 0 0 *tran 10 m 30 0 10 m uic
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0
time [sec]
5.1 Second-Order RLC Circuits 327
Solution
After the switch is closed at t = 0,
(a) mx ð1Þ ¼ 0 V;
Vdc 10
(b) iR1 ð1Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 A;
R1 10
Vdc 10
(c) iR2 ð1Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:333 A
R2 þ R3 30
(d) my ð1Þ ¼ R2 iR2 ð1Þ ¼ 10 0:333 ¼ 3:333 V;
(e) iL ð1Þ ¼ iR1 ð1Þ þ iR2 ð1Þ ¼ 1:333 A;
(f) ið1Þ ¼ iL ð1Þ ¼ 1:333 A;
(g) iL ð0 þ Þ ¼ iL ð0Þ ¼ 0 A;
(h) my ð0 þ Þ ¼ mC ð0Þ ¼ 0 V;
Vdc 10
(i) jiR2 ð0 þ Þj ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 A;
R2 þ R1 20
(j) iR1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ jiR2 ð0 þ Þj ¼ 0:5 A
Vdc R2 10 10 100
(k) mx ð0 þ Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 5 V;
R2 þ R1 10 þ 10 20
Vdc 10
(l) iR3 ð0 þ Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 A
R3 20
(m) ið0 þ Þ ¼ iR1 ð0 þ Þ þ iR3 ð0 þ Þ ¼ 0:5 þ 0:5 ¼ 1 A;
(n) iC ð0 þ Þ ¼ ið0 þ Þ ¼ 1 A
(o) Checking the values of vx(0+), vx(∞), vy(0+), vy(∞) using SPICE Analysis is
demonstrated in Fig. 5.25. Initial and final values of these voltages (vx = v2,
vy = v3) proves the results found above; vx(0+) = 5 V, vx(∞) = 0 V,
vy(0+) = 0 V, vy(∞) = 3.333 V.
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0
time [sec]
328 5 Second-Order Circuits
Current [A]
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0
time [sec]
Checking the values of iL(0+), iL(∞), iC(0+), iC(∞) using SPICE Analysis is also
demonstrated in Fig. 5.26. Initial and final values of these currents (iL = l1.internal,
iC = ivref) proves the results found in above operations; iL(0+) = 0 A,
iL(∞) = 1.333 A, iC(0+) = 1 A, iC(∞) = 0 A.
Problem 5.1.22 In the circuit shown in Fig. 5.27, v1(0+) = 8 V, v1(∞) = 5 V.
Find the values of R2 and R3 if R1 = 6 X, L1 = 1 H, L2 = 2 H, C = 1 F,
Vdc = 10 V (no initial conditions).
Solution
R3 R3
v1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ Vdc ¼ 10 ¼ 8 V
R1 þ R3 6 þ R3
10R3 ¼ 8ð6 þ R3 Þ ¼ 48 þ 8R3 ! R3 ¼ 24 X
R2 R2
v1 ð 1 Þ ¼ Vdc ¼ 10 ¼ 5 V
R1 þ R2 6 þ R2
10R2 ¼ 5ð6 þ R2 Þ ¼ 30 þ 5R2 ! R2 ¼ 6 X
Problem 5.1.23 For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.28, vC(0−) = 0 V, iL1(0−) = iL2(0−)
= 0 A; R1 = 6 X, R2 = 2 X, R3 = 4 X, L1 = 1 H, L2 = 2 H, Vdc = 10 V.
Find the values of,
(a) v1(0+), (b) v2(0+), (c) v3(0+), (d) iR1(0+), (e) iC(0+), (f) v1(∞), (g) v2(∞),
(h) v3(∞), (i) iC(∞), (j) iR1(∞), (k) check the results using SPICE analysis for
initial and final values of voltages v1, v2 and v3. (inifin3.cir)
Solution
Since voltage across a capacitor and current through an inductor cannot change
abruptly, and a capacitor acts as an open circuit while an inductor behaves like a
short circuit at steady state dc conditions,
R3 4
(a) v1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ Vdc ¼ 10 ¼ 4 V;
R1 þ R3 10
(b) v2 ð0 þ Þ ¼ v1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ 4 V;
(c) v3 ð0 þ Þ ¼ v1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ 4 V;
Vdc 10
(d) iR1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 A;
R1 þ R3 10
þ þ
(e) iC ð0 Þ ¼ iR1 ð0 Þ ¼ 1 A;
R2 2
(f) v1 ð 1 Þ ¼ Vdc ¼ 10 ¼ 2:5 V
R1 þ R2 8
(g) v2 ð1Þ ¼ 0 V;
(h) v3 ð1Þ ¼ 0 V;
(i) iC ð1Þ ¼ 0 A;
Vdc 10
(j) iR1 ð1Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:25 A;
R1 þ R2 8
(k) In Fig. 5.29, the results for initial and final values of voltages v1, v2, and v3 are
checked using SPICE analysis.
Problem 5.1.24 At the receiving end of a signal processor of one type of a data
acquisition system in a CT Scanner (X-ray Computer Tomography unit), the
received signal (which is a sampled and quantized analog voltage waveform) is
applied to a digital-to-analog (D/A) converter whose output is constant at each time
interval. It is smoothed by passing the output of DAC through a low-pass filter
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0
time [sec]
330 5 Second-Order Circuits
circuit to recover the transmitted analog signal. As a demonstrative example, let the
output of a D/A converter (input to the smoothing filter) at a certain time interval be
8
>
> 0V t¼0
>
>
< 5 V 0\t 1
vi ðtÞ ¼ 9 V 1\t 2
>
>
>
> 5 V 2\t 3
:
0 V 3\t 4
R 1 1
a¼ ¼ ; x0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 1; a\x0
2L 2 LC
A plot for both input and output voltages on the same graph is shown in
Fig. 5.31.
A SPICE netlist (RLC_smoothing.cir) is given below.
5.0
0.0
-5.0
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0
time [sec]
5.1 Second-Order RLC Circuits 331
smoothing
Vi 1 0 PWL(0 0 0.01 5 1 5 1.01 9 2 9 2.01 -5 3 -5 3.01 0 4 0)
R1 1 2 1
L1 2 3 1
C1 3 0 1
*.tran .01 8 0 .1 uic
Problem 5.1.25
(a) A prosthetic limb device is simulated by a series RLC circuit as shown in
Fig. 5.4a. Designer aims to realize an overdamped response with time constants
of s1 = 50 ms and s2 ¼ 250 ms using a 10 Ω resistor. Determine circuit
component values, and undamped natural frequency (in Hz).
(b) If vC ð0Þ ¼ 10 V; Plot the current waveform for t 0.
(c) If designer uses a parallel RLC circuit during his simulation of the same
prosthetic limb device, what will be the component values and undamped
natural frequency of the system, in Hz (R = 10 Ω).
(d) In the parallel RLC model, if initial conditions on the energy storage elements
are −180 mA and 2 V, determine the voltage variation on each component.
Solution
(a) An overdamped RLC circuit has the capacitor voltage in the form of
i(t) [A]
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
time [sec]
RLC analysis
C1 1 0 22.2 m IC=10v
L 1 2 0.417
R1 2 0 10
*.tran .001 1 0 0.01 uic
s1 þ s2 1
a¼ ¼ 12 ¼
2 RC
It should be pointed out here that the expression of a in a parallel RLC circuit is
different than the a for series RLC circuit. Solving this equation for C and sub-
stituting known values yields;
1 1
C¼ ¼ ¼ 4:17 mF
2aR 2 12 10
Undamped angular frequency for the parallel RLC circuit is the same as that of
the series RLC circuit,
1 1 1
x0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ! L¼ ¼ ¼ 22:2 mH
LC x0 C ð10:392Þ 4:17 103
2 2
Two equations are needed to determine the values of K1 ; K2 . The first one is
vC ð0Þ ¼ vð0Þ ¼ 2 ¼ K1 þ K2
The second equation to find out K1 and K2 is obtained from the node equation
for the parallel RLC circuit:
On the other hand, first derivative of the overdamped RLC circuit response is
dvðtÞ
¼ 4K1 e4t 20K2 e20t
dt
K1 þ K2 ¼ 2
4K1 þ 20K2 ¼ 4:796
the regular sequence of events that follow synchronized heart action deteriorates,
causing the loss of cardiac output, which may finally be the reason for the patient’s
death.
ECG features of VF show that the cardiac rhythm is highly irregular, heart rate is
not measurable, the P wave is absent, the PR interval is not measurable, baseline is
wandering and the QRS waveform does not exist, see, Fig. 5.33.
An electric shock which can be delivered to the fibrillating heart externally or by
the electrodes in direct contact with the heart during a surgical operation (internal
defibrillation) may restart regular heart activity.
Early studies on defibrillation utilized capacitor discharge [1, 2], i.e., a decaying
monophasic exponential current. Many studies investigated the effect of the value
of the capacitor used and the voltage on the Capacitor . Tacker [3] showed that
neither short nor long capacitor discharges defibrillated effectively. Short time
constant discharges were thought to cause functional damage. However, discharges
from long time constants failed to be effective, even though high energies were
delivered.
Damped Sinusoidal Waveforms
The addition of an inductor in series with a series capacitor discharge, converts the
waveform to a damped sinusoid. However, the energy required to defibrillate was
about half that required for capacitor discharge circuits [4].
This discovery was further investigated by Edmark [5] and Lown et al. [6]. The
damped sinusoidal waveform offered technical advantages as well as lower defib-
rillation thresholds. Capacitors rated at high voltage and high energy density could
be used, and the circuits were more reliable. Additionally, small, lightweight,
portable defibrillators using damped sinusoidal waveforms have been designed for
use by paramedics and other emergency personnel outside the hospital.
Lown type defibrillator is a biphasic underdamped RLC circuit, in contrast with
the monophasic overdamped Edmark circuit.
A technical disadvantage of using inductor is that a practical inductor has its
internal resistance and dissipates part of the supplied energy during the discharge
process. A significant clinical advantage for under-damped Lown type defibrillator
was that it did not produce atrial fibrillation, as did the Alternating Current (AC)
waveform in about 80% of shocks.
After extensive testing, it has been determined that biphasic waveforms are more
efficacious than monophasic waveforms [7–11]. One hypothesis for the increased
efficacy of biphasic waveforms over that of monophasic waveforms holds that first
positive phase defibrillates the heart and second phase performs a stabilizing action
that keeps the heart from re-fibrillating. Biphasic defibrillation waveforms are now
the standard of care in clinical use for defibrillation with implantable
cardioverter-defibrillators.
Some researchers [12] have developed cardiac cell response models of defib-
rillation to understand these significantly different outcomes. Waveform design
criteria have been postulated from these studies and have been applied to
monophasic and biphasic waveforms to optimize their parameters.
Kroll [13] proposed that the stabilizing action of the second phase removed the
charge deposited by positive phase from those cells which were not stimulated in
the first phase. This is known as “charge burping.” Kroll supported his hypothesis
with retrospective analysis of the studies by Dixon et al. [14], Tang et al. [15], and
Freeser et al. [16] regarding single capacitor, biphasic waveform studies.
The charge burping hypothesis can be used to develop equations that describe
the time course of a cell’s membrane potential during a biphasic shock pulse. At the
end of first phase, those cells that were not stimulated have a residual charge due to
the action of first phase on the cell.
Babs and Whistler [17] proposed a method to determine values of circuit ele-
ments in an underdamped sine wave (Lown waveform) defibrillator solely from
measurements of the outputPower measurement, using two or more power resistors
and a storage oscilloscope.
Jones and Charbonnier [18] developed a technique to determine peak current,
transthoracic impedance, and delivered energy during a damped sinusoidal defib-
rillation pulse. The discharge waveform information is generated from sampling the
peak discharge current through a current transformer and measuring the voltage
stored on the energy storage capacitor. For a given defibrillator circuit a unique
relationship exists between the peak discharge current and the unknown external
impedance presented to the defibrillator by the patient; hence, measurement of peak
discharge current allows calculation of external impedance. A real time algorithm
provides delivered energy information using known internal resistance, capacitance,
and inductance parameters. The benefit of this method of delivered energy calcu-
lation is that the current and voltage waveforms need not be digitized and then
integrated to provide the desired information. This method also keeps defibrillation
circuitry ground isolated and simplifies operation through the high electromagnetic
fields generated during the discharge.
Truncated Exponential Discharge
There are two kinds of truncated capacitive exponential discharge waveforms to be
used with defibrillator systems: monophasic and biphasic waveforms.
A monophasic waveform is a single exponentially decaying electrical pulse that is
truncated before the capacitor system is fully discharged. A biphasic waveform is a
pair of decaying electrical pulses (phases) that are of different (+/−) polarity [19].
Truncated Biphasic Exponential Discharge
One method to design a defibrillator with biphasic waveform is to discharge a
positive pulse from the capacitor and then, at the point the positive pulse is trun-
cated, a switching circuit connected to the electrodes is used to reverse the
336 5 Second-Order Circuits
discharge polarity of the capacitor system as seen by the patient’s trunk (resistor)
between the electrodes. This action produces the second pulse of the biphasic
waveform that is of the negative polarity. Solid-state H-bridge circuit structure is
widely employed to generate a biphasic waveform in a defibrillator unit.
It has been demonstrated that [20, 21], truncated biphasic waveforms achieve
shock therapies using relatively lower currents, voltages, and energies than
monophasic waveforms of similar durations.
Biphasic waveform generating defibrillators are most common type of defibril-
lators available today (2016). Basically, the first (positive) phase of this biphasic
waveform has a larger area under the curve than the second (negative) phase.
Most external defibrillator devices designed for adult defibrillation have energy
settings of 50–360 J, while devices for internal or pediatric defibrillation or syn-
chronized cardioversion of 5–50 J, and devices for neonatal applications have
energy settings of 1–20 J. Units are able to charge to maximum energy in less than
15 s over their full range.
A basic external defibrillator is used as a crash-cart unit to provide defibrillation.
These devices become suitable for transport applications and emergency medical
services paramedic use besides their crash-cart applications by adding external
pacing and advanced monitoring options.
There are two major types of biphasic defibrillators on the medical market. One
group of manufacturers use the biphasic truncated exponential waveform using
different energy settings. For example, Medtronic-Physio Control use the term
ADAPTIV Biphasic™ in their commercial product, and the energy settings go up
to 360 J. Additionally, they vary the voltage and automatically extend the period of
the shock for patients having higher torso resistance. Philips Medical uses the
biphasic truncated exponential waveform in their defibrillator product named as
SMART™ Biphasic, distributing voltage, and current so that maximum current is
delivered at 200 J (The SMART Biphasic waveform uses a 100 µF capacitor to
store the energy; the Medtronic Physio Control ADAPTIV biphasic waveform uses
a 200 µF capacitor). A Swiss Company Schiller uses pulsed high frequency
biphasic waveform in their product Multipulse Biowave™.
Another original defibrillator equipment manufacturer, Zoll Medical, uses
Rectilinear Biphasic™ waveform which is fixed at 10 ms duration. It adjusts the
equipment-based resistance and gives a constant current during the first positive
pulse application to patient’s torso by adding–subtracting resistors in the equip-
ment. Nihon Kohden’s ActiBiphasic™ technology in their Cardiolife™ products
provides biphasic defibrillation by maintaining constant second phase pulse width
particularly for high impedance patients.
Defibrillator Capacitors
Capacitors create a limiting factor in defibrillator design in terms of cost, size,
parasitic values, as well as their reliability and lifetime issues. Defibrillator
capacitors are housed in round or oval metal, oil-filled cases; or in a dry,
epoxy-filled plastic housing version. Plastic cases offer design flexibility, and can
be customized to specific requirements. They are available in voltage ranges from
5.1 Second-Order RLC Circuits 337
less than 1000 VDC up to 6000 VDC, delivering in excess of 500 J at full charge.
Defibrillator film capacitors are designed to meet the reliability demands of a
Class III medical device. An inspection of defibrillator capacitor specifications
shows that capacitance values as well as their rated voltage values are quite limited.
This fact sets another constraint in defibrillator design.
External Defibrillator Paddles and Cables
External defibrillator hard paddles have been used for many years by healthcare
staff.
Advantages are that the shock can be provided quickly with hard paddles, they
are needed especially for patients who are diaphoretic due to hemodynamic insta-
bility, patients with body incisions or wounds, patients with a large amount of hair
on their chest, or for patients having severe trauma.
As for the disadvantages; there is the problem of the paste smearing with paddles
over the chest and the potential of electrical arcing, if there is not good skin contact.
The person performing the actual defibrillation has to lean over the patient’s body to
apply the necessary pressure to the paddles. Additionally, hard paddles are costlier
than disposable pad electrodes.
There are numerous types of commercially presented external defibrillator
paddles and cables. Ideally, the paddles would have unrestricted movement, per-
form as ECG electrode as well, their cables would not tangle, and both the paddles
and cables would detach easily from the defibrillator for storage. Each paddle is
connected to a respective coiled cable having its other end attached to a single
connector. Unfortunately, these two coiled cables can become tangled together
during use, with potentially life-threatening results. Furthermore, due to the total
length of cable required, storage of the paddles and cables can be difficult.
A uni-cable paddle system for use with a defibrillator comprises two paddles
with contact surfaces and a main cable connected at one of its ends to one of the
paddles, (the sternum paddle); its other end having a connector for attachment to the
defibrillator, [22]. An inter-paddle cable extends between the sternum and apex
paddles. The main cable includes two high-voltage (HV) wires. One of these HV
wires is connected to the contact surface of the sternum paddle, and the other HV
wire is connected to the contact surface of the apex paddle via a HV wire in the
inter-paddle cable. The main and inter-paddle cables are identical, having two HV
wires arranged in a shielded, twisted pair to minimize external electromagnetic
interference. The “unused” HV wire in the inter-paddle cable may be connected to
the sternum contact surface (but left unconnected at its other end) to minimize
common mode effects in the cable and to match capacitances between the apex and
sternum paddles and ground. An alternative “Y” type structure includes a main
cable terminating in a connector for connection with a defibrillator. The main
cable’s other end terminates at a junction box.
This construction is claimed to minimize cable tangling during use and storage
and also to provide a defibrillator cable and paddle system which produces a
minimum of electromagnetic interference.
338 5 Second-Order Circuits
Major defibrillator paddle cabling available in the medical field today are of the
latter type, with the exception that main coiled connection cable is placed by a
rather short and relatively thick plug directly connecting to the socket on the
defibrillator. This can be termed as “V type” cable connection to defibrillator
paddles.
Problem 5.2.1 Determine the dual of the circuit shown in Fig. 5.34, and write its
characteristic equation in differential form.
Solution
Parallel ! series, current source ! voltage source, C ! L, G ! R,
Node voltage ! mesh current
Characteristic equation:
dm
C þ Gm ¼ i
dt
di
L þ Ri ¼ v
dt
Problem 5.2.2 Construct the dual of the circuit of Fig. 5.36, and write defining
equations for both circuits (L = 2 mH, C = 4 nF, R = 10 kΩ, v = 3 cos(t) [V].
Solution
Series–parallel duality principle (Fig. 5.37),
1
L0 ¼ 4 nH; C 0 ¼ 2 mF; G0 ¼ 10 kS; R¼ ¼ 104 X; i ¼ 3 cosðtÞ ½A
104
Solution
(a) KVL: vin iR1 iR2 iR3 ¼ 0 ! vin ¼ ðR1 þ R2 þ R3 Þ i
ðcÞ vR3 ¼ i R3 ¼ 0:893 5:1 cos 314 t ¼ 4:554 cos 314t ½V
(d) Fig. 5.39 shows the dual circuit.
The verbal description of the circuit is that the voltage source sees a network
which consists of a series connected (L//R) and C. This translates into the statement
for the dual circuit as the current source sees a network consisting of a parallel
connected (G′–C′)//L′. Then, the circuit of Fig. 5.41 is drawn.
(L//V) is in series with C, then it connects to (i//R). This translates into the
following statement: (C′//i′) is in parallel with L′ then it connects to (V′–G′). The
circuit of Fig. 5.45 can be drawn;
Problem 5.2.7 Obtain the dual for the circuit shown in Fig. 5.46.
Solution
Redrawing the circuit and placing nodes at the center of each mesh and a ground
line around the circuit as shown in Fig. 5.47,
Then connecting nodes and writing duals as in Fig. 5.48, and reorganizing
(Fig. 5.49) yields the dual circuit.
Problem 5.2.8 Draw the dual of the circuit shown in Fig. 5.50 (i = 2 A,
R = 1/8 Ω, L = 2 H, C = 10 F).
Solution
Three parallel branches to the left of node 1 are converted into series connected
elements.
Series connected (L, C) elements are converted into parallel (C, L) braches.
All are being replaced with their duals.(Figure 5.51).
344 5 Second-Order Circuits
1
R0 ¼ 8 X; L0 C ¼ 10 H; C L ¼ 2 F; v i ¼ 2V
R
Problem 5.2.9 Draw the dual of the network in Fig. 5.52 (R1 = 2 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω,
C1 = 10 F, C2 = 5 F).
5.2 Duality Principle 345
Solution
C1 and R1 are series connected through a switch that turns on at t = 0, (R2//C2).
Initial voltage of C1 is V0þ . Dual case:
L01 and G01 are parallel connected through a switch that turns off at t = 0, (G2–L2).
Initial current of L01 is i00 . Dual circuit is shown in Fig. 5.53, with
References
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electric shock. JAMA 135(15):985
2. Kouwenhoven WB, Milnor WR (1954) Treatment of ventricular fibrillation using a capacitor
discharge. J Appl Physiol 7:253
3. Tacker WA, Geddes LA, McFarlane II, Milnor W, Gullet J et al (1969) Optimum current
duration for capacitor-discharge defibrillation of canine ventricles. J Appl Physiol 27(4):480
4. Mackay RS, Leeds SE (1953) Physiological effects of condenser discharges. J Appl
Physiol 667
5. Edmark KW (1963) Simultaneous voltage and current waveforms generated during internal
and external direct current defibrillation. Surg Forum 262
6. Lown B, Neuman J, Amarasingham R, Berkovitz BV (1962) Comparison of alternating
current with direct current countershock. Am J Cardiol 10:223
7. Kavanagh KM, Tang ASL, Rollins DL, Smith WM, Ideker RE (1989) A comparison of the
internal defibrillation thresholds for monophasic, double and single capacitor biphasic
waveforms. J Am Coll Cardiol 14(5):1343
8. Flaker GC, Schuder JC, McDaniel WC, Stoeckle H, Dbeis M (1989) Superiority of biphasic
shocks in the defibrillation of dogs by epicardial patches and catheter electrodes. Am Heart J
118:228
9. White RD (2004) Waveforms for defibrillation and cardioversion: recent experimental and
clinical studies. Curr Opin Crit Care 10(3):202–7
10. Geddes LA, Havel W (2000) Evolution of the optimum bidirectional (+/− biphasic) wave for
defibrillation. Biomed Instrum Technol 34(1):39–54
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Cameron B, Burgess R, Shield J, Bagley P, Mausz V, Brewer JE, Lerman BB (2005)
Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest rectilinear biphasic to monophasic damped sine defibrillation
346 5 Second-Order Circuits
waveforms with advanced life support intervention trial (ORBIT). Recuscitation 66(2):
149–57
12. Walcott GP et al (1995) Choosing the optimal monophasic and biphasic waveforms for
ventricular defibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 6:737–750
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PACE 17:1782–1792
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electrodes and biphasic waveforms. Circulation 76:1176–1184
15. Tang ASL et al (1989) Ventricular defibrillation using biphasic waveforms: the importance of
phasic duration. J Am Coll Cardiol 13:207–214
16. Freeser SA et al (1990) Strength-duration and probability of success curves for defibrillation
with biphasic waveforms. Circulation 82:2128–2141
17. Babbs CF, Whistler SJ (1978) Evaluation of the operating internal resistance, inductance, and
capacitance of intact damped sine wave defibrillators. Med Instrum 12(1):34–37
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energy, and peak current during defibrillation episodes. Med Instrum 15(6):380–382
19. Adams TP, Kroll MW (1999) Apparatus for generating biphasic waveforms in an implantable
defibrillator. U S Patent 005(871):505A
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waveform pulses on defibrillation efficiency in humans. J Am Coll Cardiol 14:728–733
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a non-thoracotomy system. Am J Cardiol 71:197–202
22. Cameron DB (1993) Uni-cable defibrillator paddles. US Patent: 5,203,347
Chapter 6
Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Problem 6.1.1
pffiffiffi
(a) Show that rms value of the sinusoidal voltage, v(t) = Vp. sin(2pft) is Vp = 2
volts.
(b) If f = 1000 Hz, Vp = 10 V, what is the rms value of v(t)?
Solution
x ¼ 2pf
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 ZT 2 1 ZT 2
Vrms ¼ Vp sinðxtÞ dt ¼ Vp sin ðxtÞdt
T0 T0
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 ZT 1 cosð2xtÞ
¼ Vp dt
(a) T0 2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 t sinð2xtÞ T 1 t T
Vrms ¼ Vp ¼ Vp
T 2 4x 0 T 2 0
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi rffiffiffi
1 T 1 Vp
¼ Vp 0 ¼ Vp ¼ pffiffiffi
T 2 2 2
(b) The rms value is independent of signal frequency,
Vp 10
Vrms ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 7:07 V
2 2
Problem 6.1.2 Show that the rms value of a sinusoidal voltage with maximum
value A volts is the same for a pulse train with amplitude A (volts) and duty
cycle = 1/2.
Solution
pffiffiffi
rms value of a sinusoid ¼ A= 2 volts
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
rms value of pulse train ¼ A d=T
d ¼ pulse width ðsÞ; T ¼ period
Since d/T = 1/2 = duty cycle, the rms value of pulse train is
rffiffiffi
1 A
A ¼ pffiffiffi
2 2
Therefore, rms values are the same for sinusoidal and pulse train signals if both
have the same maximum levels and duty cycle = 1/2 for pulse train.
Problem 6.1.3
(a) Compute the average power (in mW) absorbed by 1 kΩ resistor connected to
an independent voltage source supplying periodic triangular pulses at 50% duty
cycle and maximum at Vm volts.
(b) Find the average power if the frequency of this waveform is increased 10 times.
Solution
T
1 ZT v2 ðtÞ 1 Z2 2Vm t 2 1
Pav ¼ dt ¼ dt
T0 R T0 T R
(a) T
4Vm2 t3 2 Vm2
T T
1 Z2 4Vm2 t2 1 4Vm2 Z2 2
Pav ¼ dt ¼ 2 t dt ¼ 3 ¼
T 0 T 2R T T R0 T R 3 0 6R
substituting R ¼ 1 kX; Vm ¼ 10 V; Pav ¼ 102 =6000 ¼ 16:667 mW
(b) No matter how much the frequency of this waveform is increased, average
power absorbed remains the same, i.e., 16.667 mW.
Problem 6.1.4 In the sinusoidal state condition, the current and voltage relations
on an element are
respectively.
(a) Determine the average power consumed by this element, (mW).
(b) Is this an inductor or a capacitor?
6.1 Average and RMS Values of Signals 349
Solution
1 ZT 1
Pav ¼ iðtÞ vðtÞdt ¼ Vm Im cosðuv ui Þ
To 2
1
¼ 3 12 103 cosð75 15 Þ
(a) 2
18 103
¼ 18 103 cos 60 ¼
2
Pav ¼ 9 mW
(b) This is neither an inductor nor a capacitor, since Du 6¼ 90 (in other words,
the difference between the phase angles is neither +90° nor −90°).
Problem 6.1.5 Compute the rms value of thesignal xðtÞ = AðtÞ B(t), which is a
modulated 50 Hz, and 10 V peak sinusoidal signal with another 4 Hz sinusoidal
signal,
Plot the modulated signal and its rms value on the same figure.
Solution
Using MATLAB, the rms value of the signal is computed as
Yrms ¼ 4:9009 V
Yaverage ¼ 0:1014 V
The signal and its rms value are displayed in Fig. 6.1.
2
y(t)
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
t (sec)
350 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Problem 6.1.6 A medical grade Carbon dioxide Laser unit produces 25 kW pulsed
power in bursts tp = 100 ns long at a 400 Hz repetition rate. Determine the average
power output of this laser unit.
Solution
1 1
f ¼ repetition rate ¼ 400 ¼ ! T¼ s
T 400
1 ZT 1 TZp T
Pav ¼ pðtÞdt ¼ 1 25000dt ¼ 400 25000 tj0 p
T0 400 0
¼ 400 25000 100 109 ¼ 1 W
Problem 6.1.7 Femtosecond lasers emit laser pulses of extremely short duration in
the range of 300–500 fs. They do not transfer heat or shock to the material being
operated. Therefore, surgical incisions are performed with much higher precision
than conventional procedures.
A 1050 nm femtosecond laser unit produces 0.5 W average power in bursts of
Tp = 500 fs duration at a 1 kHz repetition rate. Determine, (a) Frequency of the
optical emission within a pulse package, (b) Single pulse power output of this laser
unit (GW).
Solution
(a) Optical signal frequency within each pulse is
c 3 108 ðms1 Þ
fC ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:002857 1017 Hz ¼ 285:7 1012 Hz
k 1050 109 ðmÞ
¼ 285:7 THz
6.1 Average and RMS Values of Signals 351
1
f ¼ repetition rate ¼ 1000 Hz ¼
T
1
T¼ s ¼ 1 ms
1000
1 ZT 1 TZp T
Pav ¼ 0:5 W ¼ pðtÞdt ¼ 1 Pdt ¼ 1000 P tj0 p
T0 1000 0
Problem 6.1.8 A pacemaker is attached to the heart tissue at 250 X via its elec-
trodes. The pulse generated by this unit is a rectangular pulse with 300 ms duration
and 2.5 V peak, for 60 beats per minute. It draws 3 lA from the battery when the
pulse is off. Pacemaker battery capacity is 2 A h at 2.5 V.
(a) Calculate the energy delivered to the heart during one period.
(b) Compute the lifetime of battery in years, if it operates only in this mode.
Comment on this result.
Solution
(a) Period is 1 s, the energy delivered to the heart in 1 s
V2 2:52
W¼ Tp ¼ 300 106 ¼ 7:5 lJ þ ð2:5 3 1Þ lJ ¼ 15 lJ
R 250
This is an ideal case. By time, internal battery resistance increases, and this causes a
serious reduction for the lifetime of pacemaker [1].
Problem 6.1.9 A pacemaker generates rectangular pulses of 1 ms duration and
3.5 V amplitude at 70 pulses/min, driving a load of 350 Ω.
(a) Determine total energy supplied to this load in 5 years.
(b) Determine the capacity of its battery in A h, (ampere-hours), if the battery is a
5.6 V Lithium type and 40% of its energy is spent for the pulses in 5 years
period.
352 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Solution
3:5
(a) Energy/pulse ¼ Vp Ip tp ¼ 3:5 1 103 ¼ 3:5 105 J/p
350
Number of pulses in 5 years:
Total energy:
EB ¼ 6417:6 J ¼ VA s
¼ 0:4 5:6 ðA sÞ; A s ¼ capacity in seconds
Problem 6.2.1 Find the expression of the voltage signal in Fig. 6.2 (ac1.cir).
Solution
1 1
f ¼ Hz; vðtÞ ¼ 0:5 þ sinð2pf Þt ¼ 0:5 þ sin 628 t ¼ 0:5 þ sinð62:8tÞ
10 10
voltage [V]
voltage signal 1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
time [sec]
Solution
(a) Amplitude of v(t) is 2.4 V
(b) Argument of v(t) is xt ¼ 628t
(c) Angular frequency of v(t) is 628 rad/s.
(d) Period of v(t) is
2p 6:28 1
T¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:01 s
x 628 100
x 628
x ¼ 2pf ! f ¼ ¼ ¼ 100 Hz
2p 6:28
Problem 6.2.3 Show that a sinusoidal voltage signal repeats itself at every
T seconds.
Solution
vðtÞ ¼ Vm sinðxtÞ
Let, (t + T) substitute t,
2p
vðt þ T Þ ¼ Vm sinðxðt þ TÞÞ ¼ Vm sin x t þ ¼ Vm sinðxt þ 2pÞ
x
¼ Vm sinðxtÞ
which is v(t). Therefore, vðt þ T Þ ¼ vðtÞ; in general, vðt þ nT Þ ¼ vðtÞ for all integers n.
Problem 6.2.4 What is the amount of instantaneous power consumed over a 10 X
resistor at t = 10 ms, if the sinusoidal current flowing through it has a peak value of
10 A and period of 20 ms?
354 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Solution
2p 2p
x¼ ¼ ¼ 314 rad/s
T 20 103
pðtÞ ¼ iðtÞ vðtÞ ¼ i2 ðtÞ R ¼ ð10 cosð314tÞÞ2 10 ¼ 1000 cos2 ð314tÞ
p 10 103 ¼ 1000 cos2 314 10 103 ¼ 1000 cos2 ð3:14Þ ¼ 1000 cos2 p
cos p ¼ 1;
p 10 103 ¼ 1000 ¼ 1 kW
Problem 6.2.5 For the signals shown in Fig. 6.3, determine the equation of
v1 ðtÞ and v2 ðtÞ, if v2 ðtÞ crosses horizontal axis at 4p=9 radians. Which one is
leading the other? How many degrees? (plot_sine1.m)
Solution
4p
v1 ðtÞ ¼ 1 sin xt; v2 ðtÞ ¼ 0:5 sinðxt þ hÞ ¼ 0:5 sin xt þ
9
v2 leads v1 by
4 180
¼ 80
9
Problem 6.2.6 Determine graphically the phase angle between
(a) 3 cos xt 3 sin xt;
(b) 3 cos xt þ 4 sin xt;
(c) cos xt 2 sin xt;
(Note: Positive direction of the sine function is down).
0.6
0.4
0.2
volts
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
wt radians
6.2 The Phasor, Admittance, Impedance 355
Solution
(a) h ¼ tan1 ð3=3Þ ¼ 45
(b) h ¼ tan1 ð4=3Þ ¼ 53:1
(c) h ¼ tan1 ð2=1Þ ¼ 63:4 .
Figure 6.4 shows these phasor angles.
Problem 6.2.7 Calculate the phase angle between v1 ðtÞ ¼ cosðxt þ 40 Þ; v2 ðtÞ ¼
2 sinðxt 5 Þ: Which one leads the other?
Solution
h ¼ 90 40 5 ¼ 45
Problem 6.2.9 Using series expansions, prove the validity of Euler’s theorem.
Solution
Euler’s theorem: cos h þ j sin h ¼ ejh
h 2 h3 h4 h5
eh ¼ 1 þ h þ þ þ þ þ
2! 3! 4! 5!
h 2
h 4
cosh ¼ 1 þ
2! 4!
h3 h5 h7
sinh ¼ h þ þ
3! 5! 7!
h2 h3 h4 h5
cosh þ j sinh ¼ 1 þ jh j þ þj
2! 3! 4! 5!
cosh þ j sinh ¼ e jh
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
2 2 pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
Z ¼ 2\45 ¼ 2ðcos 45 þ j sin 45 Þ ¼ 2 þj ¼ 2þj 2
2 2
In exponential form,
Z ¼ reju ¼ 2ej45
Problem 6.2.12 Represent the voltage vðtÞ ¼ 310 sinðxt þ 30 Þ V by a phasor.
Solution
p
cos x ¼ sinx
2 p p p
vðtÞ ¼ 310 cos xt þ ¼ 310 cos xt V
6 2 3
Solution
(a) Z ¼ Z1 þ Z2 ¼ 3 þ j4 þ 1 j ¼ 4 þ j3
(b) Z ¼ Z1 Z2 ¼ 3 þ j4 1 þ j ¼ 2 þ j5
(c) Z ¼ Z1 Z2 ¼ ð3 þ j4
Þ
ð1 jÞ ¼ 3 j3 þ j4 þ 4 ¼ 7 þ j
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1 1
pffiffiffiffiffi
Z ¼ 49 þ 1\tan ¼ 50\8:1
7
or
pffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffi
Z ¼ Z1 Z2 ¼ r1 r2 \ðu1 þ u2 Þ ¼ 5 2\ð53:1 þ 45 Þ ¼ 50\8:1
pffiffi
(d) Z ¼ ZZ12 ¼ rr12 \ðu1 u2 Þ ¼ p5ffiffi2 \ð53:1 ð45 ÞÞ ¼ 5 2 2 \98:1
pffiffi
(e) Z ¼ Z12 ¼ r12 \ u ¼ p1ffiffi2 \ ð45 Þ ¼ 22 \45
pffiffiffiffiffi pffiffi u pp ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1
(f) Z2 ¼ r \ 2 ¼ 2\ 45 2 ¼ 2 \ 22:5
4
(g) Z1 ¼ ð1 jÞ ¼ 1 þ j
358 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Solution
1 1
(a) ð20\30 þ 10\ 60 Þ2 ¼ f20ðcos30 þ j sin30Þ þ 10½cosð60Þ þ j sinð60Þg2
cosðxÞ ¼ cosx; sinðxÞ ¼ sinx
pffiffiffi
pffiffiffi12
1 3 1 1 3
ð20\30 þ 10\ 60 Þ ¼ 20
2 þj þ 10 j
2 2 2 2
h pffiffiffi pffiffiffii12
¼ 10 3 þ j10 þ 5 j5 3
h pffiffiffi pffiffiffii12
¼ ð10 3 þ 5Þ þ jð10 5 3
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi12
(b) pffiffiffi pffiffiffi 2 1 10 5 3
¼ 2
ð10 3 þ 5Þ þ ð10 5 3Þ \tan pffiffiffi
10 3 þ 5
rq
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi 3:44
¼ ð10 3 þ 5Þ2 þ ð10 5 3Þ2 \
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ 498:205 þ 1:795\1:72
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
¼ 500\1:72 ¼ 22:361\1:72 ¼ 4:729\1:72
6.2 The Phasor, Admittance, Impedance 359
pffiffi
2\60 þ 1 j 2ðcos 60 þ j sin 60 Þ þ 1 j 2 1
2 þj 2
3
þ1 j
¼ ¼
ð1 jÞ 1þj 1þj
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
1 þ j 3 þ 1 j 2 þ jð 3 1Þ
¼ ¼
1þj 1þj
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi pffiffi
ð2Þ þ ð 3 1Þ \tan1 321
2 2
¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
12 þ 12 \tan1 11
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi pffiffi
(c) 4 þ 3 þ 1 2 3\tan1 321
¼ pffiffiffi
2\45
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi pffiffi
8 2 3\tan1 321
¼ pffiffiffi
2\45
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi
pffiffiffi
82 3 1 31
¼ \ðtan 45 Þ
2 2
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffi
¼ 4 3\ 24:89 ¼ 1:506\ 24:89
MATLAB script for the solution of part a:
c=(2*exp(1i*pi/3)+1-1i)/(1+i);R=abs(c)
phir=angle(c); %radian
phi=phir*180/pi %degrees
c=(2*exp(1i*pi/3)+1-1i)/(1+i);R=abs(c)
phir=angle(c); %radian
phi=phir*180/pi %degrees
360 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Problem 6.2.19 In an alternating current (AC) circuit, the current flowing through
an impedance Z ¼ 5 þ j5 X is iðtÞ ¼ 10 sin xt. Find the voltage across the
impedance in the time domain.
Solution
V 130\ 60
Z¼ ¼ ¼ 26\ð60 40 Þ ¼ 26\ 100 ¼ 26\260
I 5\40
Problem 6.2.21 Two impedances are series connected and voltage drop across one
of these is
p
v1 ðtÞ ¼ 150 cos 314t V
6
6.2 The Phasor, Admittance, Impedance 361
V ¼ V1 þ V2
250\60 ¼ 150\ 30 þ V 2
pffiffiffi
pffiffiffi
1 3 3 1
V 2 ¼ 250\60 150\ 30 ¼ 250 þj 150 j
2 2 2 2
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
¼ 125 þ j125 3 75 3 þ j75 ¼ 4:90 þ j291:51
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 291:51
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
¼ ð4:9Þ þ ð291:51Þ \ tan 2
¼ 85;000\ tan1 ð59:49Þ
4:9
¼ 291:55\ 89:04
v2 ðtÞ ¼ 291:55 cosð314t 89:04ÞV
Phase angle between I and V is 90°. Voltage phasor leads current phasor by 90°,
Fig. 6.6.
Problem 6.2.23 Given that
p 1
e j 2 ¼ ; lnð 10jÞ ¼ ?
j
Solution
p 1 p
ej2 ¼ ¼ j ! 10j ¼ 10ej2
j
p
p p
lnð10jÞ ¼ ln 10 ej2 ¼ ln10 þ lnðej2 Þ ¼ 2:3 j ¼ 2:3 j1:57
2
Problem 6.2.24 V ¼ 50 ej53:1 ; I ¼ 25 e j56:3 ; Z¼?
Solution
By Ohm’s law,
V 50ej53:1
Z¼ ¼ ¼ 2ej109:4 ¼ 2\109:4
I 25ej56:3
Solution
Resistance vðtÞ ¼ R iðtÞ; V ¼ R:I
diðtÞ
(a) Inductor vðtÞ ¼ L ; V ¼ jxL:I
dt
dV ðtÞ I
Capacitor iðtÞ ¼ C ; V¼
dt jxC
(b) In time domain,
vðtÞ ¼ A cosðxt þ uÞ
dV ðtÞ d½Acosðxt þ uÞ
iðtÞ ¼ C: ¼C ¼ xCA sinðxt þ uÞ
dt dt
sin x ¼ cosðx þ 90 Þ ! iðtÞ ¼ xCA cosðxt þ u þ 90 Þ
A ¼ 10; u ¼ 60 ; C ¼ 100 lF; x ¼ 314 rad/s;
iðtÞ ¼ ð314Þ 100 106 ð10Þcosð314t 60 þ 90 ÞA
iðtÞ ¼ ð314Þ cosð314t þ 30 Þ mA
In frequency domain,
I
V¼
jxC
I ¼ jxCV ¼ jð314Þ 100 106 ð10\ 60 ÞA ¼ 314j\ 60 mA
¼ ð314\90 Þ ð1\ 60 Þ ¼ 314\ð90 60 Þ ¼ 314\30 mA
iðtÞ ¼ ð314Þ cosð314t þ 30 Þ mA
V 8\ 50 8\ 50
I¼ ¼ ¼
jxL j 100 4 j 400
ðj ¼ 1\90 Þ
8\ 50
I¼ ¼ 0:02\ð50 90 Þ ¼ 0:02\ 140
400\90
iðtÞ ¼ 0:02 cosð100t 140 ÞA
Problem 6.2.27 Determine admittance of the circuit of Fig. 6.7 (in mS),
R ¼ 2 X; XL ¼ 2 X; XC ¼ 4 X.
364 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Solution
1 1 1 1 1 1
Y¼ þ þ ¼ þ þ ¼ 0:5 j0:5 þ j0:25 ¼ 0:5 j0:25 S
R jXL jXC 2 j2 j4
Y ¼ 500 j250 mS
Problem 6.2.29
(a) Calculate the voltage phase shift in the circuit of Fig. 6.8 with
R ¼ 10 X; C ¼ 10 nF; f ¼ 1 MHz:
(b) Find the frequency where the phase shift is—30° (RC1.cir).
Solution
(a) By voltage division rule,
6.2 The Phasor, Admittance, Impedance 365
jXC
V¼
R jXC
1
XC ¼ ¼ 15:9 X
2p 106 10 109
Vo j15:9 15:9\ 90 15:9\ 90
¼ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 15:9
¼
V i 10 j15:9 102 þ 15:92 \arctan 10 18:78\ 57:8
¼ 0:847\ 32:17
vo ðtÞ is lagging vi ðtÞ by 32.17° at 1 MHz. This is verified by SPICE (Fig. 6.9),
32:17
Dt ¼ 0:5 ls ffi 0:09 lsÞ
180
ac voltage signal
*SIN(V0 VA FREQ TD THETA)
v1 1 0 sin(0 1 1meg -0.25u 0)
R 1 2 10
C 2 0 10n
*.tran 1n 3u 1u 10n uic
'v(1)' 'v(2)'
1.0
voltage [V]
0.0
-1.0
1.0u 1.5u 2.0u 2.5u 3.0u
time [sec]
(b) The frequency at which the phase shift is −30° is determined as follows:
XC XC
h ¼ 30 ¼ 90 arctan ¼ 90 þ arctan
R R
X
60 ¼ arctan
C
R
XC 1 1
tanð60 Þ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:732 ! x ¼
R xCR ð1:732Þð10 109 Þð10Þ
0:5774 107
x ¼ 0:5774 107 ðradjsecÞ ! f ¼ ¼ 0:092 107 ¼ 920 kHz
2p
Solution
Z ¼ 30 þ j40 X
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
(a) jZj ¼ 302 þ 402 ¼ 900 þ 1600 ¼ 50 X
jZj2 ¼ 502 ¼ 2500 X2
(b) Admittance in mS,
Z 30 j40 30 j40
Y¼ ¼ ¼ S ¼ 0:012 j0:016 S ¼ 12 j16 mS
jZj2 2500 2500 2500
Problem 6.2.31 In the circuit shown in Fig. 6.10, vðtÞ ¼ 10 cosð10t þ 30 Þ;
L ¼ 1 H; R ¼ 10 X:
Determine the resistance, reactance, impedance, conductance, susceptance, and
admittance of the circuit.
Solution
Z ¼ R þ jX ¼ jZj\h
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
X
jZj ¼ R2 þ X 2 ; h ¼ arctan
R
1 I 1 R X
Y ¼ ¼ ¼ G þ jB ¼ ¼ 2 j 2
Z V R þ jX R þ X 2 R þ X2
Resistance ¼ R ¼ 10 X
Reactance ¼ X ¼ xL ¼ 10 1 ¼ 10 X
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi
jZj ¼ 102 þ 102 ¼ 200 ¼ 10 2 X ðImpedance magnitude)
10
h ¼ arctan ¼ 45
10
10 10
Y¼ j ¼ 0:05 j0:05 S
100 þ 100 100 þ 100
Conductance ¼ G ¼ 0:05 S; Susceptance ¼ B ¼ 0:05 S
pffiffiffi
1 2
Y¼ p ffiffi
ffi ¼ \ 45 S ðAdmittanceÞ
10 2\45 20
Problem 6.2.32 Using phasors, determine the current flowing through a series-
connected RL circuit, if the input voltage is given by vðtÞ ¼ 4 cosð10t 45 Þ;
R ¼ 5 X; L ¼ 2 H:
Solution
di
L þ R i ð t Þ ¼ vð t Þ ! jxLI þ RI ¼ V
dt
V 4\ 45 4\ 45
I ðjxL þ RÞ ¼ V ! I¼ ¼ ¼
jxL þ R j10 2 þ 5 20j þ 5
4\ 45 4\ 45 4\ 45
I ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 20
¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼
25 þ 400\ arctan 5 425\ arctanð4Þ 20:62\75:96
I ¼ 0:194\ð45 75:96 Þ ¼ 0:194\ð120:96 Þ
Solution
V\0 V\0
V ¼ I ðR þ jxLÞ ! I¼ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
R þ jxL R þ x L2 \tan1 xL
2 2
R
V xL
(a) I ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi \ tan1
R2 þ x2 L2 R
V 1 xL
iðtÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi cos xt tan
R2 þ x2 L2 R
pffiffiffi
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
10 2 1 10 10 2 10 2
I ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi \ tan ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi \ 45 ¼ pffiffiffi \ 45
ðbÞ 100 þ 102 1 10 200 10 2
iðtÞ ¼ 1 cosð10t 45 ÞA
V 1 V 2 317\0 0:995\90
I¼ ¼ ¼ 0:317 0:000995 ffi 0:317\0
R 1000
iðtÞ ¼ 0:317 cosð314tÞ
A plot of v2 ðtÞ and iðtÞ, (i.e., current through and voltage across the inductor) is
plotted in Fig. 6.11. Voltage across the inductor leads current through the inductor
by 90.
6.2 The Phasor, Admittance, Impedance 369
-0.5
-1.0
0.0m 10.0m 20.0m 30.0m 40.0m
time [sec]
Problem 6.2.35 Determine the time domain value of voltage across the capacitor
in the circuit shown in Fig. 6.12a, if vðtÞ ¼ 2 cos 10t; R ¼ 10k X; C ¼ 20 lF
(RC1.cir).
Solution
By voltage division,
(a)
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
1.26 1.46 1.66 1.86 2.06
time [sec]
Fig. 6.12 a The circuit for Problem 6.2.35. b Voltage waveforms in the circuit
370 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
1
jxC 1 1 jxRC
Vc ¼ V ¼V ¼V
1 1 þ jxRC 1 þ ðxRC Þ2
Rþ
jxC
1 j10 104 20 106
¼ 2\0
1 þ ð10 104 20 106 Þ2
1 j200 102 1 j2
¼2 ¼2 ¼ 0:4 j0:8
1 þ ð200 102 Þ 2 5
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 0:8
¼ 0:16 þ 0:64\tan1 ¼ 0:894\ 63:43
0:4
vc ðtÞ ¼ 0:894 cosð10t 63:43 ÞV
Figure 6.12b shows the variation of the voltage across the capacitor, vc(t) = v(2),
and input voltage to the circuit, v(t) = v(1).
SPICE netlist (RC1.cir);
AC voltage signal
v1 1 0 sin(0 2 1.59 -0.1572 0)
R 1 2 10k
C 2 0 20u
*.tran 1m 2 06 1.6 1 uic
0:99
¼ ð4\90 Þ ¼ ð4\90 Þð99Þ ¼ ð396\90 Þð1Þ
0:01
¼ ð396\90 Þð1\180 Þ ¼ ð396\270 Þ
vðtÞ ¼ 396 cosð1000t þ 270 Þ ¼ 396 cosð1000t 90 Þ ¼ 396sinð1000tÞ
(b)
'v(1)' 'i(v1)'
1 1 1
x2 ¼ ! L¼ ¼ ¼ 0:1 H
LC x2 C 106 105
Problem 6.2.37 Determine the current i(t), in the circuit shown in Fig. 6.14a,
(mA) (ac2.cir).
Solution
L ¼ 100 mH ! jXL ¼ jxL ¼ jð100Þ 100 103 ¼ j10 X
1 1 j
C ¼ 1000 lF ! jXC ¼ j ¼ j ¼ ¼ j10 X
xC 100 ð1000 106 Þ 101
1 1 10 j10 10 10
Y1 ¼ þ ¼ j0:1 þ ¼ j0:1 þ j ¼ 0:05 þ j0:05
j10 10 þ j10 100 þ 100 200 200
1 1 0:05 j0:05 0:05 j0:05
Z1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 4 ffi ¼ 10 j10
Y 1 0:05 þ j0:05 10 ð25 þ 25Þ 0; 005
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 10
Z ¼ Z1 þ R1 ¼ 10 j10 þ 5 ¼ 15 j10 X ¼ 225 þ 100\ arctan
15
Z ¼ 18:03\ 33:7
V 1\0
I¼ ¼ ¼ 0:055\ð0 þ 33:7 Þ ¼ 0:055\ð33:7 Þ
Z 18:03\ 33:7
iðtÞ ¼ 55 cosð100t þ 33:7 Þ mA
372 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Since period is
2p 2p
T¼ ¼ ¼ 62:83 ms;
x 100
ac voltage signal
ac voltage signal
*SIN(V0 VA FREQ TD THETA)
v1 1 0 sin(0 1 15.9 -15.7m 0)
R1 1 2 5
C 2 0 1000u
R2 2 3 10
L 3 0 100m
*.tran 1m 200m 100m 1m uic
Solution
(a) The impedance,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi
Z ¼ j10 þ j20 þ 10 ¼ j10 þ 10 ¼ 200\ tan1 ð1Þ ¼ ð 2 10Þ\45
¼ 14:1\45 X
(b) If x is doubled,
1 1
Xc ¼ ; Xc is halved ; XL ¼ ; XL is doubled
xC xC
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 10
Znew ¼ j5 þ j40 þ 10 ¼ j35 þ 10 ¼ 35 þ 100\ tan
2
35
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1
Znew ¼ 1325\ tan ð0:2857Þ ¼ 36:4\15:95 X
6.2 The Phasor, Admittance, Impedance 373
Solution
(a)
1 1 1 1
Y¼ þ ¼ þ
jxL 1 jxL xRC j
Rþ
jxC xC
1 xC xRC j þ jxLxC xRC þ jðx2 LC 1Þ
¼ þ ¼ ¼
jxL xRC j jxLðxRC jÞ jx2 RLC þ xL
1 jx RLC þ xL
2
ðjx RLC þ xLÞ½xRC þ jðx2 LC 1Þ
2
Z¼ ¼ ¼
Y xRC þ jðx2 LC 1Þ x2 R2 C2 þ ðx2 LC 1Þ2
x2 RLC jxLðx2 LC 1Þ þ jx3 LR2 C 2 þ x2 RLC ðx2 LC 1Þ
¼
x2 R2 C2 þ x4 L2 C 2 þ 1 2x2 LC
jxLðx LC 1Þ þ jx3 LR2 C2
2
ImðZÞ ¼ 2 2 2 ¼ 0 ¼ xL x2 LC 1 þ x3 LR2 C2
x R C þ x L C þ 1 2x LC
4 2 2 2
L x2 LC 1 þ x2 LR2 C 2 ¼ 0 ! x2 LC 1 þ x2 R2 C 2 ¼ 0
x2 R2 C2 þ 1
x2 LC ¼ x2 R2 C 2 þ 1 ! L¼
x2 C
1 1
L ¼ R2 C þ ; L
2
x C
2 x C
(b) The value of resistance is
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u u
uL 1 u1 103 1
t t
R¼ x C¼
2 6280 100 109 ¼ 100 X
2
C 100 109
374 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Problem 6.2.40 For the circuit of Fig. 6.16, determine the impedance function and
plot its real and imaginary parts as well as its magnitude, and phase as a function of
angular frequency.
Then, plot the modified Nyquist diagram of the impedance (Real_Imag_w.m).
Solution
1
Rp
jxC Rp
Z1 ¼ Rp k C ! ¼
1 jxRp C þ 1
Rp þ
jxC
Rp Rs þ jxRp Rs C þ Rp
Z ¼ Z1 þ Rs ¼ Rs þ ¼
1 þ jxRp C 1 þ jxRp C
1 jxRp C jxRp Rs C þ Rp þ Rs
¼
1 þ x2 R2p C2
Rs þ jxRp Rs C þ Rp jxR2p C jxRp Rs C þ x2 R2p Rs C 2
¼
1 þ x2 R2p C 2
Rs þ Rp jxR2p C þ x2 R2p Rs C2 Rs þ Rp þ x2 R2p Rs C 2 xR2p C
Z¼ ¼ j
1 þ x2 R2p C2 1 þ x2 R2p C 2 1 þ x2 R2p C 2
Figure 6.17a–d display real and imaginary parts of given impedance function, as
well as its magnitude and phase plots as a function of angular frequency.
Figure 6.17e shows the modified Nyquist plot (Real part of complex impedance
function versus negative imaginary part of impedance function). Modification of the
Nyquist plot is the usual method employed in the field of impedance spectroscopy.
Part of the MATLAB script (Real_Imag_w.m) is given below.
6.2 The Phasor, Admittance, Impedance 375
(a)
2500
2000
Resistance (ohm)
1500
1000
500
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
w (rad/sec)
(b)
1000
900
800
700
Reactance (ohm)
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
w (rad/sec)
Fig. 6.17 a, b, c, d The real and imaginary parts of given impedance function, as well as its
magnitude and phase plots as a function of angular frequency. e Nyquist diagram is plotted up to x
= 10 Mrad/s in order to close the curve
376 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
(c)
2500
2000
Impedance (ohm)
1500
1000
500
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
w (rad/sec)
(d)
70
60
50
phase (degrees)
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
w (rad/sec)
(e)
Problem 6.2.41 Human Vocal cord and speech generation can be modeled using a
Helmholtz Resonator (HR), which consists of an orifice or a flanged neck connected
to a larger volume, its dimensions being much smaller than the acoustic wavelength
of interest. HR parameters are; d is the neck diameter, A is the neck area, D is the
spherical cavity diameter, Vc the cavity volume, L the neck length. The effective
length Leff is bigger than the true length of the neck.
For the series electrical analogue circuit, the acoustic compliance C is analogous
to electrical capacitance, the acoustic inertance M is analogous to electrical
inductance and the acoustic resistance R is analogous to electrical resistance. P1 is
the incident acoustic pressure. See, Fig. 6.18.
(a) Determine the acoustic parameters (the acoustic compliance C, the acoustic
inertance M , and the acoustic resistance R) and the tuned resonance frequency
of HR at 28 °C (The speed of sound = c = 348.3 m/s; air den-
sity = q = 1.1839 kg/m3), d = 2 cm, L = 0.5 cm, D = 6 cm.
(b) Determine the quality factor, Q of this HR.
(c) What is the wavelength at the resonant frequency? (helmholtz_resonator.m).
Solution
(a) Acoustic impedance Z of the HR (by analogy to electric resonator circuit) is
1
Z ðjxÞ ¼ R þ j xM
xC
1
xM ¼0
xC
pd 2 p 22
Leff ¼ L þ 0:85d ¼ 0:5 þ 0:85 2 ¼ 2:2 cm; A¼ ¼ ¼ 3:1415 cm2 ;
4 4
pD3 p 63
Vc ¼ ¼ ¼ 113:1 cm3
6 6 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
A 3:1415 104
x0 ¼ c ¼ 348:3 ¼ 3913:7 rad/s
Vc Leff 1:131 104 2:2 102
x 3913:7
f0 ¼ ¼ ¼ 622:9 Hz
2p 2p
qLeff 1:1839 2:2 102
M¼ ¼ ¼ 82:91 kg/m4
A 3:1415 104
Vc 1:131 104
C¼ 2¼ ¼ 7:875 1010 s2 m4 =kg
qc 1:1839 ð348:3Þ2
qcA 1:1839 348:3 3:1415 104
R¼ ¼ ¼ 8286 kg/s m4
2pVc Leff 2p 1:131 104 2:2 102
(b) The quality factor of the resonator can be found by analogy to its electrical
counterpart,
6.2 The Phasor, Admittance, Impedance 379
x0 M 3913:7 82:91
Q¼ ¼ ¼ 39:2
R 8286
c 348:3
k¼ ¼ ¼ 0:559 m ¼ 55:9 cm
f0 622:9
Note that this wavelength is much larger than the geometric dimensions of the
HR.
Part of a MATLAB script for computing these parameters is given below.
%helmholtz_resonator.m
ro=1.1839; c=348.3;
%d=neck diameter, L=neck length,D=cavity diameter
d=0.02; L=0.005; Leff=L+0.85*d; D=0.06; A=pi*d^2/4 % neck area
Vc=pi*D^3/6% cavity volume
M=ro*Leff/A; C = Vc / (ro*c^2);
R=ro*c*A /(2*pi*Vc*Leff); %acoustic resistance in the neck
disp (sprintf('Acoustic Inertance, M= %2.3e ',M))
disp (sprintf('Acoustic Compliance,C= %2.3e ',C))
disp (sprintf('Acoustic Resistance,R= %2.3e ',R))
w0=c*sqrt (A/Vc/Leff); %rad/sec
disp (sprintf('acoustic resonance frequency = %2.1f rad/sec',w0))
f0=w0/2/pi; %Hz
disp (sprintf('acoustic resonance frequency= %2.1f Hz',f0))
Q=w0*M/R; disp (sprintf ('Quality factor= %2.1f ', Q))
Solution
KCL at node 1:
2V V1 V1 V2 V1
¼ þ ! 2 V1 ¼ j0:5ðV 1 V 2 Þ
1 1 j2 1 j0:5
j2 1
2 V 1 ¼ j2V 1 j0:5V 1 þ j0:5V 2 ! 2 ¼ V 1 þ j2V 1 j0:5V 1 þ j0:5V 2
2 ¼ V 1 ð1 þ j2 j0:5Þ þ j0:5V 2
3 1
V1 1 þ j þ j V2 ¼ 2 ð6:1Þ
2 2
KCL at node 2:
V1 V2 V2 V1 V2 V2
4V 1 þ ¼ 0 ! 4V 1 j þj ¼0
j2 1 2 2 2 2
j 1 j
V1 4 þ V2 þ ¼0 ð6:2Þ
2 2 2
From 1 and 2;
1 þ j 32 j 12 V1 2
¼
4 j 12 12 þ j
2
V2 0
3 1 j 1 1 1 j 3 3 1
D¼ 1þj þ 4j j ¼ þ j 2j þ
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4
1 3 1 1 3 6 9 3
¼ þ j 2 ¼ j ¼ ð2 þ j3Þ
2 4 4 2 4 4 4 4
1þj3 2
1
D2 ¼ 2
¼ 0 ð2Þ 4 j ¼ 8 þ j
4 j 12 0 2
D2 8 þ j ð8 þ jÞ 4 ð2 j3Þ 4 ð8 þ jÞ ð2 j3Þ
V2 ¼ ¼ 3 ¼ ¼
D 4 ð2 þ j3Þ 3 4þ9 3 13
4 4 4 13
¼ ð16 þ j24 þ j2 þ 3Þ ¼ ð13 þ j26Þ ¼ ð1 þ j2Þ
39 39 39
4
V 2 ¼ ð1 j2Þ
3
V 2 4ð1 j2Þ 2
I¼ ¼ ¼ ð1 j2Þ
R2 32 3
2 p ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi 2 2 pffiffiffi
iðtÞ ¼ 1 þ 4\tan1 ¼ 5\tan1 ð2Þ ¼ 1:49\ 63:4
3 1 3
iðtÞ ¼ 1:49 cosð2t 63:4 ÞA
6.3 AC Analysis Methods, Resonance, and Matching 381
Problem 6.3.2
(a) In the circuit of Fig. 6.20a, determine mesh currents, if vðtÞ ¼ 10 cosð1000tÞ,
R = 1 Ω, C = 1 mF (complex_mesh1.m). Use Cramer’s method for solving
i3 ðtÞ, then use MATLAB to determine all currents.
(b) In the circuit shown in Fig. 6.20b, determine mesh currents and express results
in time domain, when uðtÞ ¼ 12 cosð6:28tÞ (complex_mesh2.m).
Solution
General equation of solving circuits for mesh currents in complex domain is
ZI ¼ V
2 32 3 2 3
R xC
j
þ j
xC 0 1j j 0 10
6 7 6 7 6 7
Z¼6
4
j
xC R xC 2j
j
xC
7¼4 j
5 1 2j j 5; V ¼ 4 0 5;
0 j
R xC
j 0 j 1j 0
xC
1 j j 10
D3
I3 ¼ ; D3 ¼ j 1 2j 0 ¼ 10ð jÞj ¼ 10
D
0 j 0
(a)
D ¼ ð1 jÞ2 ð1 2jÞ 2ð jÞð jÞð1 jÞ ¼ ð1 1 2jÞð1 2jÞ 2ð1Þð1 jÞ
¼ ð2jÞð1 2jÞ þ 2ð1 jÞ ¼ 2j 4 þ 2 2j ¼ 2 4j
10 10 10ð2 4jÞ 10ð2 4jÞ
I3 ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 2j
2 4j 2 þ 4j 4 þ 16 20
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi
I 3 ¼ 1 þ 4\ arctanð2Þ ¼ 5\ 63:44 ¼ 2:2361\ 63:44
i3 ðtÞ ¼ 2:2361 cosð1000t 63:44 ÞA
382 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
I 1 ¼ 6:7082\26:57 ; I 2 ¼ 3:1623\161:57
i1 ðtÞ ¼ 6:7082 cosð1000t þ 26:57 Þ; i2 ðtÞ ¼ 3:1623 cosð1000t þ 161:57 Þ
Z=[1-1j -1j 0;
-1j 1-2j -1j;
0 -1j 1-j]
V=[10 0 0]’; detZ=det(Z); I=inv(Z)*V; R=abs(I)
phir=angle(I);
phi=phir*180/pi
w=6.28; s=i*w;
R1=5; R2=20; R3=10;
L1=3; L2=2; L3=1; L4=4;
C1=4e-3; C2=1e-3;
zC1=1/s/C1; zC2=1/s/C2; zL1=s*L1; zL2=s*L2; zL3=s*L3; zL4=s*L4;
6.3 AC Analysis Methods, Resonance, and Matching 383
Problem 6.3.3
(a) Derive the impedance of a series RLC circuit in phasor form,
(b) Derive the expression for the resonance frequency, in Hz.
Solution
(a) For a series RLC circuit,
1 j 1
Z ¼ R þ jxL þ ¼ R þ jxL ¼ R þ j xL
jxC xC xC
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
1 xL xC
1
¼ R2 þ xL \tan1
xC R
(b) The frequency at which imaginary terms (reactances) cancel and the impedance
becomes a pure resistance is named as the resonant frequency of a series RLC
circuit,
1 1 1
x0 L ¼0 ! x0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ! f0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi
x0 C LC 2p LC
Problem 6.3.4
(a) Derive the admittance of a parallel RLC circuit in phasor form,
(b) Derive the expression for the resonance frequency, in Hz.
Solution
(a) For a parallel RLC circuit,
1 j 1
Y ¼ G þ jxC þ ¼ G þ jxC ¼ G þ j xC
jxL xL xL
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2ffi
1 xC xL
1
¼ G2 þ xC \tan1
xL G
384 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
(b) The frequency at which imaginary parts (susceptances) cancel (the admittance
becomes a pure conductance) is named as the resonant frequency of a parallel
RLC circuit.
1 1 1
x0 C ¼0 ! x0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ! f0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi
x0 L LC 2p LC
Problem 6.3.5 In the circuit of Fig. 6.21, what value of capacitance will cause the
steady-state voltage VX over the series RLC circuit to be zero if vi ðtÞ ¼ A: cos xt?
Solution
At resonance, V X ¼ 0V
1 1
x2 ¼ ! C¼ F
LC x2 L
Problem 6.3.6 In a series RC circuit excited by a sinusoidal voltage of U volts
(rms), the voltage across the resistor is U/4 Volts (rms). Determine the voltage
across the capacitor.
Solution
2
U
U 2 ¼ VR2 þ VC2 ¼ þ VC2
4
2
U 1 15
VC ¼ U
2 2
¼U 1
2
¼ U2
4 16 16
Problem 6.3.7 The same value of sinusoidal input voltage is separately applied to a
series RL circuit (with R = 40 Ω, and reactance of 30 Ω) and a series LC circuit
(with capacitive reactance of 20 Ω and inductive reactance of 30 Ω). Which one of
these circuits has a larger current value?
6.3 AC Analysis Methods, Resonance, and Matching 385
Solution
V
Z1 ¼ R þ jXL ¼
I1
V
I1 ¼
40 þ j30
Z2 ¼ jXL jXC ¼ j30 j20 ¼ j10
V V
I2 ¼ ¼
Z2 j10
Since the magnitude of impedance value of the first circuit will be larger, rms
value of current flowing in the first (RL) circuit is less than the magnitude of current
flowing in the second (LC) circuit.
Problem 6.3.8 In a series-connected RC circuit excited by a sinusoidal voltage, the
voltage drop values across the resistor and capacitor are 40 and 30 V, respectively.
Determine the phase angle between the current flowing through the circuit and the
voltage applied to the circuit.
Solution
Voltage applied to the circuit, U,
It can be concluded that (in series RLC circuit operating in AC conditions, and
all voltage drops are the same across each component) the voltage applied to the
circuit equals the voltage drop over resistor. The voltages over inductor and
capacitor cancel out due to 180° phase difference, although an AC voltmeter
measures the same voltage drop across each element.
386 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Problem 6.3.10 A series RLC circuit consists of equal valued impedance values of
100 Ω each, when a sinusoidal voltage of U = 220 V (rms) is applied to the circuit.
Determine the effective values of voltages across the capacitor, inductor, and
resistor.
Solution
R 1 1000
BW ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 31:83 Hz
2pL 2 p 5 103 10 p
The relationship between the bandwidth, quality factor, and the resonance
frequency,
f0 31:83
Q¼ ¼ ¼1
BW 31:83
1 1 1
f0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ! f02 ¼ ! C¼
2p LC 4p2 LC 4p2 f02 L
1 103
C¼ 2
¼ ffi 5000 lF
4 p2 ð31:83Þ 5 103 199;987:57
Alternatively, using relationship between the quality factor of the series resonance
circuit and capacitance in series with the resistor,
1 1 1
Q¼ ! C¼ ¼ ffi 5000 lF
x0 RC x0 RQ 2 p 31:83 1 1
6.3 AC Analysis Methods, Resonance, and Matching 387
Problem 6.3.12 10 Inductors each with10 mH, 120 resistors each with 1 kΩ and
100 capacitors each of which has a capacitance of 1 nF are all connected in parallel.
(a) Find the inductance and capacitance of the system,
(b) Find the resonance frequency of the system,
(c) Find the impedance of the system at resonance frequency.
Solution
(a) Leq ¼ L=10 ¼ 1 mH; Ceq ¼ 100 C ¼ 100 nF
1 0:159155
(b) f0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 1 ¼ 0:159155 10 ffi 15915:5 Hz
5
2p Leq Ceq ½ð103 100 109 Þ2
(c) Z ¼ Req ¼ 120 kX
Problem 6.3.13 Find the resonance frequency of a parallel RLC circuit (Fig. 6.22),
if
2
1
R ¼ 1 kX; L¼ mH; C ¼ 0:25 nF
p
Solution
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 pffiffiffiffiffiffi 1 1
f0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ; LC ¼ 103 0; 25 109 ¼ 106
2p LC p 2 2p
f0 ¼ 1 MHz
1
C¼
k
Solution
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u
rffiffiffiffi uu100
N
1 1 k t m
x0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ ¼ ¼ 10 rad/s
LC 1 m 1 ð kg Þ
m
k
x0 10
f0 ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:59 Hz
2p 2p
1
L ¼ 1 H; C¼ ¼ 10 mF
100
Problem 6.3.15 In the circuit shown in Fig. 6.23, if vi ðtÞ ¼ 3 cosð100tÞV; select
components of the load for Maximum Power Transfer.
Solution
Problem 6.3.16 In a series RLC circuit, variable capacitance values are CL and CH
at half power points and CO at resonance frequency. Express the quality factor of
the circuit in terms of CL, CH, CO, also specify relative capacitance values at
respective frequencies.
Solution
1 1
Z ¼ R þ j xL ¼ ð6:3Þ
xC Y
1
At resonance Zo ¼ R ¼ ð6:4Þ
Y
6.3 AC Analysis Methods, Resonance, and Matching 389
Zo R 1
¼
¼
ð6:5Þ
Z 1 xL 1
R þ j xL 1þj
xC R xCR
Zo Y 1 1
¼ ¼
¼
Z Yo xo L 1 Co Co
1þj 1 þ jQ 1
R xo CR Co C
Y 1
¼
Yo 1 j1
Co 1 Co 1
1 ¼ and 1 ¼
CL Q CH Q
Co Co 2
¼
CH CL Q
2CH CL
Q¼ ; fL \f0 \fH ; CH \C0 \CL
Co ðCL CH Þ
Solution
(a) By Thévenin equivalent circuit concept,
R
ZT ¼ þ jxL
2
R
ZL ¼ ZT ¼ jxL
2
R
VT ¼ U ¼ V oc
2
R
VT U RU
I¼ ¼ 2 ¼
ZT þ R R 3R þ j2xL
þ jxL þ R
2
R R
U U U
(c) I mpt ¼R 2 ¼ 2 ¼ A
R R 2
þ jxL þ jxL
2 2
1 1
Zs ¼ Rs þ ¼ Rs j ð6:6Þ
jxCs xCs
1
Rp
jxCp Rp Rp 1 jxCp Rp
Zp ¼ ¼ ¼
2 ð6:7Þ
1 jxCp Rp þ 1 1 þ xCp Rp
Rp þ
jxCp
Rp
Q ¼ Qp ¼
¼ xCp Rp ð6:8Þ
1
xCp
6.3 AC Analysis Methods, Resonance, and Matching 391
Rp ð1 jQÞ
Zp ¼ ð6:9Þ
1 þ Q2
1 1 þ Q2
Rs ¼ Rp ; Cs ¼ Cp ð6:10Þ
1 þ Q2 Q2
Q2
Rp ¼ Rs ð1 þ Q2 Þ; Cp ¼ Cs ð6:11Þ
1 þ Q2
Problem 6.3.19 Determine the series–parallel RL circuit conversion parameters in
terms of quality factor. See, Fig. 6.26.
Solution
Series circuit impedance,
Zs ¼ Rs þ jxLs
ðxLÞ2 Rp Rp
Rs ¼ 2
¼
2 ð6:12Þ
R2p þ ðxLÞ Rp
1þ
xL
xLp R2p Rp
xLs ¼ 2
! Ls ¼
ð6:13Þ
R2p þ ðxLÞ xLp 2
1þ
Rp
Rp Rp
Q ¼ Qp ¼ ¼ ð6:14Þ
Xp xLp
1 Q2
Rs ¼ Rp ; Ls ¼ Lp ð6:15Þ
1 þ Q2 1 þ Q2
1 þ Q2
Rp ¼ Rs ð1 þ Q2 Þ; Lp ¼ Ls ð6:16Þ
Q2
Problem 6.3.20 Using an L matching circuit, design an interface between 50 Ω
output of amplifier and a medical ultrasound probe with 250 Ω impedance (resis-
tance) at 10 MHz (No DC transmission is allowed) (matching1.m).
Solution
Since no DC transmission is allowed and RL [ Rg ; the L matching circuit of
Fig. 6.27a, b can be used.
Using RL series–parallel transform relationship,
Rg ¼ Rs ; RL ¼ Rp ; L ¼ Lp
Q 2
1 Rp xLs
Ls ¼ Lp ; Rs ¼ Rp ; Q¼ ¼
1þQ 2 1þQ 2 xLp Rs
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
RL 250 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Q¼ 1; RL [ Rg ; Q ¼ 1¼ 51¼2
Rg 50
xLs QRs 2 50 100
Q¼ ! Ls ¼ ¼ ¼ 107 ¼ 0:159 105 H
Rs x 2p 107 2p
1 þ Q2 1þ4
L ¼ Lp ¼ Ls 2
¼ 0:159 105 ¼ 0:159 1:25 105 H
Q 4
L ¼ 0:19875 105 ¼ 1:989 lH
1 1
j ¼ jxLs ! ¼ xLs
xC xC
1 1
C¼ 2 ¼ ¼ 159:2 pF
x Ls ð2p 107 Þ2 0:159 105
Problem 6.3.21 The circuit shown in Fig. 6.28 is an “L” circuit (consisting of L,
C elements) used for matching different source and load resistance values, partic-
ularly used at radio frequencies. Determine component values (L, C) so that
maximum power transfer occurs at f0 ¼ 10 MHz, if the source and load resistances
are 50 and 75 Ω respectively (matching1.m).
Solution
In the series RLC circuit, quality factor is defined by the following equation:
x0 L 1
Q¼ ¼ ð6:17Þ
R x0 RL
394 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
XL Rp
Q¼ ¼ ð6:18Þ
Rg XC
Xs 1
L¼ ; C¼ ð6:19Þ
x0 x0 Xc
or,
QRg Q
L¼ ; C¼ ð6:20Þ
x0 x0 Rp
Problem 6.3.22 Match the medical equipment transmitter with output impedance
50 Ω and operating at 433 MHz, to an antenna with 10 Ω impedance, using an
L type matching circuit (i.e., determine the values of L and C, shown in Fig. 6.29)
(matching1.m).
Solution
Since the output impedance of the equipment is the source resistance in this case,
and it is larger than the impedance of the load (antenna input impedance); L circuit
consisting of L, C elements can be used as shown in Fig. 6.29.
6.3 AC Analysis Methods, Resonance, and Matching 395
1=2
1=2
Rp 50
Q¼ 1 ¼ 1 ¼2
Rg 10
XL 20
XL ¼ x0 L ¼ QRL ¼ 2 10 ¼ 20 X ! L¼ ¼ ¼ 7:4 nH
x0 2p 433 106
1 Rg
Xc ¼ ¼ ;
x0 C Q
1 1 Q 2
C¼ ¼
¼ ¼ ¼ 14:7 pF
x0 Xc Rg x0 Rg 2p 433 106 50
x0
Q
Solution
(a) f ¼ cB since c ¼ 42:576 MHz T 1
The value of inductance is found by equating the imaginary parts in Eq. (6.23),
R2L XC
XL ¼ ¼ xL
R2L þ XC2
R2L XC ð500Þ2 ð500=3Þ
L¼ ¼ h i
xðR2L þ XC2 Þ 2p ð127:728 106 Þ ð500Þ2 ð500=3Þ
3 5003
L¼ ¼ 0:187 106 H ¼ 0:187 lH
2p ð127:728 106 Þ ð500Þ2 10
Problem 6.3.24
(a) Determine Thévenin equivalent of the circuit shown in Fig. 6.31a.
(b) Determine the phase angle expression for Thévenin impedance in terms of
circuit components and angular frequency,
6.3 AC Analysis Methods, Resonance, and Matching 397
Solution
(a) In cartesian coordinates,
jxL
VT ¼ Va ¼ V
R þ jxL
jxLR 2jxLR þ R2 ð2jxLR þ R2 ÞðR jxLÞ
ZT ¼ R þ ¼ ¼
R þ jxL R þ jxL R2 þ x2 L2
2jxLR2 þ R3 þ 2x2 L2 R jxLR2 R3 þ 2x2 L2 R þ jxLR2
¼ ¼
R2 þ x2 L2 R2 þ x2 L2
RðR þ 2x L Þ
2 2 2
xLR 2
ZT ¼ þj 2
R þx L
2 2 2 R þ x2 L2
xLR2 xLR
(b) u ¼ arctan ¼ arctan 2
RðR2 þ 2x2 L2 Þ R þ 2x2 L2
RðR2 þ 2x2 L2 Þ xLR2
(c) ZL ¼ ZT ¼ j
R2 þ x2 L2 R2 þ x2 L2
(d) R ¼ 1 X, L ¼ 1 H, x ¼ 1 rad/sn
1ð 1 þ 2 1 1 Þ 111 3 1 1
ZL ¼ j ¼ j X ¼ ð3 jÞX
1þ1 1 1þ1 1 2 2 2
1 1
Z2 ¼ 3 þ ¼ 3þ ¼ ð3 j2Þ X
jxC2 j50 10 103
Z3 ¼ 8 þ jxL ¼ 8 þ j50 0:2 ¼ ð8 þ j10Þ X
Zab ¼ Z1 þ Z2 ==Z3
ð3 j2Þð8 þ j10Þ ð44 þ j14Þð11 j8Þ
Zab ¼ ðj10Þ þ ¼ j10 þ
11 þ j8 112 þ 82
¼ j10 þ 3:22 j1:07
Zab ¼ 3:22 j11:07 X
1 1 0:159
f0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 3:55 Hz
2p LC 2p 10 103 0:2 2 103
Problem 6.3.26
(a) What is electrocauterization? What is an active and passive electrode in an
electrosurgery unit (ESU)? Why the current density is a significant factor?
What do monopolar and bipolar electrode mean? Are these terms correct in
electrical sense?
(b) Describe the waveforms used for cutting and coagulation.
(c) Describe the operation of electrical circuit of a spark gap-based ESU. Comment
on its advantages and disadvantages.
(d) Research and briefly discuss the present state of art on ESU technology.
6.3 AC Analysis Methods, Resonance, and Matching 399
Solution
(a) Electrocauterization is used in surgery to burn unwanted tissue, and to stop
bleeding. ESU range spans from special dental units through systems for pri-
vate clinical practices and outpatient departments to high-end units for the
hospital operating rooms (OR). It is most suitable for neurosurgery, ophthalmic
surgery, and plastic surgery.
During cutting, tissue is heated and the cells explode and evaporate. When there
is a new tissue under contact, it tears apart, incision takes place.
In desiccation (coagulation) a needle (or ball) electrode is placed inside the
tissue. When coagulating current flows through the cell, plasma evaporates
slowly, the cell shrinks, causing coagulation.
An ESU is an alternating current (AC) source which is an indispensable sur-
gical device for surgeons to cut tissue and ligate (cauterize) bleeding vessels.
Most modern ESUs operate in a range of 200 kHz–3 MHz. For example, a
brochure by Covidien/Medtronic Inc. for Force FX ESU describes an output for
Monopolar Cut at pure sine wave of 390 kHz sinusoid, with maximum 2300 V
peak-to-peak voltage at 300 ohms of rated load value and maximum of 300 W
of power [2], while Maxium ESU (manufactured by Martin, Tuttlingen,
Germany) has maximum cutting power of 360 W, at 300/400/600 kHz, [3] and
Erbe Vio 300S (by Erbe Medizingeraete GmbH, Tübingen, Germany) provides
300 W at 500 X load, at an operating frequency of 350 kHz [4].
One of the two electrodes connected to generator is called the active electrode
(pen). It is manipulated by the surgeon and has a few mm2 cross-sectional area.
On the other hand, the other electrode has a large area (100 cm2 or higher) and
called patient plate, return electrode, indifferent, neutral or dispersive electrode.
New types of dispersive electrodes are disposable pads that are attached to the
patient’s thigh via conductive self-adhesive material. Patient is a part of the
electrical circuit.
Although the current at both electrodes is the same, current densities in the
vicinity of each electrode are quite different. It is much higher near the active
electrode than it is for the passive electrode. The cutting and coagulation effects
in tissue are due to the heating (power dissipation) in the tissue. For safe
operation, passive (dispersive) electrode must have a large contact area and
small contact resistance to skin.
Above description applies to monopolar electrodes. Bipolar scissors and for-
ceps electrodes, on the other hand, do not require dispersive pads and look like
tweezers. The RF current flows between the two tiny plates on the handpiece.
Bipolar electrodes enable the precise, bloodless dissection of tissue. Since only
the tissue that is located between the scissor’s blades is integrated into the
electric circuit, the energy consumed is reduced compared to the monopolar
procedure. Therefore, the terms “monopolar” (unipolar) and “bipolar” elec-
trodes are incorrect (in electrical circuits sense).
(b) The cut waveform is a continuous sinusoidal current, while coagulation
waveform is damped sinusoidal current or chopped sine wave.
400 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
(c) Input to a spark gap ESU circuit is a 50–60 Hz sine wave at 2–3 kVrms value.
This voltage ionizes the air in the space between spark gap electrodes. Arcing
spark gap creates oscillations in a tank circuit which is transformer-coupled to
the output to produce 30–400 W of power. See, Fig. 6.33 for a spark gap-based
ESU circuit diagram.
Although spark gap-based ESUs are earlier designs, they are still used today
(mostly in veterinary clinics), mainly due to their simple structures. It is also
easy to grasp the principles of their electrical operation.
A significant disadvantage of such design is electromagnetic interference
(harmonic signal) generation by spark gap action. This creates electromagnetic
compatibility disturbances such as audible distortion on receivers tuned to
frequencies even in VHF (very high frequency) region. The spark gap units
have been largely superseded by solid-state devices. The solid-state units have
been improved and are effective in all surgical procedures and decrease the risk
of patient burns, they are safer to use than the spark gap ESUs, as solid-state
units have integral return electrode contact-quality monitors that help to prevent
patient burns, whereas most spark gap units do not have this monitoring
capability. ECRI recommends surgeons to try the newer and safer technology
[5, 6].
(d) Modern ESUs are equipped with embedded computer controlled circuitry
(patient control system) and warning indication for missing or poor return
electrode.
Recent technology concentrates on tissue response which uses a tissue feedback
system that senses tissue impedance and adjusts the current and output voltage to
maintain a consistent surgical effect. This system reduces the need to adjust power
settings for different types of tissue. This technology provides surgeons with
improved performance at lower power settings which minimize the risk of tissue
damage and make a smoother cut through all tissue types possible. The ESU adjusts
its output in response to tissue changes, maintaining power delivery, and mini-
mizing drag. Capacitive coupling is also reduced when using this technology that is
achieved by limiting the RMS voltage and the high-frequency harmonics. Lower
voltage means less neuromuscular stimulation and more precise delivery of energy
to reduce collateral damage [2].
" #2
2
Vpp Vpp Res
Pes ¼ pffiffiffi Res ¼
2 2ðRi þ Rr þ Rb þ Res Þ 8ðRi þ Rr þ Rb þ Res Þ2
Res ¼ RTh ¼ Ri þ Rr þ Rb
12002 Res
30 ¼
8ð600 þ Res Þ2
12002 Res ¼ 1;440;000Res ¼ 240ðR2es þ 1200Res þ 360;000Þ
6000Res ¼ R2es þ 1200Res þ 360;000
R2es 4800Res þ 360;000 ¼ 0
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
4800 23;040;000 4ð360;000Þ 21;600;000
Res ¼ ¼ 2400 ¼ 2400 2323:8
2 2 2
Res1 ¼ 4723:8 X; Res2 ¼ 76:2 X
(g) A plot of Pes, the power absorbed in the electrode–skin interface as a function
of electrode–skin interface resistance, Res is shown in Fig. 6.35. Note that
maximum power transferred to electrode skin interface resistance of 600 X is
75 W. The electrode–skin interface resistance, Res, when Pes = 30 W occurs at
76.2 and 4723.8 X. MATLAB code for this plot is also given.
clc;
h=ezplot('1200.^2*x/(8*(600+x).^2)',[0 5000 ]);grid on;
ylabel('Pes [W]');xlabel('Res [ohm]');
set(h,'LineWidth',2); %# Sets the line width to 2
404 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
60
50
Pes [W]
40
30
20
10
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Res [ohm]
Problem 6.3.28 A return plate used in electrosurgery is 30 microns thick and has
an area of 100 cm2. What is the reactance of the plate at 400 kHz if the relative
permittivity for the insulator is 3? What will be the reactance value at 800 kHz?
Solution
1
XC2 ¼ Xc ¼ 22:48 X
2
Problem 6.3.29
(a) What is the range of frequencies used in an electrosurgery unit (ESU)? Why?
(b) Assuming a homogenous and isotopic cubic material volume (V) of resistivity
ðqÞ, determine the power dissipation if current density is id
(c) Calculate the power dissipation ratio near to the active and passive electrodes if
current density around the active electrode is 0:5 A/m2 while it is 10 mA/m2
around the return plate. Assume a homogenous, isotropic material.
(d) Fig. 6.36 displays the basic principle of an electrosurgery unit. Calculate the
power dissipated per cubic centimeter (in mW) of tissue that has resistivity of
1500 Ω m and current density of 400 mA/m2 . What is the total power dissi-
pation (in W) if tissue volume is 0:1 m3 at the frequency of operation?
6.3 AC Analysis Methods, Resonance, and Matching 405
Solution
(a) Because muscular and neurological stimulation effects cease above 100 kHz,
the range of frequencies used in an electrosurgery unit is chosen between
300 kHz and 3 MHz.
L
(b) P ¼ i2 R ¼ ðid AÞ2 q ¼ qi2d AL ¼ qVi2d
A
Pa ¼ qVi2d ; Pr ¼ qVi2r
2 2
(c) Pa i2da ida 0:5
¼ 2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 500 W/W
Pr idr idr ð10 103 Þ
Current density near the active electrode is 500 times more than the current
density around dispersive (= return = passive) electrode (PAD).
3
2
P ¼ qVi2d ¼ 1500 1 102 400 103
(d)
P ¼ 1500 106 16 104 106 ¼ 2:4 101 ¼ 0:24 mW
3
For a volume of 0:1 m3 tissue V ¼ 0:1 m3 ¼ 0:1 ð102 cmÞ ¼ 105 cm3
Solution
(a) Equivalent circuit diagram of the sensor construction is given in Fig. 6.38.
This is an ac bridge circuit. Output voltage is obtained between X−Y,
Vo ðjxÞ ¼ VX VY
By voltage division,
XC2 R XC2 1
Vo ðjxÞ ¼ Vi ðjxÞ Vi ðjxÞ ¼ Vi ðjxÞ
XC1 þ XC2 RþR XC1 þ XC2 2
0 1 0 1
1
B jxC2 1C B 1 1C
Vo ðjxÞ ¼ Vi ðjxÞB
@ 1 CA ¼ Vi ðjxÞ@ A
1 2 C2 2
þ þ1
jxC1 jxC2 C1
ð6:24Þ
Noting that capacitance values for right and left parallel plate capacitors are
given as
eA eA
C1 ¼ ; C2 ¼
d Dd d þ Dd
eA
C2 d þ Dd d Dd
¼ ¼ ð6:25Þ
C1 eA d þ Dd
d Dd
6.3 AC Analysis Methods, Resonance, and Matching 407
0 1 0 1
B 1 1C B 1 1C
Vo ðjxÞ ¼ Vi ðjxÞB
@d Dd C A ¼ Vi ðjxÞB@ C
2 d Dd þ d þ Dd 2A
þ1
d þ Dd d þ Dd
0 1
B 1 1C d þ Dd 1 Vi ðjxÞ d þ Dd
Vo ðjxÞ ¼ Vi ðjxÞ@ A ¼ Vi ðjxÞ ¼ 1
2d 2 2d 2 2 d
d þ Dd
Vi ðjxÞ d þ Dd d Dd
Vo ðjxÞ ¼ ¼ Vi ðjxÞ ð6:26Þ
2 d 2d
I1 R1 ¼ I2 R2 ð6:27Þ
j j I1 I2
I1 ¼ I2 ! ¼ ð6:28Þ
xC2 xC3 xC2 xC3
R2
xR1 C2 ¼ xR2 C3 ! R1 C2 ¼ R2 C3 ! C2 ¼ C3 ¼ k C3
R1
Problem 6.4.1 Rescaled display of current and voltage waveforms for an electric
motor is shown in the graph of Fig. 6.40. Peak-to-peak voltage and current values
408 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
0.4
voltage-current
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
wt radians
Apparent power of the load is S ¼ Irms Vrms ¼ 230 10 ¼ 2300 VA. From the
graph,
p
h ffi rad ¼ 60
3
iðtÞ ¼ Ip cosð314t hÞ ¼ 14:142 cosð314t 60 ÞA
power factor ¼ cosh ¼ cos60 ¼ 0:5
%Plot_sine1.m
wt= -pi:pi/20:pi; v1=sin(wt); i1=sin(wt-pi/3);
plot(wt,v1,wt,i1,'r','linewidth',2);grid on; xlim([-pi,pi]);
Problem 6.4.2 One phase of a hospital electrical load operates at 1000 kVA, and
0.707 power factor.
Calculate the necessary reactive power in kVAR to correct this power factor to
0.95 lagging.
Solution
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
S¼ P2 þ Q2 ¼ 1000 kVA ðApparent powerÞ
cosh ¼ 0:707; ! h ¼ 45
P ¼ S cosh ¼ 1000 0:707 ¼ 707 kW ðActive powerÞ
Q ¼ S sinh ¼ 1000 0:707 ¼ 707 kW ðReactive powerÞ
707
P ¼ Sn coshn ¼ Sn 0:95 ¼ 707 kW ! ¼ 744:2 kVA
Sn ¼
0:95
Qn ¼ Sn sinh ¼ 1000 sinð18:2 Þ ¼ 744:2 0:312 ¼ 232:4 kVAR
Solution
P 10 10
P ¼ I 2R ! R¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 40 X
I 2 0:52 0:25
P 10
P ¼ IV cos h ! cosh ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:087
IV 0:5 230
Q ¼ IV sin h ¼ 0:5 230 sinð85 Þ ¼ 115 0:996 ¼ 114:6VA
Q 114:6
Q ¼ I 2 XL ! XL ¼ 2 ¼ ¼ 458:4 X
I 0:52
XL XL 458:4
XL ¼ xL ! L ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:46 H
x 2pf 314
V 230
Z¼ ¼ ¼ 460 X
I 0:5
Z ¼ Z\h ¼ 460\85 X
P 1800
R¼ ¼ ¼ 180 X
I2
10
P 1800
h ¼ cos1 ¼ cos1 ¼ cos1 ð0:7826Þ ¼ 38:5
V I 230 10
Q ¼ V I sin h ¼ 230 10 sin 38:5 ¼ 1431:78 var
Q 1431:78
XL ¼ 2 ¼ ¼ 143:18 X;
I 102
XL XL 143:18
L¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:456 H
x 2pf 314
Problem 6.4.5 Power consumed by a inductive circuit can be measured using three
voltmeters method. As shown in Fig. 6.42, voltages across the input source, series
resistor, and inductive load are measured and power is computed using these
voltage values.
(a) What is the power factor in terms of measured voltages?
(b) Determine the power dissipated in the load in terms of measured voltages,
(c) Determine the load resistance and inductance.
(d) Calculate dissipated power, power factor of the circuit, load resistance, and load
inductance for the values of V1 ¼ 230 V; V2 ¼ 4:5 V; V3 ¼ 226 V; RS ¼ 9:1 X;
f ¼ 50 Hz
(three_voltmeter1.m)
Solution
(a) By KVL, the sum of three rms voltages in the loop is zero.
Using the law of cosines, (removing absolute value signs for convenience)
(Fig. 6.43),
cosð180 uÞ ¼ cosu
V12 ¼ V32 þ V22 þ 2V3 V2 cos u
P ¼ IV3 cos u
V2 ¼ IRs
V12 ¼ V32 þ V22 þ 2Rs ðIV3 cos uÞ ¼ V32 þ V22 þ 2Rs P ð6:31Þ
V12 V22 V32
P¼
2Rs
(c) Since
2
V2
P ¼ I 2 RL ¼ RL
Rs
ð6:32Þ
R2 V 2 V 2 V 2 R2 V 2 V 2 V 2
RL ¼ P s2 ¼ 1 2 3 s2 ¼ 1 22 3 Rs
V2 2Rs V2 2V2
and
6.4 Power in AC Circuits 413
V2 V2 V2
u ¼ arccos 1 2 3
2V2 V3
Q ¼ I 2 XL ¼ V3 Isin u
IXL ¼ V3 sin u
V2 ð6:33Þ
XL ¼ V3 sin u
Rs
V2
xL ¼ V3 sin u
Rs
V3 sin u Rs
L¼
xV2
This method can be implemented with op-amps, and power calculations with
small errors are possible at frequencies below 5 kHz. However, the method
requires the development of a resistive current shunt as well as voltage and
current transformers whose phase defects are accurately known [7].
Solution
The load impedance is
ðj50Þð20Þ j1000ð20 þ j50Þ j20000 50000
Z ¼ j100 þ ¼ j100 ¼ j100
20 j50 2900 2900
Z ¼ j100 j6:897 þ 17:24 ¼ 17:24 þ j93:1 X
1 1
p ¼ RjI j2 ¼ ð20Þð1:916Þ2 ¼ 36:71 W
2 2
Problem 6.4.7 A signal generator with uðtÞ ¼ 10 cosð100tÞV feeds a load resistor
of RL= 100 Ω through an RC integrator circuit with R=100 Ω and C ¼ 1000 lF
(Fig. 6.45). Find the average power delivered to the load resistor (mW).
Solution
Thévenin equivalent parameters,
ZC
V Th ¼ U
ZC þ R
j j
ZC ¼ ¼ ¼ j10 X
xC 100 103
j10 j10ð100 þ j10Þ j1000 þ 100
V Th ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:099j þ 0:0099
j10 þ 100 100 þ 10000 10100
V Th ¼ 0:099\ 84:29 V
Thévenin impedance,
V Th 0:099\ 84:29
ZTh ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:99\ 84:29 ¼ 0:10 j0:99 X
I sc 0:1\0
Load current,
V Th 0:099\ 84:29 0:099\ 84:29
I¼ ¼ ¼
ZTh þ RL 0:10 j0:99 þ 100 100:1 j0:99
0:099\ 84:29
I¼ ¼ 9:89 104 \ 83:72 A
100:105\ 0:57
1 1
2
P ¼ RL jI j2 ¼ ð100Þ 9:89 104 ¼ 4890:605 108 W ¼ 48:9 mW
2 2
Problem 6.4.8
(a) What is power superposition?
(b) Two current waveforms of different frequencies,
i1 ðtÞ ¼ 3 cos 314t 45 A; i2 ðtÞ ¼ 4 cosð1570tÞA;
X
N
Im2 R
I¼ Ii ; q¼ ; jI j ¼ Im
i¼1
2
(b) Here, I 1 ¼ 3\ 45 ; I 2 ¼ 4\0 but they do not add as phasors. Although the
average power could be calculated as
1 Zt 2 R Zt
P¼ i Rdt ¼ ½3 cos 314t 45 þ 4 cosð1570tÞ2 dt
T0 T0
416 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
32 10 42 10
P ¼ P1 þ P2 ¼ þ ¼ 125 W
2 2
Problem 6.5.1
(a) What is mutual inductance?
(b) What is the unit and sign of mutual inductance?
(c) How is the polarity of mutually induced voltage determined?
(d) What is dot convention? Which factors determine the reference polarity of the
mutual voltage?
Solution
(a) Mutual inductance is the ability of one inductor (coil) to induce a voltage in
another inductor when they are in a close proximity to each other.
Assume that two coils with self-inductances L1 and L2 are in close proximity
with each other and coil 1 has N1 turns, while coil 2 has N2 turns, and coil 1
carries a current i1 and the second one carries no current. They are magnetically
coupled. The magnetic flux generated by the first coil, u1 , has one component
linking only itself, u11 , and another component linking both coils, u12 , so that,
u1 ¼ u11 þ u12 .
Since the fluxes are caused by the current i1, the voltages induced in coil 1 and
coil 2 are
di1 di1
v1 ¼ L 1 ; v2 ¼ M21
dt dt
M21 is the mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1. Thus, the
open-circuit induced voltage across coil 2 is v2.
Now, let a current i2 flow in coil 2, while coil 1 carries no current. The magnetic
flux generated by the second coil, u2 , has one component linking only itself,
u22 , and another component linking both coils, u21 , so that, u2 ¼ u22 þ u21 .
Since the fluxes are caused by the current i2, the voltages induced in coil 1 and
coil 2 become
di2 di2
v2 ¼ L 2 ; v1 ¼ M12
dt dt
M12 is the mutual inductance of coil 1 with respect to coil 2. Thus, the
open-circuit induced voltage across coil 1 is v1. Here, M12 ¼ M21 ¼ M is the
6.5 Inductive Coupling and Transformers 417
mutual inductance between the two coils. In other words, mutual inductance
results if a voltage is induced in one coil by a time-varying current in another
coil.
(b) The unit of mutual inductance is Henry (H). It has always a positive value.
(c) The polarity for induced mutual voltage depends on the orientation or the way
both coils are physically wound.
(d) A dot indicates the direction of the magnetic flux if a current enters that dotted
coil terminal.1 The dot convention can be stated as follows: If a current enters
the dotted terminal of one coil, the reference polarity of the mutual voltage in
the second coil is positive at the dotted terminal of the second coil. The ref-
erence polarity of the mutual voltage is a function of the reference direction of
the inducing current and the dots on the coils.
Problem 6.5.2
(a) What is the meaning of sign convention in a transformer?
(b) What are the equations defining the current–voltage characteristics of the ideal
transformer?
(c) If dots are placed on top of both coils in a transformer diagram, and primary
current is directed toward dotted terminal of primary coil while secondary part
has no load, determine the sign and value of the secondary voltage.
Solution
(a) Consider ideal transformers in Fig. 6.46.
One can write time domain ideal transformer voltage relationship as
v2 ðtÞ N2
¼ ¼ n
v1 ðtÞ N1
where N1 and N2 are number of turns in primary and secondary winding, respec-
tively, and n is the turns ratio. This ratio is always less than or equal to unity.
Since mutual inductance can be additive or subtractive, the sign depends on the
direction of primary and secondary currents relative to the dots shown in the
schematic of a transformer. Note that the dots indicate the relative winding
orientations.
The sign in above given equation is positive (n > 0) when reference directions of
both primary and secondary currents point toward or away from a dotted terminal.
Otherwise, n < 0. Therefore, both of the ideal transformers in Fig. 6.46 have
positive sign for voltage transfer ratio (= turns ratio).
1
Here, it is assumed that the M and the placement of the dots are given parameters, like R, L, and
C. For a given circuit, the dots are already placed beside the coils, therefore one does not have to
bother about their placement.
418 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
1
(b) v2 ðtÞ ¼ nv1 ðtÞ; i2 ðtÞ ¼ i1 ðtÞ
n
(The signs are opposite!)
(c) Let the primary current be i1 ðtÞ. See, Fig. 6.46a, with i2 ðtÞ ¼ 0;
di1
v2 ¼ M
dt
RL 120
Req ¼ ¼ ¼ 480 X
n2 0:52
The result is independent of the location of the dot marks relative to voltage and
current reference directions.
Problem 6.5.4 An air core transformer has primary inductance of L1 ¼ 16 mH,
secondary winding inductance of L2 ¼ 4 mH and mutual inductance of M ¼ 4 mH.
What is the coupling coefficient that indicates the degree of coupling between
transformer windings?
Solution
M 2
k ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0:25
L1 L2 16 4
6.5 Inductive Coupling and Transformers 419
Problem 6.5.5
(a) What is an ideal transformer? What is an isolation transformer? What is a linear
transformer?
(b) What is the value of instantaneous power absorbed by the ideal transformer?
What does this result imply?
(c) What are the values of internal resistance of primary and secondary windings of
an ideal transformer? Inductances?
Solution
(a) An ideal transformer is a transformer with the coefficient of magnetic coupling
equal to unity (Perfect coupling). An isolation transformer is a transformer
whose turns ratio is unity.
A linear transformer linear is a transformer having a core made out of mag-
netically linear material so that its magnetic permeability is constant (such as
air, wood, and plastics).
(b) pðtÞ ¼ v1 ðtÞi1 ðtÞ þ v2 ðtÞi2 ðtÞ ¼ v1 ðtÞ½ni2 ðtÞ þ ½nv1 ðtÞi2 ðtÞ ¼ 0
This result shows that the ideal transformer is lossless, since instantaneous
absorbed power by ideal transformer is zero. It absorbs zero complex power, zero
reactive power, and zero average power.
(c) R1 ¼ R2 ¼ 0 (The coils are lossless), L1 ; L2 ! 1
Problem 6.5.6 If a voltage vi ðtÞ ¼ 10 þ 0:2 sinð314tÞ is applied to the primary side
of an ideal transformer with a turns ratio of 100, determine the magnitude of peak
voltage, V0max , on its secondary winding.
Solution
Since only the AC signal is coupled through the ideal transformer from its primary
to secondary side, and only the peak magnitude is of interest,
V0max ¼ 100 0:2 ¼ 20 V
Problem 6.5.7
(a) Why and how impedance matching is realized using a transformer?
(b) If a load RL is to be matched to a source with internal resistance Rs and
Rs [ RL , what type of transformer should be used?
(c) A power amplifier with output resistance of 200 Ω is to be matched with
internal resistance of 8 Ω. If a transformer with primary winding of 2000 turns
is available, what should be its secondary winding turns number?
(d) Calculate the power delivered to loudspeaker in terms of amplifier’s open-
circuited output voltage if the amplifier is directly connected to the loudspeaker.
420 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
(e) Calculate the power delivered to loudspeaker by the power amplifiers in terms
of amplifiers open-circuited output voltage if the matching transformer is in
place.
(f) Compare the numerical results found in parts d and e, and comment.
Solution
(a) For maximum power transfer, the load resistance RL is to be matched with the
source resistance Rs . An iron core transformer matches the RL to Rs , which is
called transformer-based impedance matching.
Since an ideal transformer reflects its load to its primary with a scaling factor of
n2 , setting source resistance equal to reflected resistance provides the matching
condition,
RL
Rs ¼
n2
2 32
6 0:2 7
¼6
4
7 8 V 2 ¼ 1:25 103 V 2 W
5 Th Th
1
ð200Þ þ8
25
Problem 6.5.8 Ideal transformer shown in Fig. 6.47 has a turns ratio of 10, and
input voltage is
Solution
(a) Since the reference directions of both currents point toward a dotted terminal,
the sign is positive, and vi ðtÞ ¼ v1 ðtÞ;
v2 ð t Þ
¼ þn
v1 ð t Þ
v2 ðtÞ ¼ nv1 ðtÞ ¼ 10 230sin314t ¼ 2300sin314t
1
v2 ðtÞ ¼ þ nv1 ðtÞ and i2 ðtÞ ¼ i1 ðtÞ
n
(c) This is a step up transformer, since the output (secondary) voltage is higher than
the primary side.
v1 ðtÞ 230sin314t
Req ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:75 X
(d) i1 ðtÞ 306:667sin314t
ðAlternatively; Req ¼ RL =n2 ¼ 75=102 ¼ 0:75 XÞ
Problem 6.5.9 The input to the primary side of and ideal transformer with a turns
ratio of 5 is v1 ðtÞ ¼ 230 sinð314tÞ. The load is 100 X resistor, connected to sec-
ondary side. Transformer has additive coupling. Determine secondary and primary
power in this element. What does a negative power mean here? Comment on the
results.
Solution
Since additive coupling is present,
By Ohm’s Law,
v2 ð t Þ 1150
i 2 ðt Þ ¼ ¼ sinð314tÞ ¼ 11:5 sinð314tÞA
R2 100
The negative sign shows that ideal transformer (secondary) delivers power to the
load.
Power in the primary side has a positive sign, showing that primary winding of
the transformer is absorbing power from the source. Zero power loss condition is
verified here,
Problem 6.5.10
(a) Determine the resistance Rxy for the circuit of Fig. 6.48. Assume ideal
transformers.
(b) Check the result found (in part a) using SPICE analysis (transformer2.cir).
6.5 Inductive Coupling and Transformers 423
Solution
Reflect load R to the primary of TC:
R R
R1 ¼ ¼
32 9
10R
R2 40R
R3 ¼
2 ¼ 9 ¼
1 1 9
2 4
49R
49R
R5 ¼ 9 ¼
16 144
49R 193
Rxy ¼ R þ R5 ¼ R þ ¼ R ¼ 1:34R
144 144
cascaded transformers
*ac ANALYSIS
I1 0 1 1 AC
R1 1 2 1
R2 3 4 1
R3 5 6 1
R4 7 0 1
Ka L1 L2 1
Kb L3 L4 1
Kc L5 L6 1
L1 2 0 1
L3 4 0 1
L5 6 0 1
L2 3 0 16
L4 0 5 0.25
L6 7 0 9
*.ac dec 10 1 1000
Primary voltage,
Vs Vs 8:9 V
¼n ! Vp ¼ ¼ ¼ 53:4 V
Vp n 1
6
6.5 Inductive Coupling and Transformers 425
Problem 6.5.12 Calculate the currents i1 ðtÞ and i2 ðtÞ in the transformer circuit of
Fig. 6.49.
1 1
XC ¼ ¼ ¼ 2 X;
xC 1 12
XL1 ¼ xL1 ¼ 2 X; XL2 ¼ xL2 ¼ 3 X; XM ¼ xM ¼ 2 X;
D1 20 þ j30
I1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 5 þ j7:5 ¼ 9:014\56:31 A;
D 4
D2 j20
I2 ¼ ¼ ¼ j5 ¼ 5\90 A;
D 4
In time domain,
Solution
(a) Impedance of secondary section is Zs ¼ 20 þ j10 X. Reflecting this impedance
to the primary side gives equivalent reflected impedance,
Zs 20 þ j10
Zeq ¼ ¼ ¼ 5 þ j2:5 X
n2 22
V1 10\45 30\45 30\45
I1 ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:974\35:54
10 þ Zeq 10 þ 5 þ j2:5 15 þ j2:5 15:2\9:46
(b) The relationship between primary and secondary currents I1 and I2 is I1 ¼ nI2
Therefore,
I1 1:974\35:54
I2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:987\35:54 A
n 2
In time domain,
v0 ðtÞ ¼ 9:87 cos 314t þ 125:54 :
Solution
M 0:3
(a) k ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 0:949
L1 L2 1 0:1
(b) Assigning CW current directions in both meshes, and noting that the rela-
tionship between defining currents of a transformer and mesh currents are
I1 ¼ IA ; I2 ¼ IB ;
Reactances of each part of transformer are calculated as,
jxL1 ¼ j314 X
jxL2 ¼ j314 0:1 ¼ j31:4 X
jxM ¼ j314 0:3 ¼ j94:2 X
j10 þ j314 j94:2 IA 1200
¼
j94:2 50 þ j31:4 IB 0
j324 j94:2 IA 1200
¼
j94:2 50 þ j31:4 IB 0
Both mesh currents are computed by solving this matrix equation in MATLAB,
(c) The input impedance of transformer seen as a load by the source circuit is
V 1 1238:819\0:93
Zin ¼ ¼ ¼ 284\ 61:53 X
IA 4:3595\62:46
La ¼ L1 M; Lb ¼ L2 M; Lc ¼ M
This equivalent circuit cannot be built out of physical inductors, since a negative
inductance is not a passive element.
6.5 Inductive Coupling and Transformers 429
Problem 6.5.15 What is Transcutaneous Energy Transfer (TET)? What is the main
advantage of using TET? What are the present day medical applications of TET?
What is resonant inductive coupling? Why is it employed in TET devices?
Solution
In Transcutaneous Energy Transfer (TET), energy is sent through an inductive
coupling to a surgically embedded medical device in a patient’s body, which uses
that energy to charge batteries or run the device. Power Transmission via an
electromagnetic field passing through the skin avoids the infection risks associated
with wires penetrating the skin.
A variety of devices that require power can be surgically implanted within
various portions of the body. These include a synthetic replacement heart, a cir-
culatory blood pump or ventricular assist device (VAD), a cochlear implant, and a
pacemaker. However, complications associated with repeated surgical entries and
the risks of infection and/or dislodgment make TET systems attractive, as they are
used to transfer energy from outside the body to inside the body in order to provide
power to one or more implanted devices from an external power source.
Since TET systems operate without puncturing the skin, the possibility of
infection is reduced while comfort and convenience for patients is increased.
TET systems typically use two inductive coils, where a primary coil is contained
within a separate unit connected to an ac transmitter and a secondary coil is con-
tained within the surgically implanted device and it may be connected to its own
battery. When the two coils are in close proximity to each other, electrical energy is
inductively transferred from the primary coil (the transmitter) to the secondary coil
(in the implanted device).
TET and methods for inductively charging a rechargeable power supply has
been a hot topic for many years and they are described in various articles and
patents [8–19].
One problem with TET techniques is inefficient power transfer. This causes long
charge times in the implant side. Increasing the inductive power transfer as a
remedy tends to be more expensive, because it requires a larger transmitting device,
and generates excessive heat and exacerbates electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) problems.
Greater distances between transmitter and receiver coils can be achieved when
the TET system uses resonant inductive coupling. Series LC resonance method at
the transmitter side increases the efficiency of power transfer between the primary
and secondary coils. The inclusion of a capacitor connected in series with the
primary inductive coil allows for the increased efficiency of inductive power
transfer between the two coils due to resonance. A key characteristic of the LC
resonance circuit is that the natural resonant frequency of the circuit selectively acts
on the main harmonic frequency of the input voltage source.
The secondary coil is implanted inside the body of the patient. It can be con-
nected to the implant device and/or charging circuit which controls the flow of
power to the rechargeable battery (The details of the charging circuit and
rechargeable power supply are application dependent).
430 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
The mutual inductance that is created due to the coupling of the coils (which
varies with distance between the two coils, their orientation and secondary coil
capacitance) causes variations on the resonance frequency. Therefore, LC circuit
should be tuned by measuring secondary power across the load at different fre-
quencies around the calculated natural resonant frequency for the specific appli-
cation load.
An implantable medical device described in [12] utilizes about 1–100 kHz
transcutaneous energy transfer (TET) for supplying power from an external module
to an implantable medical device, avoiding power dissipation through eddy currents
in a metallic case of an implant and/or in human tissue, thereby enabling smaller
implants using a metallic case such as titanium and/or allowing TET signals of
greater strength thereby allowing placement more deeply within a patient without
excessive power transfer inefficiencies.
Due to increased complexity of medical implant device technology, it is also
necessary to provide a wireless data communication between the implanted devices
and an outside operator. These systems are components of the implanted system
and use a separate RF antenna so that an external controller or programmer can
communicate with internal sensors or control elements. Typically, the separate RF
antenna is implanted in a patient away from the implanted secondary TET coil to
avoid radio interference when the coil is in use [13].
Design tradeoffs in a TET system are governed by the conflicting demands of
energy transfer efficiency, communication bandwidth, and insensitivity to changes
in coil coupling variation, and concerns about patient quality of life. In high-energy
transfer applications, selection of operating frequency involves tradeoffs between
tissue thermal and electronic switching losses which tend to increase with frequency
and losses in the tuned-circuits driving a coil which are inversely related to fre-
quency [14].
Problem 6.5.16 A transformer with perfect coupling (k = 1) has a primary winding
and secondary winding inductance values of L1 ¼ 10 mH, L2 ¼ 40 mH,
respectively.
(a) Determine the turns ratio of the transformer and the mutual inductance.
(b) Plot the magnitude of voltage on the secondary winding of transformer as a
function of frequency, under no load condition (neglecting core effects).
Comment on this graph (transformer1.cir).
Solution
rffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffi
N2 L1 40
n¼ ¼ ¼ ¼2
(a) N1 L2 10
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
M ¼ L1 L2 ¼ 10 40 mH ¼ 20 mH
(b) The magnitude of voltage on the secondary winding of the transformer as a
function of input voltage frequency (under no load condition) is plotted as
shown in Fig. 6.53 (frequency sweep at constant input voltage). Inspection of
6.5 Inductive Coupling and Transformers 431
Vo [V]
winding of the transformer as 1.0
a function of input voltage 0.5
frequency sweep
0.0
0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10
frequency [Hz]
this figure reveals that at lower frequencies transformer “step up” performance
is not effective, but reduced due to inductive properties of transformer along
with the resistance at the primary side (the transfer ratio is around n = 0.7 for
the power line frequency, which is far below its calculated value). It should be
noted also that the model used here does not include stray capacitances of any
kind. Otherwise, one might expect low pass action at higher frequencies,
resulting a frequency band pass structure as a whole.2
A SPICE netlist (transformer1.cir) is given below.
transformer1
*AC analysis
vi 1 2 1 AC
R1 1 3 10
L1 3 2 10M
L2 4 5 40M
K L1 L2 0.999
RA 2 0 1G
RB 5 0 1G
2
Further SPICE examples on transformer applications are included in the SPICE netlists file. See,
for example, blocking_oscillator.cir, which is a SPICE netlist for a blocking oscillator which uses a
transformer in the feedback circuit. It is possible to test the influence of varying coupling coef-
ficient and other circuit component values on the oscillator’s output signal. Such circuits find
various practical applications as they make (for example) the operation of higher voltage threshold
LEDs possible, by using much lower supply voltages.
432 6 Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Here toroidal transformer is used to sample the RF waveform (V) and then the
waveform is displayed on an oscilloscope. Otherwise, it can be dangerous to
connect the oscilloscope to the load without using proper probes.
Single wire of ESU is passed through toroidal transformer core, and current
passing in the cable induces some voltage across the winding on toroidal core.
Here, it can be assumed that the cable passing through the ring constitutes the
primary winding of transformer as a single turn. Therefore, the turns ratio is actually
the number of turns of wire wound on toroidal core and this acts as the secondary
winding of toroidal transformer. This makes pulse time and frequency measure-
ments possible; however, amplitude measurements require more calibration.
References
1. Mallela VS, Ilankumaran V, Rao NS (2004) Trends in cardiac pacemaker batteries. Indian
Pacing Electrophysiol J 4(4):201–212
2. Covidien Data Sheet (2007) LFORCEFX 945605267 Rev 2007/11
3. Maxium KlsMartin Group (2009) Document 02.15 90-288-02-09
4. ERBE Elektromedizin GmbH (2009) Document LIT/5204/01 05/09
5. Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI)/American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) (1993) Standard for electrosurgical devices. ANSI/AAMI HF18
6. ECRI (1987) The Bovie CSV: still accepted? (consultants corner). Health Dev 6(9–10):340–
341
7. Marzetta LA (1972) An evaluation of the three-voltmeter method for AC power measurement.
IEEE Trans Instrum Measur IM-21(4):353–357
8. Knecht O et al (2014) Optimization of transcutaneous energy transfer coils for high power
medical applications. In: IEEE 15th workshop on control and modeling for power electronics
(COMPEL), pp 1–10
9. Elixmann I et al (2012) Transcutaneous energy transfer system incorporating a Datalink for a
wearable autonomous implant. In: Ninth international conference on wearable and
implantable body sensor networks, pp 1–5
10. Xue R-F et al (2011) High-efficiency transcutaneous wireless energy transfer for biomedical
applications. In: Defense science research conference and expo (DSR), pp 1–4
11. Partovi A (2016) Chargers and methods for wireless power transfer. US Patent 9,356,659 B2
References 433
12. Hassler WL Jr, Dlugos DF Jr (2009) Low frequency transcutaneous energy transfer to
implanted medical device. US Patent 7,599,743 B2
13. D’Ambrosio RL, Kortyka M (2013) Transcutaneous energy transfer coil with integrated radio
frequency antenna. US Patent 8,620,447 B2
14. Gaumond RP (1994) Transcutaneous energy and information transfer for biomedical
implants. In: Proceedings of 20th annual northeast bioengineering conference, p 42
15. Desai RH, Hassler WL Jr (2007) Spatially decoupled twin secondary coils for optimizing
transcutaneous energy transfer (TET) power transfer characteristics. US Patent 7,191,007 B2
16. Wells BP (2005) Series resonant inductive charging circuit. US Patent 6,972,543 B1
17. Seelig A (1997) Method and arrangement for automatic contactless charging. US Patent
5,654,621
18. Klontz KW et al (1992) Contactless battery charging system. US Patent 5,157,319 A
19. Bolger JG, Ng LSB (1989) Inductive power coupling with constant voltage output. US Patent
4,800,328 A
Chapter 7
Laplace Transform Methods
Problem 7.1.1 Use definition of LT to determine LTs of given functions (t > 0).
ðaÞ f ðtÞ ¼ 6; ðbÞ f ðtÞ ¼ dðtÞ; ðcÞ f ðtÞ ¼ e2t ; ðdÞ f ðtÞ ¼ sinðxtÞ.
Solution
R1 1
(a) F ðsÞ ¼ 6est dt ¼ 6s est 0 ¼ 6s ðe1 e0 Þ ¼ 6s ð0 1Þ ¼ 6s
0
R1
(b) F ðsÞ ¼ dðtÞest dt ¼ e0 ¼ 1
0
R1 R1 R ax
e2t est dt ¼ eðs þ 2Þt dt; e dx ¼ ea with a ¼ ðs þ 2Þ;
ax
(c) F ðsÞ ¼
0
0 1 1
ðs þ 2Þt 1
F ðsÞ ¼ s1
þ2 e 0
¼ s þ 2 ðe e0 Þ ¼ s þ1 2 ð0 1Þ ¼ s þ1 2
Z1 Z1 jxt
st e ejxt st
F ðsÞ ¼ sinðxtÞe dt ¼ e dt
2j
0 0
(d)
Z1 h i
1 ðsjxÞt ðs þ jxÞt 1 1 1
¼ e e dt ¼
2j 2j s jx s þ jx
0
1 s þ jx ðs jxÞ 2jx x
FðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ 2
2j s þx
2 2 2jðs þ x Þ s þ x2
2 2
Problem 7.1.2
(a) Verify the periodicity property of Laplace transform.
(b) Find the Laplace transform of a periodic unit amplitude pulse waveform with a
period of 3 s, and duty cycle (percent of the period in which the signal is
positive) of 1/3.
Solution
1
P P
1 P
1
(a) L½yðtÞ ¼ L xðt kTÞ ¼ xðsÞeskT ¼ XðsÞ eskT ¼ 1XðsÞ
esT
0 0 k¼0
(b) One period of y(t) is x(t) = u(t) − u(t − 1), 0 t 3s.
Problem 7.1.3 Use the integral definition of LT and prove the transform of the
time shifted function, f ðt sÞuðt sÞ $ est F ðsÞ
Solution
Z 1 Z 1
L½f ðt sÞuðt sÞ ¼ f ðt sÞuðt sÞest dt ¼ f ðt sÞest dt
0 s
Substitute u ¼ t s; ! t ¼ u þ s
Z 1 Z 1
L½f ðt sÞuðt sÞ ¼ f ðuÞesðt þ uÞ du ¼ ess f ðuÞesu du ¼ ess FðsÞ
0 s
Problem 7.1.4 Use table of LT pairs (see, Appendix) and calculate the LT of
following functions ðt 0Þ
ðaÞ f ðtÞ ¼ e2t þ sin 5t; ðbÞ f ðtÞ ¼ t2 sin 3t; ðcÞ f ðtÞ ¼ 5½uðt 1Þ uðt 4Þ
ðdÞ f ðtÞ ¼ At; 0 t 1 s ðGated ramp function with max value of AÞ
ðeÞ f ðtÞ ¼ te2t cosð4tÞ; ðfÞ f ðtÞ ¼ 2t3 et
Solution
1 5 s2 þ 5s þ 35
(a) F ðsÞ ¼ þ 2 ¼
s þ 2 s þ 2s ðs þ 2Þðs2 þ 25Þ
3
(b) GðsÞ ¼ L½sin 3t ¼ 2 where gðtÞ ¼ sin 3t
s þ9
By frequency differentiation property,
d d 3
L½tgðtÞ ¼ GðsÞ
ds ds s2 þ 9
" #
d d d ð0 2s 3Þ
F ðsÞ ¼ LftðtgðtÞÞg ¼ G ðsÞ ¼
ds ds ds ð s 2 þ 9Þ 2
" # " 2 2
#
d 6s 6ðs2 þ 9Þ 2ðs2 þ 9Þ 2s 6s
¼ ¼
ds ðs2 þ 9Þ2 ðs2 þ 9Þ4
ðs2 þ 9Þ½6ðs2 þ 9Þ 24s2 18s2 54 s2 3
F ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ 18
ð s 2 þ 9Þ 4 ð s 2 þ 9Þ 3 ðs2 þ 9Þ3
7.1 LT, Inverse LT, Initial and Final Value Properties 437
1
(c) L½uðtÞ ¼ ; apply time shift property,
s
es e4s 5 s
F ðsÞ ¼ 5 5 ¼ e e4s
s s s
(e) F ðsÞ ¼ L½tn gðtÞ ¼ ð1Þn ddsn ½GðsÞ; gðtÞ ¼ e2t cos 4t; n¼1
sþ2
L e2t cosð4tÞ ¼
ðs þ 2Þ2 þ 16
" #
d sþ2 s2 4s þ 12
¼
ds ðs þ 2Þ2 þ 16 ðs2 þ 4s þ 20Þ2
s2 4s þ 12 s2 þ 4s 12
F ðsÞ ¼ ð1Þ1 2
¼
ðs2 þ 4s þ 20Þ ðs2 þ 4s þ 20Þ2
!
d 1 d 1 d 1
F ðsÞ ¼ 2L t3 et ¼ 2ð1Þ3 3 ¼ 2 3 ¼ 2 2
ds s þ 1 ds s þ 1 ds ðs þ 1Þ2
" # " # " # " #
d 2ðs þ 1Þð1Þ d 2s þ 2 d 2 3ðs þ 1Þ2 2
¼ 2 ¼ 2 ¼ 2 ¼ 2
ds ðs þ 1Þ4 ds ðs þ 1Þ4 ds ðs þ 1Þ3 ðs þ 1Þ6
" #
2
6ðs þ 1Þ 12
F ðsÞ ¼ 2 ¼
ðs þ 1Þ6
ðs þ 1Þ4
Solution
2xðs þ aÞ sð2s2 x2 Þ
ðaÞ F ðsÞ ¼ ; ðbÞ F ðsÞ ¼ ;
½ðs þ aÞ2 þ x2
2
ðs2 þ x2 Þ3
pffiffiffi 3
2ðs 3sx2 3xs2 þ x3 Þ e2s
ðcÞ F ðsÞ ¼ ; ðdÞ F ðsÞ ¼ e2s ; ðeÞ F ðsÞ ¼ ;
ðs2 þ x2 Þ3 s
1 e2s 1 e2s 1 e2s 2se2s
ðfÞ F ðsÞ ¼ ; ðgÞ F ðsÞ ¼ a ; ðhÞ F ðsÞ ¼
s s s2
syms a w t s
Fa(s)=laplace(t*exp(-a*t)*sin(w*t))
Fb(s)=laplace(t^2*cos(w*t))
Fc(s)=laplace(t^2*cos(w*t+pi/4));simplify(Fc(s))
Fd(s)=laplace(dirac(t - 2)) %Dirac Delta Function
Fe(s)=laplace(heaviside(t - 2)) %Unit Step Function
Ff(s)=laplace((heaviside(t)-heaviside(t-2))); %Gate function
simplify(Ff(s))
fg = a*(heaviside(t)-heaviside(t-2))%Gated function
Fg(s)=laplace(fg); simplify(Fg(s))
fh = t*(heaviside(t)-heaviside(t-2))%Gated Ramp function
Fh(s)=laplace(fh); simplify(Fh(s))
Problem 7.1.6 Plot delayed step function f ðtÞ ¼ Auðt sÞ using alternative
methods in MATLAB. Let A ¼ 2; s ¼ 1 s: (Hint: Use built in Heaviside function).
What is the Laplace transform of this waveform? (plot_delayed_step.m)
Solution
Part of MATLAB code (plot_delayed_step.m) for plotting this function is given
below.
% delayed step function
tau=1; % delay time
A=2; % A = amplitude of step
%%Method 1: use fplot
%syms t
%fplot(heaviside(t-tau), [0, 2])
%Method 2:
t = 0:0.001:2; y =A*heaviside(t-tau);
plot (t,y,'r','linewidth',3);axis([0 2 0 1.5*A]);
2
y(t)
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
time [s]
2 es
F1 ðsÞ ¼ L½2uðtÞ ¼ ; F ðsÞ ¼ L½2uðt 1Þ ¼ 2
s s
Problem 7.1.7 Use step functions to determine time domain expressions and
Laplace transforms of composite waveforms shown in Fig. 7.2 (plot_compos-
ite1_wf.m).
Solution
1 1
F ð s Þ ¼ L ½ uð t Þ ¼ ; GðsÞ ¼ L½tuðtÞ ¼ ; A ¼ 1; s ¼ 2;
s s2
1 e2s
(a) G1 ðsÞ ¼ L½ðA=sÞ½tuðtÞ ðt 2Þuðt 2Þ ¼
2s2
A
(b) G2 ðsÞ ¼ L ½tuðtÞ ðt 2Þuðt 2Þ 2uðt 2Þ
s
1 1 e2s e2s 1 e2s 2se2s
G 2 ðsÞ ¼ 2 ¼
2 s2 s2 s 2s2
Following is part of MATLAB code (plot_composite1_wf.m) for the time
domain solution.
1.5
(a)
1
y(t)
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
time [s]
1.5
(b)
1
y(t)
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
time [s]
Problem 7.1.8
(a) Use basic uðtÞ; rðtÞ (unit step and unit ramp) functions to find out expressions
for each of the five composite waveforms shown in Fig. 7.3 (plot_compos-
ite_wf.m).
(b) Determine Laplace transform of each waveform.
Hint: In choosing basic function components of a composite function, try to use
only addition operations. This procedure eliminates the products of functions,
which is not so easy to compute. An example is decomposition of a ramp pulse
function: It could be written as
A A A
t½uðtÞ uðt sÞ ¼ tuðtÞ tuðt sÞ
s s s
but (although it yields the correct result) the last term on the right side of above
equation is relatively harder to deal with.
7.1 LT, Inverse LT, Initial and Final Value Properties 441
Composite waveform
1.5
1
y(t)
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
time [s]
Solution
(a) (i) Red colored waveform: g1 ðtÞ ¼ 1:5uðt 1Þ
(ii) Blue colored waveform: g2 ðtÞ ¼ 1:1uðtÞ uðt 2Þ
(iii) Black colored waveform: g3 ðtÞ ¼ 0:4r ðtÞ 0:8r ðt 2:5Þ þ 0:4rðt 5Þ
(iv) Green colored waveform: g4 ðtÞ ¼ 0:4uðtÞ uðt 5Þ
(v) Magenta colored waveform: g5 ðtÞ ¼ 0:2uðtÞ þ uðt 6Þ uðt 8Þ
Following is part of MATLAB code (plot_composite_wf.m):
ramp = @(x) max(0,x); ustep= @(x) 0 <= x ;
g1 = @(x) (1.5*ustep(x-1));
g2 = @(x) (1.1*ustep(x)- ustep(x-2));
g3 = @(x) (0.4*ramp(x)- .8*ramp(x-2.5)+0.4*ramp(x-5));
g4 = @(x) (0.4*ustep(x)+ustep(x-5));
g5 = @(x) (0.2*ustep(x)+ustep(x-6)-ustep(x-8));
t = 0:0.01:10;
plot(t,g1(t),'r',t,g2(t),'b',t,g3(t),'k',t,g4(t),'g',t,g5(t),'m',...
'linewidth',3);axis([0 10 0 1.75]);
442 7 Laplace Transform Methods
Problem 7.1.9 Use a table of LT pairs (see, Appendix), and determine inverse LTs
of the following s-domain functions.
" #
1 14 22 13 2 2 2
ðaÞ F ðsÞ ¼ þ þ ; ðbÞ FðsÞ ¼ þ þ ;
s s þ 1 ðs þ 2Þ2 s þ 2 s þ 1 s þ 2 ðs þ 1Þ2
4
ðcÞ FðsÞ ¼ þ 2s 3 ;
" s þ 2 #
3 sþ5 6
ðdÞ F ðsÞ ¼ þ þ ;
ðs þ 2Þ2 þ 9 ðs þ 5Þ2 þ 16 ðs þ 2Þ4
" #
10 s e4t 6e2s 24
ðeÞ FðsÞ ¼ 2 þ 3 2 ; ðfÞ FðsÞ ¼ þ 5 ;
s þ 25 s2 þ 25 s ðs þ 5Þ4 s
" #
4s 1
ðgÞ F ðsÞ ¼ :
ðs2 þ 4Þ2 s 3
Solution
" #
11 14 22 13
ðaÞ vðtÞ ¼ L þ þ ¼ 1 14et þ 22te2t þ 13e2t
s s þ 1 ð s þ 2Þ 2 s þ 2
" #
2 2 2
ðbÞ f ðtÞ ¼ L1 þ þ ¼ 2et þ 2e2t þ 2tet uðtÞ
s þ 1 s þ 2 ð s þ 1Þ 2
4 d
ðcÞ f ðtÞ ¼ L1 þ 2s 3 ¼ 4e2t þ 2 dðtÞ 3dðtÞ uðtÞ
sþ2 dt
" #
1 3 sþ5 6
ðdÞ f ðtÞ ¼ L þ þ
ðs þ 2Þ2 þ 9 ðs þ 5Þ2 þ 16 ðs þ 2Þ4
1 10 s e4s
ðeÞ f ðtÞ ¼ L þ 3 2 ¼ ½2 sinð5tÞ þ cosð5tÞ 3ðt 4ÞuðtÞ
s2 þ 25 s2 þ 25 s
" #
6e 2s
24 h i
ðfÞ f ðtÞ ¼ L1 4
þ 5 ¼ e5ðt2Þ ðt 2Þ3 þ t4 uðtÞ
ðs þ 5Þ s
" #
1 4s 1
Solution
2ðs þ 5Þðs þ 12Þ N ðsÞ an sn þ an1 sn1 þ þ a1 s þ a0
F ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼
sðs þ 1Þðs þ 6Þ DðsÞ am sm þ am1 sm1 þ þ b1 s þ b0
This is a case for distinct real roots of D(s).
N(s)/D(s) = proper rational function if m > n, (otherwise improper);
K1 K2 K3
F ðsÞ ¼ þ þ
s sþ1 sþ6
2 ð0 þ 5Þ ð0 þ 12Þ 120 2 ð1 þ 5Þ ð1 þ 12Þ 88
K1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 20; K2 ¼ ¼
ð1Þ ð6Þ 6 ð1Þ ð1 þ 6Þ 5
2 ð6 þ 5Þ ð6 þ 12Þ 2
K3 ¼ ¼
ð6Þ ð6 þ 1Þ 5
20 88=5 2=5
F ðsÞ ¼ þ
s sþ1 sþ6
1 88 t 2 6t
f ðtÞ ¼ L ½FðsÞ ¼ 20 þ e e uðtÞ
5 5
the partial fractions expansion of the n fractions (repeated linear factors) are found
by defining
444 7 Laplace Transform Methods
up ¼ ðs pÞn HðsÞ
1 dk
Ank ¼ u ; k ¼ 0; 1; . . .; n 1
k! dsk p s¼p
Solution
5 1 þ j1 5ð1 j1Þ 5
Problem 7.1.13
s2 þ 4s þ 3
(a) xðtÞ ¼ L1 ½X ðsÞ ¼ L1 ¼?
s4 þ 10s3 þ 36s2 þ 56s þ 32
7.1 LT, Inverse LT, Initial and Final Value Properties 445
(b) Compute the partial fractions expansion of X(s) and verify the result found in
part (a) using a MATLAB script (pfe2.m).
Solution
s2 þ 4s þ 3 ð s þ 1Þ ð s þ 3Þ
X ðsÞ ¼ ¼
s þ 10s þ 36s þ 56s þ 32 ðs þ 2Þ3 ðs þ 4Þ
4 3 2
1 d2 1 d ðs2 þ 8s þ 13Þ
A1 ¼ u2 js¼2 ¼
2! ds 2 2 ds ðs þ 4Þ2
s¼2
ð2s þ 8Þðs þ 4Þ2 2 ðs2 þ 8s þ 13Þðs þ 4Þ 3
¼ ¼
2ðs þ 4Þ 2 8
s¼2
38 12 1 3
X ðsÞ ¼ þ þ 4
þ 8
s þ 4 ðs þ 2Þ3 ðs þ 2Þ2 s þ 2
MATLAB script for computing partial fraction expansion for X(s) and then x
(t) is given below (pfe2.m).
446 7 Laplace Transform Methods
ð s þ aÞ ð s þ bÞ
PðsÞ ¼
ðs þ 1Þðs þ aÞðs þ bÞ cd ðs þ bÞ ef ðs þ aÞ
Solution
(a) The system is a third order one, since degree of denominator polynomial is 3.
(b) Substituting given data into the given function yields
s2 þ 3:5s þ 3 A B C
P ðsÞ ¼ ¼ þ þ
s3 þ 4:5s2 þ 5s þ 0:5 s þ 2:7446 s þ 1:6446 s þ 0:1108
A ¼ 0:3199; B ¼ 0:05305; C ¼ 0:6497
pðtÞ ¼ L1 ½PðsÞ ¼ 0:3199e2:7446t þ 0:0305e0:1108t ðt 0Þ
Problem 7.1.15
(a) State inital and final value properties of Laplace transforms.
(b) What do these properties mean in time and frequency domains?
(c) What restrictions apply on the initial and final value properties?
(d) Explain reasons why final value property can not be applied to following
functions.
7.1 LT, Inverse LT, Initial and Final Value Properties 447
ð s þ 1Þ ð s þ 2Þ
ðiÞ f ðtÞ ¼ 3 cosð628tÞ; ðiiÞ F ðsÞ ¼ ;
s ð s 2 þ 9Þ
s2 þ 2s þ 1 s2 þ s þ 1
ðiiiÞ F ðsÞ ¼ ; ðivÞ F ðsÞ ¼ 2
s ð s 2 4Þ s ðs þ 16Þ
Solution
(a) Initial value property: limt!0 þ f ðtÞ ¼ lims!1 sFðsÞ
Final value property: limt!1 f ðtÞ ¼ lims!0 sFðsÞ
(b) Initial value in the time domain is the same as the value of sFðsÞ at infinity in
the s-plane, while f ð1Þ is the same as the value of sFðsÞ at the origin in the
s-plane.
(c) The initial value property is valid when FðsÞ is a proper rational function (i.e., a
rational function numerator degree of which is less than the degree of its
denominator), or alternatively, initial value property is applicable when f ðtÞ and
its first derivative are transformable.
The final value property is valid when FðsÞ has all poles in the left hand plane
(LHP), but there can be a simple pole at s = 0.
" #
(d) 3s
(i) lim 3 cosð628tÞ ¼ lim s ¼0
t!1 s!0 s2 þ ð628Þ2
This result is inconsistent with the function properties in time domain,
since the time function oscillates between 3. Note also that the poles of
sF ðsÞ are on the j-axis at s ¼ j628. Thus, final value property can not
be applied here.
(ii) Since FðsÞ has j-axis poles at s ¼ j3, final value property does not
apply.
(iii) A right hand pole exists at s = 2.
(iv) Multiple poles exist at the origin of the s-plane.
s2 þ 5s þ 2
F ðsÞ ¼
sðs þ 1Þðs þ 2Þ
Solution
Since given function in s-domain is a proper rational form and has two poles in left
hand of s-plane and a single pole at the origin, both initial and final value properties
hold.
448 7 Laplace Transform Methods
s2 þ 5s þ 2 A B C
F ðsÞ ¼ ¼ þ þ
sðs þ 1Þðs þ 2Þ s sþ1 sþ2
2 1 5þ2
for s ¼ 0; A ¼ ¼ 1; for s ¼ 1; B¼ ¼2
12 ð1Þ 1
4 10 þ 2
for s ¼ 2; C ¼ ¼ 2
ð2Þ ð1Þ
1 2 2
F ðsÞ ¼ þ
s sþ1 sþ2
f ðtÞ ¼ L1 F ðsÞ ¼ 1 þ 2et 2e2t ; t0
4s2 þ 7s þ 1
F ðsÞ ¼
s ðs þ 1Þ2
Solution
Since F ðsÞ is a proper rational function and has two poles in left hand s-plane and
only one pole at the origin of the s-plane, initial and final value properties hold.
Initial Value:
4s3 þ 7s2 þ s 4s3 þ 7s2 þ s
lim s F ðsÞ ¼ lim ¼ lim 3
s!1 s!1 s ðs þ 2s þ 1Þ
2 s!1 ðs þ 2s2 þ sÞ
4 þ 7=s þ 1=s2
¼ lim ¼4
s!1 1 þ 2=s þ 1=s2
7.1 LT, Inverse LT, Initial and Final Value Properties 449
Final Value:
Problem 7.1.18 Determine initial and final values of hðtÞ ¼ L1 ½HðsÞ if,
s2 þ 5s þ 14
H ðsÞ ¼
s3 þ 8s2 þ 12s
Solution
s2 þ 5s þ 14 s2 þ 5s þ 14
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
s3 þ 8s2 þ 12s sðs2 þ 8s þ 12Þ
Since H ðsÞ is a proper rational function and has two poles in left hand s-plane
and one pole at origin, initial and final value properties hold. Inital value:
5 14
sðs2 þ 5s þ 14Þ 1þ þ
lim sHðsÞ ¼ lim ¼ lim s s2 ¼ 1 ¼ 1
s!1 s!1 sðs2 þ 8s þ 12Þ s!1 8 12 1
1þ þ
s s2
Final value:
s2 þ 5s þ 14 0 þ 0 þ 14 7
lim sHðsÞ ¼ lim ¼ ¼
s!0 s!0 s2 þ 8s þ 12 0 þ 0 þ 12 6
20
F ðsÞ ¼
ðs þ 3Þðs2 þ 8s þ 25Þ
Solution
Since F(s) is a proper rational function and has all poles in left hand s-plane, initial
and final value properties hold. Inital value:
20s 20s
ðaÞ lim s F ðsÞ ¼ lim ¼ lim
s!1 s!1 ðs þ 3Þðs2 þ 8s þ 25Þ s!1 s3 þ 8s2 þ 25s þ 3s2 þ 24s þ 75
20s 1 20 20
lim ¼ ðL0 HospitalÞ ¼ lim 2 ¼ ¼0
s!1 s3 þ 11s2 þ 49s þ 75 1 s!1 3s þ 22s þ 49 1
20s 0
ðbÞ lim s F ðsÞ ¼ lim ¼ ¼0
s!0 s!0 ðs þ 3Þðs2 þ 8s þ 25Þ 75
450 7 Laplace Transform Methods
Problem 7.1.20
6s4 þ 5s3 þ 4s2 þ 3s þ 2
I ðsÞ ¼
s5 þ 4s4 þ 3s2 þ 2s þ 1
Find,
(a) Initial value,
(b) Final value of iðtÞ ¼ L1 ½IðsÞ (root_poly.m).
Solution
(a) Since I ðsÞ is a proper rational function, initial value property holds,
(b) One must check if I ðsÞ has all of its poles in left hand s-plane. This is not so easy
by manual calculation, therefore computer (e.g., MATLAB) methods can be
applied. A Simple solution is to find the roots of the denominator polynomial,
and check if all the real parts of these roots have negative values (one pole at the
origin is also acceptable). Following is a short MATLAB script for this method:
c=[1 4 0 3 2 1]% polynomial coefficients
roots(c)
The five roots are computed as (−4.1496), (0.4171 ± 0.8717j),
(−0.3423 ± 0.3754j).
It is seen that two roots out of five have non-negative real parts (=0.4171).
Therefore, final value property is not applicable for I ðsÞ.
A blind attempt to find out the final value ið1Þ would be,
Problem 7.1.21
2s4 þ 3s3 þ 4s2 þ 5s þ 6
I ðsÞ ¼
s5 þ 2s4 þ 3s2 þ 4s þ 5
7.1 LT, Inverse LT, Initial and Final Value Properties 451
Find,
(a) Initial value,
(b) Final value of iðtÞ ¼ L1 ½IðsÞ (root_poly.m).
Solution
(a) Since given function is in proper rational form, initial value property holds,
Problem 7.1.22 Let I ðsÞ $ iðtÞ, (that is, they form a Laplace transform pair), and
3s3 þ 4s2 þ 3s þ 1
I ðsÞ ¼
As4 þ s3 þ 2s2 þ s þ 5
Problem 7.1.23
" #
1 3
f ðt Þ ¼ L ¼?
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 2Þ2
Solution
3 3 A B C
F ðsÞ ¼ and ¼ þ þ
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 2Þ 2
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 2Þ 2 ðs þ 1Þ ðs þ 2Þ2 ðs þ 2Þ
2
3 ¼ Aðs þ 2Þ þ Bðs þ 1Þ þ C ðs þ 2Þðs þ 1Þ and for s ¼ 2: B ¼ 3 and B ¼ 3
For s ¼ 1: A ¼ 3 and with using A and B for s ¼ 0:9 þ 2C ¼ 3 and C ¼ 3
" #
1 1 3 1 3 1 3
L ½ F ðsÞ ¼ L þL þ L
sþ1 ðs þ 2Þ2 sþ2
" #
3 3 1 3
L1 ¼ 3 et and L1 ¼ 3te 2t
and L ¼ 3e2t
sþ1 ðs þ 2Þ2 sþ2
L1 ½F ðsÞ ¼ f ðtÞ ¼ 3 et 3te2t 3e2t
Problem 7.1.24
V ðsÞ
(a) vi ðtÞ ¼ ð1 et Þ uðtÞ; iðtÞ ¼ et uðtÞ; Z ðsÞ ¼ ¼?
I ðsÞ
(b) If i(t) = d(t), t 0, Vi ðtÞ = ?
Solution
1 1
Vi ðsÞ s s þ 1 1
(a) Z ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼
IðsÞ 1 s
sþ1
1
(b) I ðsÞ ¼ L½iðtÞ ¼ L½dðtÞ ¼ 1; Vi ðsÞ ¼ I ðsÞ Z ðsÞ ¼
s
1 1 1
vi ðtÞ ¼ L ½Vi ðsÞ ¼ L ¼ 1 uðtÞV
s
Solution
9 2 2 11 3s þ 2 11
(a) þ ¼ 3þ I ðsÞ ! ¼ I ðsÞ ! I ðsÞ ¼
s s s s s 3s þ 2
2 2 11 2 2 22 2 6s þ 18
Vc ðsÞ ¼ I ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼
s s 3s þ 2 s s sð3s þ 2Þ s sð3s þ 2Þ
6ðs 3Þ 2ðs 3Þ A B
Vc ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ þ
2 2 s 2
3s s þ s sþ sþ
3 3 3
2ðs 3Þ 6
For s ¼ 0; A ¼ ¼ ¼ 9;
2 2
sþ
3 3
2 2ðs 3Þ
For s ¼ ; B ¼ ¼ 11
3 s
9 11
Vc ðsÞ ¼
s 2
sþ
3
2t3
vc ðtÞ ¼ 9 11e uðtÞV
Solution
Inductor equivalent circuit in s-domain is shown in Fig. 7.5b,
3=ðs þ 8Þ þ 2 ¼ ð1 þ 2sÞ IðsÞ
454 7 Laplace Transform Methods
2s þ 19 s þ 9:5
I ðsÞ ¼ ¼
ð2s þ 1Þ ðs þ 8Þ ðs þ 8Þ ðs þ 0:5Þ
s þ 9:5
VL ðsÞ ¼ 2s I ðsÞ 2 ¼ 2s 2 ¼ 2s2 þ 19s 2ðs2 þ 0:5s þ 8s þ 4Þ
ðs þ 8Þ ðs þ 0:5Þ
2s 8 A B
VL ðsÞ ¼ ¼ þ
ðs þ 8Þ ðs þ 0:5Þ s þ 8 s þ 0:5
2s 8 16 8 2s 8 1 8
A¼ ¼ ¼ 3:2; B ¼ ¼ ¼ 1:2
ðs þ 0:5Þs¼8 8 þ 0:5 ðs þ 8Þs¼0:5 0:5 þ 8
3:2 1:2
VL ðsÞ ¼
s þ 8 ðs þ 0:5Þ
4
þ1
VðsÞ ðs þ 6Þ ðs þ 10Þ
(a) I ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼
R þ sL ðs þ 2Þ ðs þ 2Þðs þ 6Þ
ðs þ 10Þ 2s 12 6 4
(b) VL ðsÞ ¼ 1s 1¼ ¼
ð s þ 2Þ ð s þ 6Þ ð s þ 2Þ ð s þ 6Þ s þ 6 s þ 2
7.2 Circuits in s-Domain 455
1 1 6 4
4 1
UðsÞ þ
I ðsÞ ¼ ¼s s¼ 5
1 4 6s þ 4
Rþ 6þ
Cs s
The voltage at the junction is calculated as
4 1 5 4 1 16 6s
Vx ðsÞ ¼ IðsÞ ¼ ¼
s s 6s þ 4 s s sð6s þ 4Þ
456 7 Laplace Transform Methods
Problem 7.2.5 Determine Thévenin equivalent to the left of x-y terminals of the
circuit shown in Fig. 7.8, assuming no initially stored energy in the circuit.
Solution
In Laplace domain,
Voc ðsÞ
ZTh ðsÞ ¼
Isc ðsÞ
Drop the s operator for convenience, and use voltage division rule,
Z1 1 R ¼ R
VTh ¼ Voc ¼ Vi ; Z1 ¼
1 sC1 sRC1 þ 1
Z1 þ
sC2
R
sRC1 þ 1 sRC2 Vi C2 s
VTh ¼ Voc ¼ Vi ¼ ¼ Vi
R 1 sRðC1 þ C2 Þ þ 1 C1 þ C2 1
þ sþ
sRC1 þ 1 sC2 RðC1 þ C2 Þ
ð7:1Þ
Vi
Isc ¼ ¼ sC2 Vi
1
sC2
sRC2
Vi
Voc sRðC1 þ C2 Þ þ 1 sRC2
ZTh ¼ ¼ ¼
Isc Vi sC2 sC2 ½sRðC1 þ C2 Þ þ 1
R 1 1
ZTh ¼ ¼ ð7:2Þ
sRðC1 þ C2 Þ þ 1 C1 þ C2 1
sþ
RðC1 þ C2 Þ
Equations (7.1) and (7.2) constitute the Thévenin equivalent circuit in s-domain.
Problem 7.2.6
(a) If there is no initially stored energy in the circuit of Fig. 7.9, find the voltage
expression at the output of the circuit, vo ðtÞ ¼ vC2 ðtÞ, after the switch is closed,
if vi ðtÞ ¼ U; t 0
(b) If C2 = 10C1 = 10 F, R1 = 2R2 = 2 X, U = 100 V, vo(t) = ? t 0
Solution
(a) Node equation at the output terminal (drop s operator for convenience),
Vi V0 V0 Vi V0 V0 Vi 1 1
sC2 V0 ¼ sC2 V0 ¼ 0 ! ¼ V0 þ þ sC2
R1 R2 R1 R1 R2 R1 R1 R2
Vi Vi 1 Vi U
V0 ¼ ¼ V0 ¼ 0 1 ; Vi ¼ ;
1 1 R1 R1 C2 R1 s
R1 þ þ sC2 1þ þ sR1 C2 1þ
R1 R2 R2 B R2 C
@ þ sA
R1 C2
U
V0 ¼ 0 1
R1
1þ
B R2 C
R1 C2 s@ þ sA
R1 C2
R1
1þ
1 A
1 B R2
v 0 ð t Þ ¼ L ½ V 0 ð sÞ ¼ L þ ; a¼
s sþa R1 C 2
U U U U
A¼0 ¼ ; B¼ ¼
R1 1 R1 0 R1 1 R1
1þ 1þ 1þ 1þ
B R2 C R2 B R2 C R2
@ A R1 C 2 R1 C 2 @ A
R1 C 2 R1 C2
2 3
R1
6 1þ
1 6 U 1 1 7
7 ¼ Að1 eat ÞuðtÞ; U R2
v0 ð t Þ ¼ L 4 A¼ ; a¼
R1 s sþa 5 R1 R1 C 2
1þ 1þ
R2 R2
(b) Inserting numerical values of components into the last voltage expression of
part a yields
v0 ðtÞ ¼ 33:334 1 e1:667t uðtÞ
Problem 7.2.7 The circuit in Fig. 7.10 is used as an electrical analog for the studies
of drug concentration, infusion and perfusion dynamics in the organs and circu-
latory system. Here; vi ; v0 can be drug dose at a specific site of the body and the
Figure 7.12 displays the resulting waveform. SPICE netlist (RLC1.cir) of this
solution is given below.
4.0
2.0
0.0
0 10 20 30
time [sec]
7.3 Transfer Functions, Poles and Zeros, Frequency Response 461
Problem 7.3.1 In a series RLC circuit with no initial conditions (i.e., all voltages and
currents have zero values), Vi ðtÞ ¼ et uðtÞ, R ¼ 1 X, L ¼ 1 H, C ¼ 1 F: I ðsÞ ¼ ?
Solution
VðsÞ 1 1 s2 þ s þ 1
¼ Z ðsÞ ¼ R þ sL þ ¼ 1þsþ ¼
IðsÞ sC s s
1
VðsÞ sþ1 s
I ðsÞ ¼ ¼ 2 ¼
ZðsÞ s þsþ1 ðs þ 1Þðs2 þ s þ 1Þ
s
Solution
V0 ðsÞ 1 1
¼ H ðsÞ ¼ 2 ¼
Vi ðsÞ s þ 3s þ 2 ðs þ 1Þðs þ 2Þ
1 1 1
V0 ðsÞ ¼ Vi ðsÞ ¼1 ¼
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 2Þ ðs þ 1Þðs þ 2Þ ðs þ 1Þðs þ 2Þ
A B
v0 ðtÞ ¼ L1 ½H ðsÞ ¼ þ
ð s þ 1Þ ð s þ 2Þ
Using partial fraction expansions,
1 1
A¼ ¼ 1; B ¼ ¼ 1;
ðs þ 2Þs¼1 ðs þ 1Þs¼2
Problem 7.3.3 In a series RLC circuit shown in Fig. 7.13 (no initial conditions), if
i(t) = L1 [I(s)] = 1 A, vab(t) = ? (t 0)
Solution
1
I ðsÞ ¼ L½iðtÞ ¼ L½1 ¼
s
1 2s2 þ 4s þ 1
Z ðsÞ ¼ 2 þ s þ ¼
2s 2s
1 2s þ 4s þ 1 2s2 þ 4s þ 1
2
V ðsÞ ¼ I ðsÞ Z ðsÞ ¼ ¼
s 2s 2s2
4s 1 4 1 2 1
V ðsÞ ¼ 1 þ 2 þ 2 ¼ 1 þ þ ¼ 1þ þ 2
2s 2s 2s 2s2 s 2s
1
vðtÞ ¼ L ½V ðsÞ ¼ dðtÞ þ 2uðtÞ þ t
2
Problem 7.3.4 In the circuit shown in Fig. 7.14,
V ðsÞ
(a) Zab ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ? ðR1 ¼ 1 X; C1 ¼ 10 FÞ:
I ðsÞ
(b) If iðtÞ ¼ 1 A; vðtÞ ¼ ? t 0; vð0Þ ¼ 0 V:
Solution
1
VðsÞ R1 C1 0:1
(a) Z ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
IðsÞ sR1 C1 þ 1 1 s þ 0:1
sþ
R1 C1
(b) If the current through the circuit is 1 A, t 0,
0:1 1 A B 1 1
V ðsÞ ¼ L½vðtÞ ¼ Z ðsÞI ðsÞ ¼ ¼ þ ¼
s þ 0:1 s s s þ 0:1 s s þ 0:1
vðtÞ ¼ L1 ½VðsÞ ¼ 1 e0:1t uðtÞ
Problem 7.3.5 In the circuit shown in Fig. 7.15, all initial conditions are zero.
(a) Determine I(s) as a function of R, L and s.
(b) If R = 1/2 Ω and L = 1 H, determine the poles and zeros of I(s).
(c) Use final value property of LT and find the value of ið1Þ where iðtÞ $ IðsÞ.
Solution
(a) Z ðsÞ ¼ VðsÞ=I ðsÞ
2 2 2
s s s 2ðsL þ RÞ
I ðsÞ ¼ VðsÞ=Z ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
R þ ðsLjjRÞ sLR 2sLR þ R 2 sð2RLs þ R2 Þ
Rþ
R þ sL R þ sL
R R
2L s þ sþ
L 1 L
¼ ¼
R R R
2LRs s þ s sþ
2L 2L
1
2 sþ
2 1 1
(b) I ðsÞ ¼ ; Poles ¼ 0; ; zero ¼
1 4 2
s sþ
4
1
2 sþ
2
(c) ið1Þ ¼ lim½s IðsÞ ¼ ¼ 4A
s!0 1
sþ
4 s¼0
Problem 7.3.6 What is the differential equation of a circuit with the transfer function of
4
H ð sÞ ¼
s2 þ 3s þ 6
Solution
Y ðsÞ 4
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
X ðsÞ s2 þ 3s þ 6
Solution
3
H ðsÞ ¼ ;
sþ1
3 1 3
Y ðsÞ ¼ H ðsÞ X ðsÞ ¼ ¼
s þ 1 s2 s2 ðs þ 1Þ
Inverse Laplace transform using partial fractions expansion,
1 3
1
yðtÞ ¼ L ½YðsÞ ¼ L
s2 ðs þ 1Þ
3 3 3
Problem 7.3.8 In the circuit of Fig. 7.16, find vX(t), t 0, using Laplace trans-
form analysis, if all initial conditions are zero.
Solution
Parallel RC impedance is
2
s ¼ 2
1 1 þ 2s
2þ
s
By voltage division,
2 2
V x ðsÞ 1 þ 2s ¼ 1 þ 2s ¼ 2 ¼ 2 ¼ 1
¼
V i ðsÞ 2 2 þ 1 þ 2s 3 þ 2s 3 3
þ1 2 þs sþ
1 þ 2s 1 þ 2s 2 2
1
since Vi ðsÞ ¼ ;
s
A B
Vx ðsÞ ¼ þ
s 3
sþ
2
2
1 2 1 2 32 1
A¼ ¼ ; B ¼ ¼ ; V ð s Þ ¼
s s¼3
x
3 3 3 s 3 3
sþ 2 sþ
2 s¼0 2
1 2 2 3t 2 3
vx ðtÞ ¼ L ½Vx ðsÞ ¼ e 2 uðtÞ ¼ 1 e 2 uðtÞ
t
3 3 3
Problem 7.3.9 Determine the voltage over impedance Z(s), if a unit step current is
applied to the circuit and
s3 þ 9
Z ðsÞ ¼
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 3Þ
Solution
s3 þ 9 1 A B C
V ðsÞ ¼ Z ðsÞIðsÞ ¼ ¼ þ þ
ð s þ 1Þ ð s þ 3Þ s s sþ1 sþ3
s3 þ 9
¼ 9 3; B ¼ s þ 9 1 þ 9
3
A¼ ¼ ¼ 4
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 3Þ s¼0 1 3 sðs þ 3Þs¼1 ð1Þ ð2Þ
s3 þ 9 18
C¼ ¼ ¼ 3
sðs þ 1Þs¼3 6
If input voltage vin(t) is unit step function, and V1 ðsÞ ¼ L½v1 ðtÞ.
v1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ ?; v 1 ð 1Þ ¼ ?
Solution
1
v1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ lim s V1 ðsÞ ¼ lim s HðsÞ Vin ðsÞ ¼ lim s HðsÞ ¼ lim HðsÞ
s!1 s!1 s!1 s s!1
18 8 8
8þ þ 2þ 3
v1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ lim s s s ¼ 8 ¼ 0:8 V
s!1 34 18 12 10
10 þ þ 2 þ 3
s s s
Similarly, steady-state voltage output in time domain is
1
v1 ð1Þ ¼ lim s V1 ðsÞ ¼ lim s HðsÞ Vin ðsÞ ¼ lim s HðsÞ ¼ lim HðsÞ
s!0 s!0 s!0 s s!0
0þ0þ0þ8 8
v1 ð1Þ ¼ lim ¼ ¼ 0:667 V
s!0 0 þ 0 þ 0 þ 12 12
Solution
1 H ðsÞ
Vo ðsÞ ¼ H ðsÞ Vi ðsÞ ¼ H ðsÞ ¼
s s
18 8 8
H ð s Þ Aþ þ 2þ 3
Vo ð0 þ Þ ¼ 0:8V ¼ lim s ¼ lim H ðsÞ ¼ lim s s s ¼ A
s!1 s s!1 s!1 18 B 10
10 þ 34s þ 2 þ 3
s s
A ¼ ð0:8Þ 10 ¼ 8;
2 H ðsÞ 0þ0þ0þ8 8
Vo ð1Þ ¼ 0:6667 ¼ ¼ lim s ¼ lim H ðsÞ ¼ lim ¼
3 s!0 s s!0 s!0 0 þ 0 þ 0 þ B B
8
B¼ ¼ 12:
0:6667
Problem 7.3.12 Poles of a transfer function H(s) are at s = 0, (−2 + j), −2 − j and
zero is at (−1).
H(s) = N(s)/D(s) = ?
Solution
ð s þ 1Þ sþ1
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
sðs þ 2 þ jÞðs þ 2 jÞ s3 þ 4s2 þ 5s
s4 þ 10s2 þ 9
Z ðsÞ ¼
s5þ 20s3 þ 64s
Solution
s4 þ 10s2 þ 9 ðs2 þ 1Þðs2 þ 9Þ
Z ðsÞ ¼ ¼
s5 þ 20s3 þ 64s sðs2 þ 4Þðs2 þ 16Þ
This is a function with purely imaginary poles and zeros, i.e., an LC circuit.
Figure 7.17 displays the resulting pole-zero diagram of a function Z(s).
Problem 7.3.14 The poles of a circuit transfer function are at p1 = −5, p2 = −2
while the zeros are at
z1 = −1, z2 = −4.
(a) Determine circuit rational transfer function, H(s) = Y(s)/X(s)
(b) Determine its unit step response, y(t).
Solution
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 4Þ
(a) H ðsÞ ¼
ð s þ 2Þ ð s þ 5Þ
1 ðs þ 1Þðs þ 4Þ A B C
(b) Y ðsÞ ¼ X ðsÞ H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ þ þ
s ðs þ 2Þðs þ 5Þ s sþ2 sþ5
7.3 Transfer Functions, Poles and Zeros, Frequency Response 467
Problem 7.3.15 Poles and zeros of a voltage transfer function are at p1 = −6,
p2 = −3, z1 = −2, z2 = −5 rad/s.
If the input to this circuit is a unit impulse, determine the output signal y(t).
Solution
ðs þ 2Þðs þ 5Þ
H ðsÞ ¼
ðs þ 3Þðs þ 6Þ
Y ðsÞ ¼ H ðsÞ X ðsÞ ¼ H ðsÞ 1 ¼ HðsÞ
ðs þ 2Þðs þ 5Þ A B
yðtÞ ¼ L1 ½YðsÞ ¼ L1 ¼ þ
ðs þ 3Þðs þ 6Þ sþ3 sþ6
ð6 þ 2Þð6 þ 5Þ ð4Þð1Þ 4
A¼ ¼ ¼
ð6 þ 3Þ ð3Þ 3
ð3 þ 2Þð3 þ 5Þ ð1Þð2Þ 2
B¼ ¼ ¼
ð3 þ 6Þ ð3Þ 3
4 1 2 B
Y ðsÞ ¼
3 s þ 3 3 s þ 6
1 4 3t 2 6t 2
yðtÞ ¼ L ½YðsÞ ¼ e e uðtÞ ¼ 2e3t þ e6t uðtÞ
3 3 3
468 7 Laplace Transform Methods
I0 ðsÞ sþ4
T ðsÞ ¼ ¼
Ii ðsÞ ðs þ 1Þ2 ðs þ 2Þ
has an input iin ðtÞ ¼ 2et uðtÞ. Determine the output current i0 ðtÞuðtÞ, and its
initial value. Check the result by using initial value property in s-domain.
Solution
sþ4 2 2ðs þ 4Þ
I0 ðsÞ ¼ T ðsÞ Iin ðsÞ ¼ ¼
ðs þ 1Þ ðs þ 2Þ ðs þ 1Þ ðs þ 1Þ3 ðs þ 2Þ
2
A B C D
I0 ðsÞ ¼ þ þ þ
ð s þ 1Þ ð s þ 1Þ 2
ð s þ 1Þ 3 ð s þ 2Þ
Partial fractions expansion with multiple poles,
2ðs þ 4Þ 2ð2 þ 4Þ 2 2
D ¼ ðs þ 2Þ I0 ðsÞjs¼2 ¼ 3
¼ ¼ ¼ 4
ðs þ 1Þ s¼2 ð2 þ 1Þ3 1
2ðs þ 4Þ
C ¼ ðs þ 1Þ3 I0 js¼1 ¼ ¼6
s þ 2 s¼1
dh i
d 2s þ 8
2ðs þ 2Þ ð2s þ 8Þ
B¼ 3
ðs þ 1Þ I0 ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ 4
ds s¼1 ds s þ 2 s¼1 ðs þ 2Þ2
" # s¼1
d2 h i 2
þ
4
d 2s 8 d
2A ¼ 2 ðs þ 1Þ I0 ðsÞ
3
¼ 2
¼
ds s¼1 ds s þ 2 s¼1 ds ð s þ 2Þ2
s¼1
2ðs þ 2Þð4Þ 8
2A ¼ ¼ ¼8
ðs þ 2Þ 4 ðs þ 2Þ3 s¼1
s¼1
A¼4
4 4 6 4
I0 ðsÞ ¼ þ
ðs þ 1Þ ðs þ 1Þ2
ðs þ 1Þ3 ðs þ 2Þ
1
t
i0 ð0Þ ¼ ð4 0 þ 0 4Þ ¼ 0 A
Vo ðsÞ
H ðsÞ ¼
Vi ðsÞ
Solution
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at the output,
V1 ðsÞ Vo ðsÞ
sC2 Vo ðsÞ ¼ 0 ð7:3Þ
R2
Kirchhoff’s current law on the middle node 1,
Vi ðsÞ V1 ðsÞ
sC1 V1 ðsÞ sC2 Vo ðsÞ ¼ 0
R1
From (7.3),
V o ðsÞ 1
¼ ð7:8Þ
Vi ðsÞ ð1 þ sC2 R2 Þð1 þ sC1 R1 Þ þ sC2 R1
V o ðsÞ 1
¼ ð7:9Þ
Vi ðsÞ s2 C1 R1 C2 R2 þ s½C1 R1 þ C2 ðR1 þ R2 Þ þ 1
470 7 Laplace Transform Methods
R þ sL3
s2 L3 C2 þ sRC2 þ 1 R þ sL3
Vx ¼ V1 ¼ V1 3
R þ sL3 s L1 L3 C2 þ s2 RL1 C2 þ sL1 þ sL3 þ R
sL1 þ 2
s L3 C2 þ sRC2 þ 1
R
V2 ¼ Vx
R þ sL3
R þ sL3 R
¼ V1 3
s L1 L3 C2 þ s2 RL1 C2 þ sðL1 þ L3 Þ þ R R þ sL3
V2 R
¼ 3
V1 s L1 L3 C2 þ s2 RL1 C2 þ sðL1 þ L3 Þ þ R
V2 ðsÞ 1 2
¼ ¼ 3
V1 ðsÞ 1 1 2s þ 1s þ 6s þ 2
2
s3 1 2 þ s2 1 1 þ 3s þ 1
2 2
Problem 7.3.19 Find the voltage transfer function in s-domain for the circuit shown
in Fig. 7.20, using mesh current equations. Assume no initial conditions exist.
Solution
R1 þ 1=sC1 1=sC1 I1 Vi
¼
1=sC1 R2 þ 1=sC2 þ 1=sC1 I2 0
1
Vo ¼ I2
sC2
D2
I2 ¼
D
R1 þ 1=sC1 Vi Vi Vi
D2 ¼ ¼0 ¼
1=sC1 0 sC1 sC1
sR1 C1 þ 1 sR2 C2 C1 þ C1 þ C2
D¼ 1=ðs2 C12 Þ
sC1 sC1 C2
ðsR1 C1 þ 1ÞðsR2 C2 C1 þ C1 þ C2 Þ 1
¼ 2 2
s2 C12 C2 s C1
s2 R1 C12 C2 R2 þ sR1 C12 þ sR1 C1 C2 þ sR2 C2 C1 þ C1 þ C2 C2
¼
s2 C12 C2
C1 ðs2 R1 R2 C1 C2 þ sR1 C1 þ sR1 C2 þ sR2 C2 þ 1Þ
¼
s2 C12 C2
s2 R1 R2 C1 C2 þ sðR1 C1 þ R1 C2 þ R2 C2 Þ þ 1
¼
s2 C1 C2
Vi
D2 sC
I2 ¼ ¼ 2 1
D s C1 R1 R2 C2 þ sðR1 C1 þ R1 C2 þ R2 C2 Þ þ 1
s2 C1 C2
sC2 Vi
I2 ¼
s2 R1 R2 C1 C2 þ sðR1 C1 þ R1 C2 þ R2 C2 Þ þ 1
1 sC2 Vi 1
V o ¼ I2 ¼ 2
sC2 s R1 R2 C1 C2 þ sðR1 C1 þ R1 C2 þ R2 C2 Þ þ 1 sC2
Vo ðsÞ 1
¼ H ðsÞ ¼ 2
Vi ðsÞ s R1 R2 C1 C2 þ sðR1 C1 þ R1 C2 þ R2 C2 Þ þ 1
V o ðsÞ 1
¼
Vi ðsÞ s2 C1 R1 C2 R2 þ s½C1 R1 þ C2 ðR1 þ R2 Þ þ 1
472 7 Laplace Transform Methods
Write this function as the ratio of two polynomials in factored form (Gain_H0.m).
Solution
Determining its poles and zeros and then finding constant term (DC gain constant)
will yield the result as
Following is the m-file script for computing the poles, zeros, and (dc gain)
constant K.
N=[3 60 420 1200 1152]
D=[8 200 1840 7600 13512 7560]
H=tf(N,D)
H0=polyval(N,0)/polyval(D,0);%dc gain
%format rational
format short
p=abs(pole(H))
z=abs(zero(H))
HZ=prod(z); HP=prod(p); K=H0/(HZ/HP)
Problem 7.3.21 Determine component values of a circuit which has the voltage
transfer function H(s),
sþ1
H ðsÞ ¼
sþ2
Solution
The voltage transfer function can be set up using voltage division rule,
Z ðsÞ ¼ s þ ð1 þ R1 Þ ¼ s þ 2;
Z1 ðsÞ ¼ R1 ¼ 1 X
Z0 ðsÞ ¼ sL þ R2 ;
Z 0 ðsÞ sL þ R2 sL þ R2
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼
Z ðsÞ ðsL þ R2 Þ þ R1 sL þ ðR1 þ R2 Þ
Therefore,
L ¼ 1 H; R2 ¼ 1 X:
Problem 7.3.22
(a) Determine input admittance Y(s) of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.21.
(b) Find out the component values if
sþ1
Y ðsÞ ¼
3s þ 2
Solution
sL R1 R1 R2 þ sR2 L þ sR1 L sLðR1 þ R2 Þ þ R1 R2
(a) Z ðsÞ ¼ R2 þ ¼ ¼
sL þ R1 R1 þ sL sL þ R1
1 sL þ R1
YðsÞ ¼ ¼
ZðsÞ sLðR1 þ R2 Þ þ R1 R2
(b) Since
sþ1
Y ðsÞ ¼ ; R1 R2 ¼ 2 X; L ¼ 1 H; R1 ¼ 1 X
3s þ 2
Problem 7.3.23 Determine the number of decades and octaves between the fol-
lowing frequencies:
100 Hz, 1 kHz
5 Hz, 200 Hz
2 rad/s, 200 rad/s
Solution
The number of decades between two frequencies is given as
f2
Df10 ¼ log10 ; f2 [ f1
f1
The number of octaves between two frequencies is
f2
Df2 ¼ log2 ; f2 [ f1
f1
1000
(a) log10 ¼ log10 ð10Þ ¼ 1 decade
100
f
log10 2
f2 f1 f2
log2 ¼ ¼ 3:322 log10 ¼ 3:322 log10 ð10Þ ¼ 3:322 octave
f1 log10 ð2Þ
f1
200
(b) log10 ¼ log10 ð40Þ ¼ 1:6 decade
5
200 200
log2 ¼ 3:322 log10 ¼ 5:322 octave
5 5
200
(c) log10 ¼ log10 ð100Þ ¼ 2 decades
2
200 200
log10 ¼ 3:322 log10 ¼ 3:322 log10 ð100Þ ¼ 6:644 octave
2 2
Problem 7.3.24 Determine H(s) from given Bode magnitude plot of Fig. 7.22
(Bode_template1.m).
Solution
Poles: 1, 10; zeros: 2, constant term, K:
6
20 log10 jK j ¼ 6 dB ! ¼ 0:3 !
log10 jK j ¼ K¼2
20
1 10 s þ 2 10ðs þ 2Þ
H ðsÞ ¼ 2¼
s þ 1 s þ 10 2 ðs þ 1Þðs þ 10Þ
Problem 7.3.25 Determine H(s) from given Bode magnitude plot shown in
Fig. 7.23 (Bode_template1.m).
7.3 Transfer Functions, Poles and Zeros, Frequency Response 475
Use MATLAB and plot H(s) magnitude and phase to prove the result obtained in
part a.
Solution
Poles: 1, 100, zero: 10
250ðs þ 2:5Þ
H ðsÞ ¼
ðs þ 25Þðs þ 250Þ
Solution
The form of a T(s) with real poles and zeros is approximated by TðjxÞ using
straight-lines as
jx
jx 1 þ
ksðs þ aÞ a
T ðsÞ ¼ ! T ðjxÞ ¼ K0
ðs þ bÞðs þ cÞ jx jx
1þ 1þ
b c
100s2
H ðsÞ ¼
ðs þ 10Þðs þ 500Þ
Solution
Since the order of critical angular frequencies are x ! 0; 10; 50 rad/s, and
K 100 1
K0 ¼ ¼ ¼
ab 10 500 50
1 ðjxÞ2
H ðjxÞ ¼
50 jx jx
1þ 1þ
10 500
For x 100 rad=s, jH ðjxÞjSL ¼ x2 =50
For 10\x 500 rad=s,
x2
x
jH ðjxÞjSL ¼ 50
x ¼5
10
x2 x2
jH ðjxÞjSL ¼ x
50
50
x
¼ x2 ¼ 100
10 500 5000
Solution
Since there is a zero at the origin, an s term exists in numerator of the gain function.
Along with two poles, voltage transfer function TðsÞ has the form
s
T ðsÞ ¼ K
s s
1þ 1þ
100 100; 000
Since by definition of dB gain,
The gain drops −20 dB/decade after x = 105 rad/s. Therefore, the gain at two
decades after x = 105 is jT ðj107 Þj ¼ jT ðj1Þj ¼ 60 þ 2 ð20Þ ¼ 20 dB (V/V).
Problem 7.3.29
(a) Determine the voltage transfer function (VTF) of a series resonant RLC notch
filter, shown in Fig. 7.24.
(b) Design a series resonant RLC circuit with a notch at 50 Hz, R = 100 Ω.
(c) Find the coefficients of VTF, in part b.
(d) Determine the poles and zeros of the VTF, in part b.
(e) Plot the magnitude of VTF versus frequency (log–log), in part b.
(f) Repeat parts b–e for R = 1 Ω and compare results with those obtained before
(RLCnotch1.m).
Solution
If the circuit topology is visualized as a voltage divider (see, Fig. 7.25),
Z1 1 s2 LC þ 1
Vout ¼ Vin ; Z1 ¼ sL þ ¼ ; Z2 ¼ R
Z1 þ Z2 sC sC
1
LC s2
þ
s2 LC þ 1 LC
Vout ¼ Vin 2 ¼ Vin
s LC þ sRC þ 1 RC 1
LC s þ
2 sþ
LC LC
1
Vout ðsÞ s2 þ
¼ H ðsÞ ¼ LC
Vin ðsÞ R 1
s2 þ s þ
L LC
1 1
Let x0 ¼
2
; L ¼ 2 ðx0 ¼ notch frequency, rad=sÞ
LC x0 C
s2 þ x20 s2 þ x20
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ 2
R s þ x20 RCs þ x20
s2 þ s þ x20
1
x20 C
A series resonant RLC circuit with a notch at 50 Hz, and R = 100 Ω,
1 pffiffiffiffiffiffi 1 1 1 k
x0 ¼ 2pf0 ; f0 ¼ 50 Hz; x0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi ; LC ¼ ; LC ¼ 2
2¼ 2
LC 2pf0 4p f0 f0
1
k ¼ 2 ¼ 0:025330296
4p
k
C¼
L f02
10-1
10-2
Gain [V/V)
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-6
10-1 100 101 102 103 104
frequency [Hz]
Fig. 7.26 Graph of the magnitude of VTF versus frequency (R = 100 Ω, f0 = 50 Hz)
s2 þ 98;700
H ðsÞ ¼
s2 þ 1000s þ 98;700
10-1
Gain [V/V)
10-2
10-3
10-4
10-1 100 101 102 103 104
frequency [Hz]
Fig. 7.27 Graph of the magnitude of VTF versus frequency (R = 1 Ω, C = 10, 132 µF,
L = 1 mH)
Solution
(a) Using the voltage divider circuit topology of Fig. 7.29,
Z1 1 sL 1
Vout ¼ Vin ; Z1 ¼ R; Z2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 2
Z1 þ Z2 Y2 1 s LC þ 1
sC þ
sL
Vout R Rðs2 LC þ 1Þ s2 RLC þ R
¼ ¼ 2 ¼ 2
Vin sL s RLC þ sL þ R s RLC þ sL þ R
Rþ
s2 LC þ 1
R 1
RLC s2 þ s2 þ
Vout RLC LC
¼ ¼
Vin sL R 1 1
RLC s þ2 þ s2 þ sþ
RLC RLC RC LC
482 7 Laplace Transform Methods
1 pffiffiffiffiffiffi 1 1 1 k
(b) x0 = 2pf0, f0 = 50 Hz, x0 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi, LC ¼ , LC ¼ ¼
LC 2pf0 4p2 f02 f02
1
k¼ ¼ 0:025330296
4p2
k
C¼
L f02
Let L ¼ 1 mH;
0:25330296
C¼ ¼ 10;132 lF
103 502
s2 þ 98;700
(c) H ðsÞ ¼
s2 þ 98:7s þ 98;700
(d) Poles: −49.35 + 310.26j rad/s, −49.35 − 310.26j rad/s, Zeros: ±314.16j
(e) The magnitude of the VTF versus frequency plot when R = 1 Ω, f0 = 50 Hz,
C = 10,132 µF, L = 1 mH is displayed in Fig. 7.30. Larger resistor values
deteriorate the performance of the circuit.
10-1
Gain [V/V)
10-2
10-3
10-1 100 101 102 103 104
frequency [Hz]
Problem 7.3.31 Determine the poles and zeros of the following voltage transfer
functions. Then, plot their respective pole-zero diagrams. Comment on their fre-
quency behavior (polezero2.m).
Vo ðsÞ s3 þ 2s2 þ 2s þ 1
(a) H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
Vin ðsÞ s3 þ 5s2 þ 5s þ 1
Vo ðsÞ s3 þ s2 þ s þ 1
(b) H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ 3
Vin ðsÞ s þ 5s2 þ 5s þ 1
Solution
Vo ðsÞ s3 þ 2s2 þ 2s þ 1
(a) H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
Vin ðsÞ s3 þ 5s2 þ 5s þ 1
Zeros are the roots of numerator polynomial of the transfer function,
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
1þj 3 1j 3
z1 ¼ 1; z2 ¼ ; z3 ¼
2 2
s2 þ s þ 1 s2 þ s þ 1
HðsÞ ¼ ¼ 2
ðs þ 3:7321Þðs þ 0:2679Þ s þ 4s þ 1
Vo ðsÞ s3 þ s2 þ s þ 1
(b) H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ 3
Vin ðsÞ s þ 5s2 þ 5s þ 1
0.5
Imaginary Axis
-0.5
-1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0
Real Axis
484 7 Laplace Transform Methods
z1 ¼ 1; z2 ¼ j; z3 ¼ j
Both of these VTFs have the same poles, but different zeros. The second VTF
has purely complex conjugate zeros. The overlapping of poles and zeros for both
VTFs on the real axis at r ¼ 1 indicates that the pole and the zero at r ¼ 1
cancel out each other. For both VTFs, the critical frequency is at x = 1 rad/s. At
this frequency both of the VTFs are null, this means that a circuit possessing these
transfer functions blocks the signal at x = 1 rad/s (=0.1591 Hz). However, both
VTFs pass the signals at dc ðs ¼ 1Þ and high frequencies ðs ¼ 1Þ.
An ideal twin-T notch filter with a stop angular frequency x ¼ a ¼ 1=ðRCÞ has
the following general form that shows that a third-order response reduces into a
second-order response (Fig. 7.32),
Problem 7.3.32
(a) Determine the voltage transfer function for twin-T notch filter topology of
Fig. 7.33, in terms of its component values (in s-domain), using nodal analysis.
1
Imaginary Axis
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Real Axis
7.3 Transfer Functions, Poles and Zeros, Frequency Response 485
(b) Evaluate the VTF for C2 = 2C1 = 2C3 = 2C, R2 = 0.5R1 = 0.5R3 = 0.5R
(c) Numerically compute the coefficients of VTF in part b, for R = 1 X, C = 1 F.
Solution
(a) Transform the input voltage source into current source. This operation results in
two current sources to account for R1 and C1, (see, Fig. 7.34)
Vin
I1 ¼ ¼ G1 Vin ; I2 ¼ Vin sC1
R1
D2 Vin D02
Vo ¼ V2 ¼ ¼
D D
This yields the general voltage transfer function relationship,
Vo D0
¼ H ðsÞ ¼ 2 ð7:10Þ
Vin D
where
G1 þ G3 þ sC2 I1 0
D02 ¼ G3 0 sC3
0 I2 G2 þ sC1 þ sC3
¼ 0 þ 0 þ 0 ½0 þ I2 ðsC3 ÞðG1 þ G3 þ sC2 Þ þ I1 ðG2 þ sC1 þ sC3 ÞðG3 Þ
¼ I2 sC3 ðG1 þ G3 þ sC2 Þ þ I1 G3 ðG2 þ sC1 þ sC3 Þ
¼ Vin sC1 :sC3 ðG1 þ G3 þ sC2 Þ þ G1 Vin :G3 ðG2 þ sC1 þ sC3 Þ
D ¼ s3 ðC1 C2 C3 Þ þ s2 ðC1 C3 G1 þ C1 C3 G3 þ C1 C2 G3 þ C2 C3 G3 þ C2 G3 G2 Þ
þ sðC1 G1 G3 þ C3 G1 G3 þ C3 G1 G2 þ C2 G2 G3 þ C3 G2 G3 Þ þ ðG1 G2 G3 Þ
ð7:12Þ
A ¼ C1 C2 C3
B ¼ C1 C3 G1 þ C1 C3 G3
C ¼ C1 G1 G3 þ C3 G1 G3
D ¼ G1 G2 G3
E ¼ A ¼ C1 C2 C3
F ¼ C1 C3 G1 þ C1 C3 G3 þ C1 C2 G3 þ C2 C3 G3 þ C2 C3 G2
G ¼ C1 G1 G3 þ C3 G1 G3 þ C3 G1 G2 þ C2 G2 G3 þ C3 G2 G3
H ¼ D ¼ G1 G2 G3
Vo ðsÞ s 3 þ b2 s 2 þ b1 s þ b0
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ 3 ð7:14Þ
Vin ðsÞ Es þ a2 s2 þ a1 s þ a0
1 1
b2 ¼ þ
R1 C2 R3 C2
1 1
b1 ¼ þ
R1 R3 C2 C3 R1 R3 C1 C2
1
b0 ¼ a0 ¼
R1 R2 R3 C1 C2 C3
1 1 1 1 1
a2 ¼ þ þ þ þ
R1 C2 R3 C2 R3 C3 R3 C1 R2 C1
1 1 1 1 1
a1 ¼ þ þ þ þ
R1 R3 C2 C3 R1 R3 C1 C2 R1 R2 C1 C2 R2 R3 C1 C3 R2 R3 C1 C2
1 2 1 1
Vo ðsÞ s þ CR s þ R2 C 2 s þ R3 C3
3
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
Vi ðsÞ 5 2 5 1
s3 þ s þ 3 3sþ 3 3
CR R C R C
1
x¼a¼ ;
RC
Vo ðsÞ s3 þ as2 þ a2 s þ a3 ðs þ aÞðs2 þ a2 Þ s 2 þ a2
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ 3 ¼ ¼
Vin ðsÞ s þ 5as2 þ 5a2 s þ a3 ðs þ aÞðs þ 4as þ a2 Þ s2 þ 4as þ a2
(c) Let R = 1 X, C = 1 F,
V o ðsÞ s3 þ s2 þ s þ 1 ðs þ 1Þðs2 þ 1Þ
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ 3 ¼
Vi ðsÞ s þ 5s2 þ 5s þ 1 ðs þ 3:7321Þðs þ 1Þðs þ 0:2679Þ
s2 þ 1 s2 þ 1
¼ ¼
ðs þ 3:7321Þðs þ 0:2679Þ ðs þ 4s þ 1Þ
x0 = b0 = a0 = 1 rad/s.
Problem 7.3.33 Derive the general VTF of a twin-T notch filter of Fig. 7.33 (in
s-domain) using the concept of wye to delta transformation.
Solution
Wye to delta (Y ! Δ) transformation rule (Fig. 7.35);
Y1 Y3 Y1 Y2 Y2 Y3
YA ¼ ; YB ¼ ; YC ¼ ; Y ¼ Y1 þ Y2 þ Y3
Y Y Y
ZA ZB ZB ZC ZA ZC
Z1 ¼ ; Z2 ¼ ; Z3 ¼ ; Z ¼ Z1 þ Z2 þ Z3
Z Z Z
If the node at (c) is assumed to be the reference voltage (ground) (Figs. 7.36,
7.37 and 7.38),
Y20 Y30 G1 G3
Yc0 ¼ 0
¼
Y G1 þ G3 þ sC2
G1 G3 sC1 sC3
YC ¼ þ ¼ YC0 þ YC00
G1 þ G3 þ sC2 sC1 þ sC3 þ G2
sC2 G1 G2 sC1
YB ¼ YB0 þ YB00 ¼ þ
G1 þ G3 þ sC2 sC1 þ sC3 þ G2
0 00 sC2 G3 G2 sC3
YA ¼ YA þ YA ¼ þ
G1 þ G3 þ sC2 sC1 þ sC3 þ G2
YC
Vout ¼ Vb ¼ Vin ðLaplace operator ðsÞ is dropped for convenienceÞ
YA þ YC
G1 G3 ðsC1 þ sC3 þ G2 Þ þ s2 C1 C3 ðG1 þ G3 þ sC2 Þ
YC ¼
ðG1 þ G3 þ sC2 ÞðsC1 þ sC3 þ G2 Þ
sC2 G3 ðsC1 þ sC3 þ G2 Þ þ sG2 C3 ðG1 þ G3 þ sC2 Þ
YA ¼
ðG1 þ G3 þ sC2 ÞðsC1 þ sC3 þ G2 Þ
sG1 G3 C1 þ sG1 G3 C3 þ G1 G2 G3 þ s2 C1 C3 G1 þ s2 C1 C3 G3 þ s3 C1 C2 C3
YC ¼
G1 G2 G3 þ sðG1 G3 C1 þ G1 G2 C3 þ C2 G2 G3 þ G1 G2 C3 þ G2 G3 C3 Þ þ
s2 ðC1 C3 G1 þ C1 C3 G3 þ C1 C2 G3 þ C2 C3 G3 þ C2 C3 G2 Þ
V o ðsÞ YC B3 s3 þ B2 s2 þ B1 s þ B0
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼
Vi ðsÞ YA þ YC A3 s3 þ A2 s2 þ A1 s þ A0
B3 ¼ A3 ¼ C1 C2 C3
B2 ¼ C1 C3 G1 þ C1 C3 G3
B1 ¼ G1 G3 C1 þ G1 G3 C3
B0 ¼ A0 ¼ G1 G2 G3
A2 ¼ C1 C3 G1 þ C1 C3 G3 þ C1 C2 G3 þ C2 C3 G3 þ C2 C3 G2
A1 ¼ C1 G1 G3 þ C3 G1 G3 þ C2 G2 G3 þ C3 G1 G2 þ C3 G2 G3
Vo ðsÞ s3 þ b2 s2 þ b1 s þ b0
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
Vi ðsÞ s3 þ a2 s2 þ a1 s þ a0
where,
7.3 Transfer Functions, Poles and Zeros, Frequency Response 491
1 1
b2 ¼ þ
C2 R1 C2 R3
1 1
b1 ¼ þ
R1 R3 C2 C3 R1 R3 C1 C2
1
b0 ¼ a0 ¼
C1 C2 C3 R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1 1
a2 ¼ þ þ þ þ
C2 R1 C2 R3 C3 R3 C1 R3 C1 R2
1 1 1 1 1
a1 ¼ þ þ þ þ
R1 R3 C2 C3 R1 R3 C1 C2 R1 R2 C1 C2 R2 R3 C1 C3 R2 R3 C1 C2
Problem 7.3.34 Derive the voltage transfer function (VTF) in s-domain for a
twin-T notch filter circuit shown in Fig. 7.39, using mesh analysis
(symbolic_TT_mesh.m).
Solution
(a) Equivalent circuit of twin-T notch filter for mesh analysis is shown in
Fig. 7.3.34.
KVL around four meshes,
½Z ½I ¼ ½V
2 32 3
R2 þ 1=sC1 0 0 R2 I1
60 R1 þ 1=sC1 1=sC2 76 I 7
6 0 76 2 7
6 76 7
40 1=sC2 R3 þ RL þ 1=sC2 RL 5 4 I3 5
R2 0 RL R2 þ RL þ 1=sC3 I4
2 3
Vin
6 V 7
6 in 7
¼6 7
4 0 5
0
Vo ¼ ðI3 I4 Þ R4 ð7:15Þ
D3 D4
i3 ¼ ; i4 ¼
D D ð7:16Þ
RL
Vo ¼ ðD3 D4 Þ
D
R2 þ 1=sC1 0 Vin R2
0 R1 þ 1=sC1 Vin 0
D3 ¼
0 1=sC2 0 RL
R 0 0 R2 þ RL þ 1=sC3
2
R2 þ 1=sC1 0 0 Vin
0 R1 þ 1=sC1 1=sC2 Vin
D4 ¼
0 1=sC2 R3 þ RL þ 1=sC2 0
R 0 R 0
2 L
Determinant,
R2 þ 1=sC1 0 0 R2
0 R1 þ 1=sC1 1=sC2 0
D ¼
0 1=sC2 R3 þ RL þ 1=sC2 RL
R2 0 RL R2 þ RL þ 1=sC3
An easier way to find out this transfer function using these values in Eq. (7.16) is
to employ MATLAB symbolic toolbox. Following are the results in doing so:
Vout =
(C1*C2*C3*RL*s^3*(((C1*C2*R1*R2*R3*Vin + C1*C2*R1*R2*RL*Vin)
*s^2 + (C1*R1*R2*Vin + C1*R2*R3*Vin)*s - RL*Vin)/(C1*C2*s^2) + (- C1*C2*
C3*R1*R2*RL*Vin*s^3 + (C1*R2*Vin + C3*R2*Vin + C3*RL*Vin)*s + Vin)/
(C1*C2*C3*s^3)))
/(C1*C2*C3*R1*R2*R3*RL*s^3 + (C1*C2*R1*R2*R3 + C2*C3*R1*R2*R3 +
C1*C2*R1*R2*RL + C1*C3*R1*R2*RL + C2*C3*R1*R2*RL + C1*C3*R2*
R3*RL + C2*C3*R1*R3*RL)*s^2 + (C1*R1*R2 + C1*R2*R3 + C2*R1*R3 +
C3*R1*R2 + C3*R2*R3 + C1*R2*RL + C2*R1*RL + C3*R1*RL + C3*R2*RL
+ C3*R3*RL)*s + R1 + R3 + RL)
Collecting terms according to powers of s
Vout =
((C1*C2*C3*R1*R2*R3*RL*Vin)*s^3
+ (C1*C3*R1*R2*RL*Vin + C1*C3*R2*R3*RL*Vin)*s^2
+ (C1*R2*RL*Vin + C3*R2*RL*Vin)*s
+ RL*Vin)
/
7.3 Transfer Functions, Poles and Zeros, Frequency Response 493
((C1*C2*C3*R1*R2*R3*RL)*s^3
+ (C1*C2*R1*R2*R3 + C2*C3*R1*R2*R3 + C1*C2*R1*R2*RL + C1*C3*
R1*R2*RL + C2*C3*R1*R2*RL + C1*C3*R2*R3*RL + C2*C3*R1*R3*RL)
*s^2
+ (C1*R1*R2 + C1*R2*R3 + C2*R1*R3 + C3*R1*R2 + C3*R2*R3 + C1*R2*RL
+ C2*R1*RL + C3*R1*RL + C3*R2*RL + C3*R3*RL)*s
+ R1 + R3 + RL)
Factoring out input voltage term in denominator,
= ((C1*C2*C3*R1*R2*R3*RL)*s^3
+ (C1*C3*R1*R2*RL + C1*C3*R2*R3*RL)*s^2
+ (C1*R2*RL + C3*R2*RL)*s
+ RL)
/
((C1*C2*C3*R1*R2*R3*RL)*s^3
+ (C1*C2*R1*R2*R3 + C2*C3*R1*R2*R3 + C1*C2*R1*R2*RL + C1*C3*
R1*R2*RL + C2*C3*R1*R2*RL + C1*C3*R2*R3*RL + C2*C3*R1*R3*RL)
*s^2
+ (C1*R1*R2 + C1*R2*R3 + C2*R1*R3 + C3*R1*R2 + C3*R2*R3 + C1*
R2*RL + C2*R1*RL + C3*R1*RL + C3*R2*RL + C3*R3*RL)*s + R1 + R3
+ RL)
RL factorization both numerator and denominator polynomials finally result in
canceling of RL coefficients in numerator and denominator,
DðsÞ ¼ C1 C2 C3 R1 R2 R3 s3
þ ½C1 C2 R1 R2 þ C1 C3 R1 R2 þ C2 C3 R1 R2 þ C1 C3 R2 R3 þ C2 C3 R1 R3 s2
þ ðC1 R2 þ C2 R1 þ C3 R1 þ C3 R2 þ C3 R3 Þs þ 1
Vo ðsÞ s3 þ b2 s2 þ b1 s þ b0
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
Vi ðsÞ s3 þ a2 s2 þ a1 s þ a0
where,
1 1
b2 ¼ þ
C2 R1 C2 R3
1 1
b1 ¼ þ
R1 R3 C2 C3 R1 R3 C1 C2
1
b0 ¼ a0 ¼
C1 C2 C3 R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1 1
a2 ¼ þ þ þ þ
C2 R1 C2 R3 C3 R3 C1 R3 C1 R2
1 1 1 1 1
a1 ¼ þ þ þ þ
R1 R3 C2 C3 R1 R3 C1 C2 R1 R2 C1 C2 R2 R3 C1 C3 R2 R3 C1 C2
Problem 7.3.35 Investigate the effect of load resistance, RL, connected at the
output of a twin-T notch filter of Fig. 7.33 on its voltage transfer function
(C2 = 2C1 = 2C3, R2 = 0.5R1 = 0.5R3 = 0.5R).
Solution
Consider the General VTF of a twin-T notch filter including the load resistance RL
connected to the output terminal (one should refer to the derivation of VTF for a
twin-T notch filter, for instance, using mesh analysis);
Vout ðsÞ NðsÞ
H ðsÞ ¼¼
Vin ðsÞ DðsÞ
Load resistance term does not appear in numerator, but in denominator of the
VTF,
DðsÞ ¼ C1 C2 C3 R1 R2 R3 s3
C1 C2 R1 R2 R3 þ C2 C3 R1 R2 R3
þ þ C1 C2 R1 R2 þ C1 C3 R1 R2
RL
þ C2 C3 R1 R2 þ C1 C3 R2 R3 þ C2 C3 R1 R3 s2
þ ðC1 R2 þ C2 R1 þ C3 R1 þ C3 R2 þ C3 R3
C1 R1 R2 þ C1 R2 R3 þ C2 R1 R3 þ C3 R1 R2 þ C3 R2 R3
þ s
RL
R1 þ R3
þ1þ
RL
V o ð s Þ b3 s 3 þ b2 s 2 þ b1 s þ b0
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
V i ð s Þ a3 s 3 þ a2 s 2 þ a1 s þ a0
b3 ¼ a3 ¼ C1 C2 C3
b2 ¼ C1 C3 G1 þ C1 C3 G3
b1 ¼ G 1 G 3 C 1 þ G 1 G 3 C 3
b0 ¼ a0 ¼ G 1 G 2 G 3
a2 ¼ C1 C3 G1 þ C1 C3 G3 þ C1 C2 G3 þ C2 C3 G3 þ C2 C3 G2
a1 ¼ C 1 G 1 G 3 þ C 3 G 1 G 3 þ C 2 G 2 G 3 þ C 3 G 1 G 2 þ C 3 G 2 G 3
Plot the voltage transfer function (VTF) magnitude (i.e., |H(s)|) in s-domain on
the same log–log graph using the following component values:
C1 = C2 = C3 = 1 F, R1 = R2 = R3 = 1 Ω
C1 = C2 = C3 = 1 F, R1 = R2 = 1 Ω, R3 = 0.5 Ω
C1 = C2 = C3 = 1 F, R2 = R3 = 1 Ω, R1 = 0.5 Ω
496 7 Laplace Transform Methods
C1 = C2 = C3 = 1 F, R1 = R2 = 1 Ω, R3 = 0.25 Ω
C1 = C3 = 1 F, R1 = R3 = 1 Ω, C2 = 2 F, R2 = 0.5 Ω
Draw possible conclusions out of these magnitude versus frequency plots
(plot_transfer_function1.m).
Solution
Following transfer functions are obtained using the general form of voltage transfer
function for a twin-T notch filter
s3 þ 2s2 þ 2s þ 1 ðs þ 1Þðs2 þ s þ 1Þ s2 þ s þ 1
(a) H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼
s þ 5s þ 5s þ 1 ðs þ 3:7321Þðs þ 1Þðs þ 0:2679Þ ðs þ 3:7321Þðs þ 0:2679Þ
3 2
s2 þ s þ 1
H ðsÞ ¼
s2 þ 4s þ 1
s3 þ 3s2 þ 4s þ 2 ðs þ 1Þðs2 þ 2s þ 2Þ s2 þ 2s þ 2
(b) H ðsÞ ¼ 3 ¼ ¼
s þ 8s2 þ 9s þ 2 ðs þ 1Þðs2 þ 7s þ 2Þ s2 þ 7s þ 2
s3 þ 3s2 þ 4s þ 2 ðs þ 1Þðs2 þ 2s þ 2Þ
(c) H ðsÞ ¼ 3 ¼ 3
s þ 6s2 þ 8s þ 2 s þ 6s2 þ 8s þ 2
Denominator polynomial does not factor out with (s + 1).
s3 þ 5s2 þ 8s þ 4 ðs þ 1Þðs2 þ 4s þ 4Þ s2 þ 4s þ 4
(d) H ðsÞ ¼ 3 ¼ ¼ 2
s þ 14s þ 17s þ 4 ðs þ 1Þðs þ 13s þ 4Þ s þ 13s þ 4
2 2
s3 þ s2 þ s þ 1 ðs þ 1Þðs2 þ 1Þ s2 þ 1
(e) H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼
s3 þ 5s þ 5s þ 1 ðs þ 3:7321Þðs þ 1Þðs þ 0:2679Þ ðs þ 3:7321Þðs þ 0:2679Þ
2
s2 þ 1
HðsÞ ¼
ðs þ 4s þ 1Þ
These are plotted in Fig. 7.3.35 (using MATLAB, plot_transfer_function1.m
file).
It is seen here that a twin-T filter topology is practically efficient only if proper
component values are used to realize such a filter function. Therefore, VTF of part
(e) is the best option which satisfies the need for a good rejection at the notch
frequency while passing other signals at lower or higher frequencies than the notch
frequency.
If R1 = R3 = R, R2 = R/2, C1 = C3 = C, C2 = 2C the notch frequency is
f0 ¼ 1=ð2pRCÞ
Using C = C1 = C3 = 1 F, R = R1 = R3 = 1 Ω, C2 = 2 F, R2 = 0.5 Ω, f0 ¼
1=ð2p:1:1Þ ¼ 0:159 Hz which is validated by the plot of this VTF. Because of the
fact that the condition stated here is not met for H(s) given in (a), a sharp notch is
not obtained for this VTF, despite the notch frequencies are the same for both of the
filter transfer functions in (a) and (e) (Fig. 7.40).
Problem 7.3.37 The VTF of a bridged-T notch filter circuit shown in Fig. 7.41 is
Vo C1 C2 R1 R2 s2 þ ðC2 R2 þ C2 R1 Þs þ 1
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
Vin C1 C2 R1 R2 s2 þ ðR1 C2 þ R2 C2 þ R1 C1 Þs þ 1
7.3 Transfer Functions, Poles and Zeros, Frequency Response 497
Gain [V/V)
-2
10
-3
10
-3 -2 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10 10
frequency [Hz]
1
xc ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
R1 R2 C1 C2
Let R1 = R2,
1
fc ¼ pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 50 ½Hz
2p R2 C2 10
1 1
R2 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ ¼ 1:0066 MX
2p 10 50 C2 ð993:4588Þð109 Þ
Thus; R2 ¼ R1 ffi 1:0066 MX; C2 ¼ 1 nF; C1 ¼ 10 nF
Notch frequency = 50 Hz = 314.154 rad/s
Notch frequency squared = 98,693 rad/s
The voltage transfer function of the bridged-T circuit having these component
values is
0:0000101324s2 þ 0:002013s þ 1
H ðsÞ ¼
0:0000101324s2 þ 0:01208s þ 1
or alternatively,
s2 þ 198:7s þ 98;693
H ðsÞ ¼
s2 þ 1192s þ 98;693
The magnitude of TF at 50 Hz is
Semi-logarithmic plot for the magnitude response of the VTF for a bridged T
notch filter having a blocking frequency at f = 50 Hz (x = 314 rad/s) is shown in
Fig. 7.42.
The poles are p1 = −1102.6, p2 = −89.5 (rad/s)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-2 0 2 4
10 10 10 10
frequency [Hz]
7.3 Transfer Functions, Poles and Zeros, Frequency Response 499
200
100
Imaginary Axis
-100
-200
-300
-1200 -1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0
Real Axis
at 50 Hz (=314 rad/s)
-10
-15
-20
90
45
Phase (deg)
-45
-90
-1 0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
500 7 Laplace Transform Methods
Problem 7.4.1 Determine Y(jx), the admittance of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.45,
and determine the real and imaginary parts of Y(jx). Plot them as functions of
angular frequency.
(R0 = 20 kX; C1 = 1 nF; R1 = 1 MX, at 101 measurement points) (GB1.m,
RRC.m).
Solution
R1 R0 þ R1 þ jxR1 C1 R0
Z ðjxÞ ¼ R0 þ ¼
1 þ jxR1 C1 1 þ jxR1 C1
1 1 þ jxR1 C1 ð1 þ jxR1 C1 ÞðR0 þ R1 jxR1 C1 R0 Þ
Y ðjxÞ ¼ ¼ ¼
Z ðjxÞ ðR0 þ R1 Þ þ jxR0 C1 R1 ðR0 þ R1 Þ2 þ x2 R20 R21 C12
R0 þ R1 þ x2 R0 R21 C12 C1 R21 þ c1 R0 R1 R0 R1 C1
Y ðjxÞ ¼ 2
þ jx ¼ Y 0 ðxÞ þ jY 00 ðxÞ
ðR0 þ R1 Þ þ x2 R20 R21 C12 ðR0 þ R1 Þ2 þ x2 R20 R21 C12
Figure 7.46 displays conductance and susceptance as functions of angular
frequency.
B = Susceptance,S
3 0.6
2 0.4
1 0.2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
frequency (rad/sec) x107
7.4 Impedance and Admittance 501
%GB1.m
%Real and imaginary parts of admittance
%n = number of intervals, h the distance between n+1 measurements
% program requires separate function call: RRC
R0=2e4; C1=1e-9; R1=1e6; w0=1/ (R1*C1) % R0+ (R1//C1) circuit
b=50000*w0; n=100;x=0:b/n:b;m=length(x);
[G,B]=RRC(x,R0,R1,C1,m);% R0+(R1//C1)circuit
[AX,H1,H2]=plotyy(x,B,x,G,'plot');grid on;
set(get(AX(1),'Ylabel'),'String','G = Conductance,S')
set(get(AX(2),'Ylabel'),'String','B = Susceptance,S')
xlabel('frequency (rad/sec)')
title('R0+R1//C1')
function [G,B] = RRC(x,R0,R1,C1,m)
%Susceptance and conductance terms of admittance model
x = x';
numG = R0+R1 + x.^2*(R0*R1*C1)^2;numB=x*C1*R1^2;
den =(R0+R1)^2 + x.^2*(R0*R1*C1)^2;
B = numB/den; G=numG/den; G=G(:,m); B=B(:,m);
Problem 7.4.2 Determine the admittance of a series RLC circuit, YðjxÞ. Show the
conductance and susceptance terms, and plot their variations as functions of angular
frequency for C = 1 lF; R = 40 X; L = 1 mH, at 11 measurement points (GB2.m,
BRLC.m).
Solution
1 jxRC x2 LC þ 1
Z ðjxÞ ¼ R þ jxL þ ¼
jxC jxC
jxC jxC jx3 LC 2 þ x2 RC 2
Y ðjxÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ GðxÞ þ jBðxÞ
1 x2 LC þ jxRC ð1 x2 LCÞ2 þ x2 R2 C2
The conductance G, and susceptance B, are
x2 RC 2 xC x3 LC 2
GðxÞ ¼ ; BðxÞ ¼
ð1 x2 LC Þ2 þ x2 R2 C 2 ð1 x2 LC Þ2 þ x2 R2 C2
5 -2
G = Conductance,S
B = Susceptance,S
4 -4
3 -6
2 -8
1 -10
0 -12
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
frequency (rad/sec) x 10 4
Problem 7.4.3 For the given impedance Z(s), determine Z ðjxÞ ¼ Z 0 ðxÞ þ jZ 00 ðxÞ
and its phase angle as a function of x (Bode6.m).
sþ2
Z ðsÞ ¼
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 5Þ
7.4 Impedance and Admittance 503
Solution
s þ 2 jx þ 2 jx þ 2
Z ðjxÞ ¼ ¼ ¼
s2 þ 6s þ 5s¼jx ðjxÞ2 þ 6jx þ 5 x2 þ 6jx þ 5
jx þ 2 ð2 þ jxÞ½ð5 x2 Þ þ 6jx ð2 þ jxÞð5 x2 Þ ð2 þ jxÞ6jx
¼ ¼ ¼
ð5 x Þ þ 6jx
2
ð5 x2 Þ2 þ ð6jxÞ2 ð5 x2 Þ2 þ 36x2
ð10 2x2 þ j5x jx3 Þ 12jx þ 6x2 10 2x2 þ 6x2 þ jð5x x3 12xÞ
¼ ¼
25 þ x4 10x2 þ 36x2 x4 þ 26x2 þ 25
4x þ 10
2
x þ 7x
3
Z ðjxÞ ¼ 4 j 4
x þ 26x2 þ 25 x þ 26x2 þ 25
The phase angle is (Fig. 7.48),
3 3
1 Im½ZðjxÞ 1 x 7x 1 x þ 7x
uðxÞ ¼ tan ¼ tan ¼ tan
Re½ZðjxÞ 4x2 þ 10 4x2 þ 10
Following is the MATLAB script (Bode6.m) for plotting the phase angle:
Problem 7.4.4 Determine the phase angle (as a function of angular frequency) for
the impedance function given below, and plot it (display the grid lines) (Bode6.m).
200s
Z ðsÞ ¼
s2 þ 12s þ 20
Fig. 7.48 The graph of phase angle versus frequency for Z(s) of Problem 7.4.3
504 7 Laplace Transform Methods
Fig. 7.49 Phase angle versus frequency for Z ðsÞ ¼ 200s=ðs2 þ 12s þ 20Þ
Solution
200jx 200jx½ð20 x2 Þ 12jx
Z ðjxÞ ¼ ¼
x2 þ 12jx þ 20 ½ð20 x2 Þ 12jx½ð20 x2 Þ þ 12jx
4000jx 200jx3 þ 2400x2 2400x2 4000x 200x3
¼ 2
¼ 2
þj
ð20 x2 Þ 144x2 ð20 x2 Þ 144x2 ð20 x2 Þ2 144x2
Im½ZðjxÞ 200x3 þ 4000x 1 200x 4000x
3
uðxÞ ¼ tan1 ¼ tan1 ¼ tan
Re½ZðjxÞ 2400x2 2400x2
Problem 7.4.5 Determine the phase angle expression for the following impedance
function (Bode6.m):
11s þ 2
Z ðsÞ ¼
10s2þ 11s þ 1
Solution
s ¼ jx;
11ðjxÞ þ 2 2 þ j11x
Z ðjxÞ ¼ ¼
2
10ðjxÞ þ 11ðjxÞ þ 1 1 10x2 þ j11x
ð2 þ j11xÞ½ð1 10x2 Þ j11x
¼
ð1 10x2 Þ2 þ 121x2
2 20x2 22xj þ 11xj 110jx3 þ 121x2
¼
1 þ 100x4 20x2 þ 121x2
101x2 þ 2 þ jð110x3 11xÞ
¼
100x4 þ 101x2 þ 1
Re½Z ðjxÞ 1 110x þ 11x
3
uðxÞ ¼ ¼ tan
Im½ZðjxÞ 101x2 þ 2
7.4 Impedance and Admittance 505
Fig. 7.50 Phase angle versus frequency for Z ðsÞ ¼ ð11s þ 2Þ=ð10s2 þ 11s þ 1Þ
s2 þ 5s þ 4 sþ1 s2 þ 5s þ 4
ðiÞ Z ðsÞ ¼ ðiiÞ Z ðsÞ ¼ ðiiiÞ Z ðsÞ ¼
s3 þ 7s2 þ 10s s2þ 2s s2 þ 2s
1 s3 þ 12s2 þ 35s þ 24 11s þ 2
ðivÞ Z ðsÞ ¼ ðvÞ Z ðsÞ ¼ ðviÞ Z ðsÞ ¼
sþ1 s3 þ 6:5s2 þ 11s þ 4 10s2 þ 11s þ 1
ðs þ 3Þðs þ 10Þ ðs þ 3Þðs þ 10Þ
ðviiÞ Z ðsÞ ¼ ðviiiÞ Z ðsÞ ¼
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 4Þ sðs þ 4Þ
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 4Þ sðs þ 4Þ
ðixÞ Z ðsÞ ¼ ðxÞ Z ðsÞ ¼
ðs þ 3Þðs þ 10Þ ðs þ 3Þðs þ 10Þ
sþ2 ðs þ 1Þðs þ 3Þ
ðxiÞ Z ðsÞ ¼ ðxiiÞ Z ðsÞ ¼
s2 þ 6s þ 5 ðs þ 2Þðs þ 4Þ
(b) Which forms of ZðsÞ yield o phase function with an odd numerator polynomial?
(Conversely, when dominator of a phase function is an even polynomial?)
(c) Which forms of ZðsÞ yield o phase function with a degree of its numerator
polynomial greater than the degree of its denominator?
(d) Which forms of Z ðsÞ yield o phase function with a degree of its denominator
polynomial greater than the degree of its nominator? (Z_to_phase1.m)
(Z_to_phase2.m).
Solution
4
(a) s2 þ 5s þ 4 1 x þ 21x þ 40
2
(i) Z ðsÞ ¼ 3 ; uðxÞ ¼ tan
s þ 7s2 þ 10s 2x3 þ 22x
2
sþ1 sþ1 x þ2
(ii) Z ðsÞ ¼ 2 ¼ ; uðxÞ ¼ tan1
s þ 2s sðs þ 2Þ x
506 7 Laplace Transform Methods
2
s2 þ 5s þ 4 ðs þ 1Þðs þ 4Þ 1 3x þ 8
(iii) Z ðsÞ ¼ 2 ¼ ; uðxÞ ¼ tan
s þ 2s sðs þ 2Þ x3 þ 6x
1
(iv) Z ðsÞ ¼ ; uðxÞ ¼ tan1 ð10xÞ
s þ 0:1
(v)
s3 þ 12s2 þ 35s þ 24 11x5 þ 151x3 þ 298x
Z ðsÞ ¼ ; uðxÞ ¼ tan1
s3 þ 6:5s2 þ 11s þ 4 2x6 þ 64x4 þ 362x2 þ 192
11s þ 2 1 110x þ 11x
3
(vi) Z ðsÞ ¼ ; uð x Þ ¼ tan
10s2 þ 11s þ 1 101x2 þ 2
ðs þ 3Þðs þ 10Þ 1 8x3 þ 98x
(vii) Z ðsÞ ¼ ; uðxÞ ¼ tan
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 4Þ x4 þ 31x2 þ 120
2
ðs þ 3Þðs þ 10Þ 9x þ 120
(viii) Z ðsÞ ¼ ; uðxÞ ¼ tan1
sðs þ 4Þ x3 þ 22x
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 4Þ 8x3 þ 98x
(ix) Z ðsÞ ¼ ; uðxÞ ¼ þ tan1 4
ðs þ 3Þðs þ 10Þ x þ 31x2 þ 120
3
sðs þ 4Þ 1 9x þ 120x
(x) Z ðsÞ ¼ ; uðxÞ ¼ þ tan
ðs þ 3Þðs þ 10Þ x4 þ 22x2
3
sþ2 sþ2 x þ 7x
(xi) Z ðsÞ ¼ 2 ¼ ; uðxÞ ¼ tan1
s þ 6s þ 5 ðs þ 1Þðs þ 5Þ 4x2 þ 10
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 3Þ 1 2x þ 14x
3
(xii) Z ðsÞ ¼ ; uðxÞ ¼ þ tan
ðs þ 2Þðs þ 4Þ x4 þ 12x2 þ 24
(b) Numerator of a phase function is an odd polynomial when there is no pole of
denominator located at s = 0. This is the case in parts (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (ix),
(x), (xi), (xii). Conversely, numerator of a phase function is an even polynomial
if there is a pole of denominator located at s = 0. This is the case in parts (i),
(ii), (iii), and (viii).
(c) The order of the numerator polynomial of a phase function is greater than the
degree of its numerator polynomial if the order of denominator polynomial of
corresponding impedance function is greater than the order of its numerator
polynomial. In other words, let
Pm j
N ðsÞ j¼0 bj s
Z ðsÞ ¼ ¼ Pn i
DðsÞ i¼0 ai s
If n [ m, then, ½order of PðxÞ [ ½order of QðxÞ. This is the case in parts (i),
(ii), (iv), (vi), (xi).
(d) The order of the numerator polynomial of a phase function is less than the
degree of its denominator polynomial if the order of denominator polynomial of
7.4 Impedance and Admittance 507
VðsÞ s þ 2
Z ðsÞ ¼ ¼
IðsÞ s þ 1
Table 7.2 is a list of computed magnitude and phase angle values of Z(jx) at 10
different angular frequencies between 0.01 x 100 rad/s (phase angles are in
degrees).
Figure 7.51 displays magnitude versus angular frequency for
Z ðsÞ ¼ ðs þ 2Þ=ðs þ 1Þ
A MATLAB script (freq_resp0.m) is given below.
1.7
Magnitude, ohm
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
10-2 10-1 100 101 102
w, rad/sec
sþ3
Z ðsÞ ¼
sþ1
Solution
(a) The general form of Z(jx);
2 0
Imaginary(Z(jw))
Real(Z(jw))
1 -0.01
0 -0.02
10-2 10-1 100 101 102
w rad/sec
(d) Fig. 7.53 displays plots of magnitude and phase of Z(jx) on the same graph,
0.01 < x < 100 rad/s.
510 7 Laplace Transform Methods
3 0
Phase, degree
Magnitude
2 -20
1 -40
10-2 10-1 100 101 102
w rad/sec
Fig. 7.53 Magnitude and phase graph of Z(jx), 0.01 < x < 100 rad/s
(e) Magnitude and phase angle of Z(jx) at different angular frequencies are listed
in Table 7.3 (phase angles are in degrees).
(f) Following is the MATLAB script to generate Table 7.3, as well as Fig. 7.53
displaying magnitude and phase of Z(s) as a function of angular frequency
while Fig. 7.54 displays data of Table 7.3.
7.4 Impedance and Admittance 511
3 0
Phase, degree
Magnitude
2 -20
1 -40
10-2 10-1 100 101 102
w rad/sec
Fig. 7.54 Magnitude and phase graph of Z(jx), 0.01 < x < 100 rad/s
Determine Z(jx) and magnitude and phase angle values at 17 different angular
frequencies between 0.01 x 100 rad/s, and plot magnitude and phase angles
versus angular frequency (freq_resp1.m).
512 7 Laplace Transform Methods
Solution
VðsÞ ðs þ 1Þðs þ 100Þ
Z ðsÞ ¼ ¼
IðsÞ ðs þ 0:1Þðs þ 10Þ
Poles are at 0.1 and 10, zeros are at 1 and 100 rad/s.
Table 7.4 lists and Fig. 7.55 displays plots of magnitude and phase angles versus
angular frequency for Z(jx).
Following is the MATLAB script (freq_resp1.m) used for the solution:
Table 7.4 Magnitude and x (rad/s) Z(jx) |Z(jx)| (X) Phase (rad)
phase angles versus angular
frequency for Z(jx) 0.01 0.9910 + 0.0900i 0.9951 −0.0519
0.02 0.9722 + 0.1567i 0.9847 −0.0916
0.03 0.9174 + 0.2613i 0.9539 −0.1590
0.06 0.7818 + 0.3885i 0.8730 −0.2642
0.10 0.5459 + 0.4549i 0.7106 −0.3981
0.18 0.3100 + 0.3895i 0.4978 −0.5148
0.32 0.1743 + 0.2637i 0.3161 −0.5653
0.56 0.1194 + 0.1611i 0.2006 −0.5346
1.00 0.1000 + 0.0980i 0.1400 −0.4443
1.78 0.0922 + 0.0650i 0.1128 −0.3520
3.16 0.0853 + 0.0522i 0.1000 −0.3147
5.62 0.0724 + 0.0511i 0.0887 −0.3520
10.00 0.0510 + 0.0500i 0.0714 −0.4443
17.78 0.0297 + 0.0401i 0.0499 −0.5346
31.62 0.0174 + 0.0264i 0.0316 −0.5653
56.23 0.0125 + 0.0157i 0.0201 −0.5148
100.00 0.0108 + 0.0090i 0.0141 −0.3981
7.4 Impedance and Admittance 513
100
Magnitude, ohm 50
0
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
w, rad/sec
0
Phase, degree
-20
-40
-60
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
w, rad/sec
Fig. 7.55 Bode magnitude and phase graph of Z(jx), 0.01 < x < 100 rad/s
Problem 7.4.10
(a) Draw a simplified electrical equivalent circuit for the electrical properties of
human body. Indicate corresponding elements.
(b) Describe its behavior at low and high frequencies. What is the general form of
its impedance in Laplace domain? What is the critical frequency?
(c) What is the definition of total body fluid volume VTBF ðVTBW Þ?
(d) Determine the ratio of high frequency impedance to the DC resistance of tissue,
i.e, R1 =RE .
(e) Determine the ratio of total body fluid volume to the extracellular fluid volume,
i.e., VTBF =VECF . Note that,
V 3=2 H 2 W
RE ¼ KqECF ; V¼
VECF V d
VECF qICF qTBF qECF 2=3
¼
VTBF qICF qECF qTBF
Determine total body fluid resistivity, qTBF , in terms of qECF, qICF, R∞, and RE.
(i) Express VTBF in terms of qECF, qICF, RI ,and RE.
(j) If V TBF ¼ 13:166liters, kq ¼ qICF =qECF ¼ 6:76, RE ¼ 800 X, R1 ¼ 450 X,
determine VTBF and VICF.
(k) Calculate intracellular fluid resistance, RI, using data given in (j).
(l) Determine percent fat volume of this person with W = 60 kg, using fat-free
mass (FFM) equation
FFM ¼ dECF VECF þ dICF VICF
Solution
(a) Figure 7.56 shows an equivalent circuit for the electrical behavior of a biological
tissue. Here, RE ; RI ; Cm denotes the resistance of extracellular fluid, resistance of
intracellular fluid, and the cell membrane capacitance, respectively.
(b) At zero frequency (DC), electric current runs around the cell, therefore
equivalent impedance consists of only RE : At very high frequencies
ðf ¼ 1Þ; Cm acts as a short circuit and equivalent electrical impedance of tissue
consists of parallel connected resistance, i.e, RI kRE .
The general form of electrical impedance in s-domain is
1 RE þ sRI RE Cm
Z ¼ RE k RI þ ¼
sCm sðRI Cm þ RE Cm Þ þ 1
1
fc ¼
2pCm ðRE þ RI Þ
(c) TBF volume is the sum of the volumes of fluids contained within the cells and
outside these cells (intra/extracellular fluids).
RE RI
R1 RE þ RI RI
(d) ¼ ¼
RE RE RE þ RI
(e) Since
V 3=2 H 2 W
RE ¼ KqECF ; V¼ !
VECF V d
2=3 2 pffiffiffiffiffi2=3
KqECF H W
VECF ¼ pffiffiffi
d RE
Because TBF is the conducting material at high frequencies one may replace RE
with R1 , ECF with TBF in these equations,
32 2 pffiffiffiffiffi2=3
V H2 KqTBF 3 H 2 W
R1 ¼ KqTBF ! VTBF ¼ pffiffiffi
VTBF V d R1
0 123 0 2 pffiffiffiffiffi12=3
KqTBF H W
pffiffiffi 2
VTBF B d C B R1 C qTBF 3 RE 2=3
¼@B C B pffiffiffiffiffi C ¼
VECF KqECF A @H 2 W A qECF R1
pffiffiffi
d RE
(f) Using the result found above, volume of total body fluid is
2
qTBF 3 RE 2=3
VTBF ¼ VECF
qECF R1
(g) Since
RE RE þ RI
¼ ;
RI RI
Note that these two equations are reciprocal of each other. Therefore,
2 2
qICF qTBF qECF 3 qECF RE 3
¼
qICF qECF qTBF qTBF R1
or,
23
qICF qTBF R1
¼
qICF qECF RE
R1 RI
¼
RE RE þ RI
23
RI
qTBF ¼ ðqECF qICF Þ þ qICF
RE þ RI
(j) Since total body fluid volume is given by the equation found in part (f) as
23 23
qTBF RE
VTBF ¼ VECF
qECF R1
Because the value of intracellular fluid resistivity is not given, one may divide
both sides of this equation by qECF ,
7.4 Impedance and Admittance 517
23
qTBF qICF R1 qICF
¼ 1 þ
qECF qECF RE qECF
Let
qICF
kp ¼
qECF
2
qTBF R1 3
¼ 1 kp þ kp
qECF RE
Since kp ¼ 6:76 [ 1,
2 2
qTBF R1 3 450 3
¼ kp kp 1 ¼ 6:76 5:76 ¼ 6:76 3:924 ¼ 2:836
qECF RE 800
RE RE þ RI
¼ ;
R1 RI
Solving this equation for RI and substituting known numerical values yields
RE 800
RI ¼ ¼ ¼ 1028:6 X
RE 800
1 1
R1 450
(l) Substituting calculated volume values into given equation for FFM,
6551
%Fat ¼ 100% ¼ 10:92%
60;000
Problem 7.4.11
(a) Find the input impedance of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.57.
(b) Find the dual of this circuit.
(c) Find the input admittance of the dual circuit.
(d) Compare the results in parts (a) and (c).
Solution
Y2 ¼ G2 == sC2 ¼ G2 þ sC2
sC1 þ Y2 sC1 ðG2 þ sC2 Þ
Y12 ¼ ¼
Y2 þ sC1 G2 þ SC2 þ sC1
sC1 ðG2 þ sC2 Þ
Y1 ¼ G1 þ Y12 ¼ G1 þ
(a) G2 þ SC2 þ sC1
G1 G2 þ sG1 C1 þ sG1 C2 þ sG2 C1 þ s2 C1 C2
¼
G2 þ sðC1 þ C2 Þ
V1 G2 þ sðC1 þ C2 Þ
Z1 ¼ ¼ 2
I s C1 C2 þ sðG1 C1 þ G1 C2 þ G2 C1 Þ þ G1 G2
(b) Duality principle implies that,
current source ! voltage source; i // G1 branch ! V − R1 branch;
G2 // C2 branch ! R2 − L2 branch; Series C1 ! shunt L1;
Node voltages ! Mesh currents.
Application of these conversions results in the circuit of Fig. 7.58.
Comparing these two sets of impedances shows that increasing the impedance of
each element by same factor is equivalent to an operation of increasing R and L,
and decreasing C by the same factor, frequency being unchanged.
Problem 7.5.2 Determine magnitude scale factors for L = 2 mH and C = 10 µF to
L′ = 1 H, C = 1 F
Solution
L0 ¼ aL L
1
1 ¼ aL 2 103 ! aL ¼ ¼ 500
2 103
C C 10 106
C0 ¼ ! aC ¼ 0 ¼ ¼ 105
aC C 1
Problem 7.5.3 In an RC low-pass filter R = 1 X, C = 1 F. Its cut-off frequency is
to be shifted to
x0c ¼ 10 rad s1 using a 1 kX resistor. What is the scaled value of the capacitor?
520 7 Laplace Transform Methods
Solution
1 1
sC 1
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ RC
1 sRC þ 1 1
Rþ sþ
sC RC
1 1
xc ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 rad=s
RC 1:1
x0c ¼ 10 rad=s
x0
kf ¼ c ¼ 10
xc
R0 1000 X
km ¼ ¼ ¼ 1000
R 1X
Applying frequency and magnitude scaling to capacitor yields
C 1
C0 ¼ ¼ ¼ 104 ¼ 100 lF
km kf 1000 10
Problem 7.5.4 An RLC circuit shown in Fig. 7.59 is designed such that
x0 ¼ 1 rad=s.
(a) Scale this circuit for a resonance frequency of 500 Hz using 1 kX resistor
(R = 1 X, L = 1 H, C = 1 F).
(b) Prove that scaled resonance frequency is indeed 500 Hz.
Solution
Frequency scale factor = b,
x00 2p 500
(a) b ¼ ¼ ¼ 1000p
x0 1
Magnitude scale factor = a,
R0 1000
a¼ ¼ ¼ 1000
R 1
a 1000 1
L0 ¼ L ¼ 1¼ H
b 1000p p
C 1 106
C0 ¼ ¼ ¼ F
a b ð1000Þð1000pÞ p
7.5 Frequency and Component Scaling 521
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 1 1
(b) x 00 ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ ¼ ðp2 106 Þ2 ¼ 103 p ¼ 2pf ¼ 103 p
L0 C 0 ð1=pÞ 106 =p
103 p
f ¼ ¼ 500 Hz
2p
Problem 7.5.5
(a) Determine the voltage transfer function of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.60, with
L = 1 H, C = 1 F, R = 1 X.
(b) Determine the voltage transfer function, if L = 2 H, R = 2 X, C = 0.5 F.
(c) Determine the voltage transfer function, if L = 4 H, R = 4 X, C = 0.25 F.
Solution
(a) By voltage division ,
1
R R
Z1 ð s Þ ¼ sC ¼
1 sRC þ 1
Rþ
sC
R
Z 1 ðsÞ sRC þ 1 ¼ R
V0 ðsÞ ¼ Vi ðsÞ ¼
Z1 ðsÞ þ sL R s2 RLC þ sL þ R
þ sL
sRC þ 1
(b) L′ = 2L, R′ = 2R, C′ = 0.5C,
V0 ðsÞ R
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
Vi ðsÞ s2 RLC þ sL þ R
V 0 ðsÞ 2R 2R
H 0 ðsÞ ¼ 00 ¼ ¼
Vi ðsÞ s2 ð2RÞð2LÞðC=2Þ þ sð2LÞ þ 2R s2 RLC þ 2sL þ 2R
2R R
H 0 ðsÞ ¼ ¼
2ðs2 RLC þ sL þ RÞ s2 RLC þ sL þ R
4R R
(c) H 00 ðsÞ ¼ ¼
s2 ð4RÞð4LÞðL=4Þ s2 RLC þ sL þ R
In conclusion, if L′ = aL, C′ = C/a, R′ = aR, voltage transfer function
(VTF) does not change. This is due to impedance (magnitude) scaling.
522 7 Laplace Transform Methods
Solution
10 A B C
(a) Y ðsÞ ¼ H ðsÞ X ðsÞ ¼ ¼ þ þ
sðs þ 1Þðs þ 10Þ s s þ 1 s þ 10
by partial fractions expansion,
10 1
A ¼ 1; B¼ ; C¼ ;
9 9
1 10 t 1 10t
yðtÞ ¼ L ½Y ðsÞ ¼ 1 e þ e uðtÞ
9 9
A0 ¼ 1; B0 ¼ 1;
1 1
Y 0 ðsÞ ¼
s sþ1
y0 ðtÞ ¼ L1 ½Y 0 ðsÞ ¼ ½1 et uðtÞ
Problem 7.6.2
(a) Find a simplified transfer function of H(s), (root_poly.m)
1000
H ðsÞ ¼
s3 þ 61s2 þ 560s þ 500
7.6 TF Approximation (Reducing the Order of a Transfer Function) 523
(b) Plot step responses of both transfer functions (dominant_pole0.m). Print the
script of m-file for this plot.
Solution
1000 1000
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
þ 560s þ 500 ðs þ 1Þðs þ 10Þðs þ 50Þ
s3 þ 61s2
First step is to find dominant pole of TF. The pole closest to the imaginary axis
in the s-plane is selected as dominant pole. In this case, the pole at s = −1 is
dominant pole, as it dominates the step response of H(s).
Second step is to determine dc gain of Z(s). The rule is to ignore the
s-dependence of the insignificant poles, but keep the constant part to maintain the
correct steady-state response.
Therefore, approximate transfer function of H(s) is
1000 1000
H ðsÞ0 ¼ ¼
ðs þ 1Þð0 þ 10Þð0 þ 50Þ ðs þ 1Þ 10 50
2
H ðsÞ0 ¼
ðs þ 1Þ
In summary, when pd 10p2 , (where p2 is the next largest pole of t.f. while pd is
dominant pole), transfer function exhibits dominant first-order behavior. The
approximate lower order transfer function is
Step response
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
y(t), V
0.8
0.6
0.4
3rd order tf
0.2 1st order tf
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
time,s
Fig. 7.61 Step responses of first and third-order transfer functions for Problem 7.6.2
524 7 Laplace Transform Methods
K
0 p2 p3
H ðsÞ ¼
ðs þ pÞ
The script of m-file for the plots of step responses of both transfer functions as
shown in Fig. 7.61 is given below
400
H ðsÞ ¼
s3 þ 25s2 þ 424s þ 400
Solution
400 400
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
s3 þ 25s2 þ 424s þ 400 ðs þ 1Þðs2 þ 24s þ 400Þ
First step is to find dominant pole of TF. The pole closest to the imaginary axis
in the s-plane is selected as dominant pole.
Since given transfer function is of the form
K
H ðsÞ ¼ ;
ðs þ pÞðs2 þ 2fxn s þ x2n Þ
This means that fxn p, in this case, the pole at s = −1 is the dominant pole.
Second step is to determine dc gain of H(s). The rule is to drop the s-dependence
of the insignificant pole, but keep the constant part to maintain the correct
steady-state response.
Therefore, approximate transfer function of H(s) is
400 1
H ðsÞ0 ¼ ¼
ðs þ 1Þð0 þ 0 þ 400Þ ðs þ 1Þ
K
x 2
H ðsÞ0 ¼ n
ðs þ pÞ
The script of m-file for the plots of step responses of both transfer functions
shown in Fig. 7.62 is given below
400
H ðsÞ ¼ ;
s3 þ 144s2 þ 3280s þ 48;000
Step response
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
y(t), V
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Fig. 7.62 Step responses of first- and third-order transfer functions of Problem 7.6.3
First step is to find dominant pole of transfer function. Since transfer function is
of the form
K
H ðsÞ ¼ ;
ðs þ pÞðs2 þ 2fxn s þ x2n Þ
This means that fxn p. In this case, the poles at s = (−12 ± j16) are domi-
nant poles, as they are much closer to imaginary axis of s-plane than the real pole.
Second step is to determine dc gain of H(s). The rule is to drop the s-dependence
of the insignificant pole, but keep the constant part to maintain the correct
steady-state response.
Therefore, approximate transfer function of H(s) is
400
H ðsÞ0 ¼
120ðs2 þ 24s þ 400Þ
Step response
0.01
0.009
0.008
0.007
0.006
y(t), V
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
3rd order tf
0.001
2nd order tf
0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
time,s
K
H ðsÞ0 ¼
p
s2 þ 2fxn s þ x2n
The script of m-file for the plots of step responses of both transfer functions as
shown in Fig. 7.63 is given below
Problem 7.6.5 The open-circuit (or zero-value) time constant (OCTC) method is
used to determine the approximate pole (3 dB frequency) of relatively large circuits
that contain many poles in their transfer functions [3, 4].
The dominant pole frequency of the original circuit is determined by the linear
frequency term in the denominator of its transfer function by summing the
528 7 Laplace Transform Methods
RC-products for each capacitor in the circuit, while the resistor R for a selected
capacitor is the resistance found by inserting a voltage source in place of that
capacitor, and removing all other capacitors from the circuit.
A fourth-order filter circuit displayed in Fig. 7.64 has voltage transfer function
(VTF)
Vo 1
¼ 4
Vi s þ 7s þ 15s2 þ 10s þ 1
3
Solution
(a) Approximate VTF is determined using OCTC rule.
Equivalent resistance values for each “time constant” are calculated as follows:
Set the input signal source to zero.
Select C1, replace it by Vx, remove all other capacitors from the circuit. The
resistance seen by the test voltage Vx is calculated as
Vx
Ra ¼ ¼ R1
Ix
Repeating this procedure for each capacitor in the circuit gives following
results:
Rb ¼ R1 þ R2 ; Rc ¼ R1 þ R2 þ R3 ; Rd ¼ R1 þ R2 þ R3 þ R4
s1 ¼ R a C 1 ; s2 ¼ R b C 2 ; s3 ¼ Rc C3 ; s4 ¼ Rd C4
s ¼ s1 þ s2 þ s3 þ s4
7.6 TF Approximation (Reducing the Order of a Transfer Function) 529
1 1
p¼ ¼
s s1 þ s2 þ s3 þ s4
s1 ¼ 1 X 1 F ¼ 1 s; s2 ¼ 2 X 1F ¼ 2 s; s3 ¼ 3 X 1 F ¼ 3 s
s4 ¼ 4 X 1 F ¼ 4 s
1 1
p¼ ¼ ¼ 0:1 rad s1
s 1þ2þ3þ4
Vo K
ffi
Vi s þ 0:1
K
1¼ ! K ¼ 0:1
0 þ 0:1
Vo 1 1
¼ ¼
Vi s4 þ 7s3 þ 15s2 þ 10s þ 1 ðs þ 3:5321Þðs þ 2:3473Þðs þ 1Þðs þ 0:1206Þ
1
¼ s
s
s
3:5321 2:3473 0:1206 1 þ 1þ ð1 þ sÞ 1 þ
3:5321 2:3473 0:1206
Vo 1
¼
Vi ð1 þ 0:2831sÞð1 þ 0:426sÞð1 þ sÞð1 þ 8:2919sÞ
s ¼ 0:2831 þ 0:426 þ 1 þ 8:2919 ¼ 10 s
0:1 1
HðsÞapp ¼ ¼
s þ 0:1 1 þ 10s
0:1 1
HðsÞapp ¼ ¼
s þ 0:1 1 þ ss
Vo 1 1
¼ ffi
Vi s4 þ 7s3 þ 15s2 þ 10s þ 1 10s þ 1
530 7 Laplace Transform Methods
Magnitude (dB)
-5
the frequency range around
the pole frequency of -10
0.1 rad/s. Red line shows the
first-order transfer function as -15
the approximation to
-20
fourth-order filter (blue line)
-25
0
Phase (deg)
-45
-90
-135
-180
10-2 10-1 100
Frequency (rad/s)
(c) Since
Vo 1 0:1
¼ ffi
Vi s4 þ 7s3 þ 15s2 þ 10s þ 1 s þ 0:1
Problem 7.6.6
(a) Determine approximate pole of the circuit shown in Fig. 7.66, using the OCTC
method.
(b) For the values of components in the circuit,
1
R1 ¼ R2 ¼ 1 X; R3 ¼ 2 X; R4 ¼ X; C1 ¼ 10 F; C2 ¼ 1 F;
2
k ¼ 0:5 S
s þ 0:1667
H ðsÞ ¼ 0:225
ðs þ 2:2355Þðs þ 0:0895Þ
Show that the filter is approximated by a first-order circuit with a time constant
equal to the sum of time constants associated with each pole of this filter.
Solution
(a) Set the input signal source to zero.
Select C1, replace it by Vx, remove all other capacitors from the circuit. See,
Fig. 7.67. The resistance seen by the test voltage Vx is calculated as
Vx ðR1 þ R2 Þ R3
Ra ¼ ¼
Ix R1 þ R2 þ R3
Vx ¼ V2 V3 ð7:18Þ
KCL at node 3
V3
Ix kV1 ¼0 ð7:19Þ
R4
R1
V1 ¼ V2 ð7:21Þ
R1 þ R2
R1
V3 ¼ R4 Ix k V2 R4 ð7:22Þ
R1 þ R2
(6) ! (2);
R1 R4
Vx ¼ V2 þ R4 Ix þ k V2 ð7:23Þ
R1 þ R2
R1 R4
¼ V2 1þk þ R4 Ix ð7:24Þ
R1 þ R2
7.6 TF Approximation (Reducing the Order of a Transfer Function) 533
s ¼ sa þ sb ¼ Ra C1 þ Rb C2
1 1
xc ¼ ¼
s Ra C1 þ Rb C2
(c) For the given component values, exact voltage transfer function of the circuit is
s þ 0:1667
H ðsÞ ¼ 0:225
ðs þ 2:2355Þðs þ 0:0895Þ
1 1
s¼ þ ¼ 0:4473 þ 11:1732 ¼ 11:621 s
2:2355 0:0895
This shows that time constant of the approximate circuit is equal to the sum of
time constants associated with each pole of given filter circuit (Small difference in
values may be due to truncation and round off errors).
534 7 Laplace Transform Methods
References
1. Mathie JR (2005) Second generation mixture theory equation for estimating intra-cellular water
using bioimpedance spectroscopy. J Appl Physiol 99:780–781
2. Jodal L (2010) Lecture notes on electrical theory behind the measurement of body fluids with
BIS, with applications to the measurement device 4200 Hydra BIS analyzer From Xitron
Technologies
3. Sedra AS, Smith KC (2004) Microelectronic circuits, 5th edn. New York, Oxford University
Press, pp 575–278
4. Salvatori S, Conte G (2009) On the SCTC-OCTC method for the analysis and design of
circuits. IEEE Trans Educ 52(3):318–326
Chapter 8
Network Synthesis
(d) s3 þ js þ 7
(e) s4 þ s2 þ 1;
(f) s2 þ s þ 1;
(g) s6 þ s5 þ 3s4 þ 2s3 þ 3s2 þ s þ 1
(h) ðs2 þ s þ 1Þðs þ 1Þ;
(i) s2 þ 1;
(j) s3 þ s;
(k) s4 þ 3s3 þ 4s2 þ 2s:
Solution
(a) Not Hurwitz, negative coefficient.
(b) Not Hurwitz, multiple roots on imaginary axis ð2 jÞ.
(c) Not Hurwitz, missing coefficient, roots in RH complex plane.
(d) Not Hurwitz, nonreal coefficient.
(e) Not HP, missing coefficient, roots in RH complex plane.
(f) Strictly Hurwitz (SHP), roots in left-hand complex plane.
(g) Not Hurwitz, multiple roots on imaginary axis ð2 jÞ.
(h) HP, product of two SHP.
(i) WHP, missing term, simple roots on imaginary axis.
(j) WHP, missing term, simple roots on imaginary axis.
(k) WHP, missing term, a simple root on imaginary axis (s = 0).
FðsÞ ¼ ðs j2Þ2 :
Solution
Using MATLAB script (hurwitz1.m), it is shown that P(s) has simple roots on
imaginary axis when 0 < k 6 and RH roots (not Hurwitz) if k 7.
Problem 8.1.4 Let ZðsÞ ¼ NðsÞ=DðsÞ be a lossless input impedance function
(containing inductors and capacitors, only), then pðsÞ ¼ NðsÞ þ DðsÞ is a HP. If a
lossless input impedance function is
s2 þ 2
ZðsÞ ¼ ; pðsÞ ¼ ?
ðs2 þ 1Þðs2 þ 3Þ
Solution
pðsÞ ¼ s2 þ 2 þ s2 þ 1 s2 þ 3 ¼ s2 þ 2 þ s4 þ 3s2 þ s2 þ 3 ¼ s4 þ 5s2 þ 5
which is a HP.
Problem 8.1.5 Let pðsÞ ¼ MðsÞ þ NðsÞ be a HP where MðsÞ and NðsÞ are,
respectively, the even and odd parts of pðsÞ. Then,
MðsÞ
ZðsÞ ¼
NðsÞ
MðsÞ 8s2 þ 1 1 1
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ 2s þ ¼ Ls þ :
NðsÞ 4s 4s Cs
ðs þ 2Þðs þ 4Þðs þ 5Þ
(e) GðsÞ ¼
ðs þ 3Þ3
sðs þ 4Þ
2
(f) GðsÞ ¼
s3
s4 þ s3 þ s2 þ s þ 1
(g) GðsÞ ¼
s4 þ s2 þ 1
s4 þ 8s3 þ 23s2 þ 28s þ 12
(h) GðsÞ ¼ 4
s þ 2s3 þ 3s2 þ 2s þ 1
1
(i) GðsÞ ¼ 2
3s þ s þ 12
s3 þ 4s2 þ 3s þ 12
(j) GðsÞ ¼
2:7s3 þ 3:1s2 þ 9:6s þ 1:1
sþ4
(k) GðsÞ ¼ 2
s þ 4s þ 0:25
sðs2 þ 4Þ
(l) GðsÞ ¼ 2
ðs þ 16Þðs2 þ 25Þ
s2 þ s 12
(m) GðsÞ ¼
32s2 þ 3s þ 9
sðs2 þ 4Þ
(n) GðsÞ ¼ 3
s þ 4s2 þ 3s þ 12
1
(o) GðsÞ ¼ 2 :
s þsþ1
Solution
1
(a) GðsÞ ¼
sþa
(i) Denominator polynomial is Hurwitz (HP),
(ii) Absolute difference between the orders of numerator and denominator
polynomials is 1,
1 a jx a
(iii) Re½GðjxÞ ¼ Re ¼ Re 2 ¼ 2 [ 0:
jx þ a x þa 2 x þ a2
(For all angular frequencies between 0 and 1)
Therefore, GðsÞ is PR.
s2
(b) GðsÞ ¼ 2
s þsþ1
Because of multiple zeros on the imaginary axis, G(s) is not a PRF.
1
(c) GðsÞ ¼
s
(i) Denominator polynomial is weak (modified) hurwitz,
(ii) Absolute difference between the orders of numerator and denominator
polynomials is 1,
8.1 Positive Real Functions, Hurwitz Polynomials 539
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
w
Fig. 8.1 The graph of the real part of the function in Problem 8.1.6d
(w 6 + 34 w 4 + 369 w 2 + 1080)/(w 2 + 9) 3
1.5
1.45
1.4
1.35
1.3
1.25
1.2
1.15
1.1
1.05
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
w
Fig. 8.2 The graph of the real part of the function in Problem 8.1.6e
(w 8 - 10 w 6 + 10 w 4 - 3 w 2 + 12)/(w 4 - w 2 + 1) 2
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
w
Fig. 8.3 The graph of the real part of the function in Problem 8.1.6h
1
(i) GðsÞ ¼
3s2 þ s þ 12
(i) Denominator polynomial is HP,
(ii) Absolute difference between the orders of numerator and denominator
polynomials is 2. GðsÞ is not a PRF.
s3 þ 4s2 þ 3s þ 12
(j) GðsÞ ¼
2:7s3 þ 3:1s2 þ 9:6s þ 1:1
(i) Both numerator and denominator polynomials are HP,
(ii) Absolute difference between the orders of numerator and denominator
polynomials is 0,
10ðx2 3Þð27x4 þ 28x2 44Þ
(iii) Re½GðjxÞ ¼ :
729x6 4223x4 þ 8534x2 þ 121
However, Re½GðjxÞ 0 condition is not satisfied at all angular frequencies.
Figure 8.4 shows the graph of Re½GðjxÞ; 0\x\10 rad=s, GðsÞ is not a PRF.
sþ4
(k) GðsÞ ¼ 2
s þ 4s þ 0:25
(i) Both numerator and denominator polynomials are HP,
(ii) Absolute difference between the orders of numerator and denominator
polynomials is 1,
542 8 Network Synthesis
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
w
Fig. 8.4 The graph of the real part of the function in Problem 8.1.6j
16
(iii) Re½GðjxÞ ¼ [ 0; 8x½0; 1Þ:
16x4 þ 248x2 þ 1
Therefore, GðsÞ is a PRF.
sðs2 þ 4Þ
(l) GðsÞ ¼ 2
ðs þ 16Þðs2 þ 25Þ
(i) Both numerator and denominator polynomials are HP,
(ii) Absolute difference between the orders of numerator and denominator
polynomials is 1,
(iii) Re½GðjxÞ ¼ 0; 8x½0; 1Þ, Therefore, GðsÞ is a PRF.
s2 þ s 12
(m) GðsÞ ¼
32s2 þ 3s þ 9
Since there is a negative coefficient in numerator polynomial, G(s) is not PRF.
sðs2 þ 4Þ
(n) GðsÞ ¼ 3
s þ 4s2 þ 3s þ 12
(i) Both numerator and denominator polynomials are HP,
(ii) Absolute difference between the orders of numerator and denominator
polynomials is 0,
x2 ðx2 4Þ
(iii) Re½GðjxÞ ¼ 2 :
ðx þ 16Þðx2 3Þ
pffiffiffi
Re½GðjxÞ 0 for 3 x 2; Therefore, GðsÞ is not a PRF.
8.1 Positive Real Functions, Hurwitz Polynomials 543
1
(o) GðsÞ ¼
s2 þ s þ 1
(i) Dominator is HP,
(ii) Absolute difference between the orders of numerator and denominator
polynomials is 2, therefore, GðjxÞ is not PR.
Problem 8.1.7 A complex function FðsÞ with positive and real coefficients,
as2 þ bs þ c
FðsÞ ¼
ds3 þ es2 þ fs
s2 þ 2s þ 5
FðsÞ ¼ :
s3 þ 4s2 þ fs
2f 5 4 ¼ 2f 20 0 ð8:1Þ
1 4 2 1 ¼ 4 2 0 ðchecksÞ ð8:2Þ
1 f 5 1 ¼ f 5 0: ð8:3Þ
f 10 and f 5:
s2 þ 2s þ 5 2x2
FðsÞ ¼ ; Re½FðjxÞ ¼ :
s3 þ 4s2 þ 10s x4 4x2 þ 100
(2 w 2)/(w 4 - 4 w 2 + 100)
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
w
Fig. 8.5 The graph of the real part of the function in Problem 8.1.7
Solution
(a) Poles: 0, (−2), (−3 + j1), (−3 − j1), zeros: 0, −1, +2
(b) F(s) cannot be a driving point impedance function (consisting of real passive
elements), since it contains a zero on the right half of s-plane.
as2 þ bs þ c
ZðsÞ ¼ :
ds2 þ es þ f
Note that this circuit consists of four components with two energy-storing ele-
ments. A reduction of component count can be established using a resistor in series
with an LC tank circuit (Fig. 8.7b).
This new circuit has the input impedance function of
LCRs2 þ Ls þ R
ZðsÞ ¼ :
CLs2 þ 1
sþa n
FðsÞ ¼ : ð8:5Þ
sþb
j a bj p
tan1 pffiffiffiffiffi : ð8:6Þ
2 ab 2n
Solution
(a) The conditions under which the phase function of FðjxÞ satisfies
p
juðxÞj ð8:7Þ
2
1 ja bj
umax ðxÞ ¼ n tan pffiffiffiffiffi ð8:9Þ
2 ab
and
1 j2 1j p 1 1 p p
tan pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ! tan pffiffiffi ! n pffiffi
2 12 2n 2 2 2n 2 tan1 2
4
p
n ¼ 4:6222:
2 0:339837
1 1 p p
tan pffiffiffiffiffi ! n
2 90 2n 1
2 tan1 pffiffiffiffiffi
2 90
p
n ¼ 29:8038:
0:052656
a0 s 2 þ a1 s þ 1 pðsÞ
YðsÞ ¼ k ¼ ð8:11Þ
sðb0 s þ b1 s þ 1Þ qðsÞ
2
a1 ða0 b0 Þ b0 a0 b0 ka20
R1 ¼ ; L1 ¼ ; L2 ¼ ; C1 ¼ :
ka20 ka0 ka0 a0 b0
Solution
(a) a0 ¼ 3; a1 ¼ 1; b0 ¼ 2; b1 ¼ 1, Y(s) is PRF.
Rk ¼ ð3 2Þ2 ð3 1 1 2Þð1 1Þ ¼ 1 [ 0:
ð1Þð3 2Þ 1 2 2 32 1
R1 ¼ ¼ X; L1 ¼ ¼ H; L2 ¼ ¼ H;
ð1Þð3Þ 2 9 ð3Þð1Þ 3 ð3Þð1Þ 3
1ð3Þ2
C1 ¼ ¼ 9 F:
32
Rk ¼ ð3 2Þ2 ð3 2 3 2Þð3 2Þ ¼ 1 [ 0:
1 b1 1 a1
a0 ! ; a1 ! ; b0 ! ; b1 !
b0 b0 a0 a0
b1 1 1
b0 b0 a0 b1 ða0 b0 Þ 2ð3 2Þ 2
R1 ¼ 2 ¼ ¼ ¼ X;
1 ka0 ð3Þð1Þ 3
k b0
b0 2 2 a0 b0 1
L1 ¼ ¼ ¼ H; L2 ¼ ¼ H;
ka0 ð1Þð3Þ 3 ka0 3
2
1
k
b0 ka0 ð1Þð3Þ 3
C1 ¼
¼ ¼ ¼ F:
1 1 b0 ða0 b0 Þ ð2Þð3 2Þ 2
b0 a0
Therefore,
s4 þ 20s2 þ 64
ZðsÞ ¼ :
s5 þ 34s3 þ 225s
Solution
s4 þ 20s2 þ 64 s4 þ 20s2 þ 64
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼
sðs4 þ 34s2 þ 225Þ sðs2 þ 9Þðs2 þ 25Þ
ZðsÞ A B C
¼ þ þ
s p ðp þ 9Þ ðp þ 25Þ
A ¼ 0:2844; B ¼ 0:2431; C ¼ 0:4725 ðpartial fraction expansion.Þ
1 1 1 1
C0 ¼ ¼ ¼ 3:5162 F; C2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 4:1135 F
k0 0:2844 k2 0:2431
1 1
C4 ¼ ¼ ¼ 2:1164 F;
k4 0:4725
k2 0:2431 k4 0:4725
L2 ¼ 2 ¼ ¼ 0:0270 H; L4 ¼ 2 ¼ ¼ 0:0189 H:
x2 9 x4 25
Problem 8.2.3
(a) Perform manual continuous fraction expansion (CFE) on FðsÞ,
s5 þ 20s3 þ 64s
FðsÞ ¼ :
s4 þ 10s2 þ 9
Solution
(a) Manual continuous fraction expansion on FðsÞ,
2s þ9
9 2
10s3 þ 55s = 92 s2 þ 9
10s3 20s 20
9 s
35s
9 2
s þ9 =35s
2
9
s2 9
70 s
2
9
35s =9
35s 35
9 s
0
1
FðsÞ ¼ s þ :
1 1
sþ
10 20 1
sþ
9 9 1
sþ
70 35
s
9
8.2 LC Driving Point Impedance (DPI) 553
%cfe.m
%Continuous fraction expansion (division method)
clear; clc; format rational;
%F=B/A is given rational function
%[q,r]=deconv(B,A) is main equation of this script
%Warning:First coefficient of A must be non-zero.
B=[1 0 20 0 64 0]; A=[1 0 10 0 9 ];
F=tf(B,A)% Given rational function
x{1}=B;
x{2}=A;
for i=1:size(B,2)-1
[tmp1,tmp2]=deconv(x{i},x{i+1});
loc=find(tmp2~=0);
q{i}=tmp1(1);%quotients
x{i+2}=tmp2(min(loc):end);
end
q=cell2mat(q)'
Problem 8.2.4
(a) Use Cauer’s first form to realize LC DPI impedance,
s4 þ 20s2 þ 64
ZðsÞ ¼ :
s5 þ 34s3 þ 225s
Solution
Since the order of denominator polynomial of ZðsÞ is higher than the order of
numerator polynomial, procedure starts by inverting ZðsÞ;
1 s5 þ 34s3 þ 225s
YðsÞ ¼ ¼ 4 :
ZðsÞ s þ 20s2 þ 64
1
YðsÞ ¼ 1s þ :
1 1
sþ
14 28 1
sþ
17 289 1
sþ
1890 945
s
1088
554 8 Network Synthesis
1 28 289 945
C1 ¼ 1 F; L2 ¼ H; C3 ¼ F; L4 ¼ H; C5 ¼ F:
14 17 1890 1088
Synthesized LC DPI circuit and its magnitude and phase response are shown in
Figs. 8.11 and 8.12.
A MATLAB script used for the solution of this problem is (cauer1_LC1.m):
Bode Diagram
200
100
Magnitude (dB)
-100
-200
0
-180
Phase (deg)
-360
-540
-720
0 1
10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
%cauer1_LC1.m
%Cauer 1 LC DP function realization
%Given: Z(s)=p(s)/q(s). If the order of p(s)<q(s), then N=q(s),D=p(s)
%In this case first element is a shunt Capacitor
%If the order of p(s)>q(s), then N=p(s),D=q(s)
%In this case, first element is a series inductor
%Enter polynomials without typing their zero coefficients
%Last enty must be 0
%Example: s4+3s2+12 [1 3 12 0] (not [1 0 3 0 12])
clc;clear all;%format short
format rat
p=[1 0 34 0 225 ]; q=[1 0 20 0 64 0];
N=[ 1 34 225 0 ]; D=[ 1 20 64 0 ];
Z = tf(p,q) %original Z
A = [N;D]
m=size(A,2);
% Continuous Fraction Expansion (matrix method)
for i = 3:m+3
for j = 1:m-1
B = A(i-2,j+1)*A(i-1,1);
C = A(i-2,1) *A(i-1,j+1);
A(i,j) = (B-C)/A(i-1,1);
end
end
n=size(A,1);
for i = 1:n-1
Q(1,i) = A(i,1)/A(i+1,1);
end
Q=Q';
if(Q(end)>1e12)
Q(end)=[];
end
Q
bode(Z,{1,10});grid on;
Solution
(a) The general circuit topology can be drawn as shown in Fig. 8.13b.
Converting Y circuit of Z1 ; Z2 ; Z3 into D circuit,
556 8 Network Synthesis
(a) (b)
Bode Diagram
(c) 150
100
Magnitude (dB)
50
-50
720
540
Phase (deg)
360
180
-180
0 1
10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Z1 Z2 þ Z2 Z3 þ Z3 Z1
Za ¼
Z1
Z1 Z2 þ Z2 Z3 þ Z3 Z1
Zb ¼
Z2
Z1 Z2 þ Z2 Z3 þ Z3 Z1
Zc ¼
Z3
Z4 Zc
Zd ¼ Z4 jj Zc ¼
Z4 þ Zc
Z 5 Zb
Ze ¼ Z5 jj Zb ¼
Z5 þ Zb
Z 6 Za ðZe þ Zf Þ Zd
Zf ¼ Z6 jj Za ¼ ; Z ¼ ðZe þ Zf Þ jj Zd ¼
Z6 þ Za Ze þ Zf þ Zd :
MATLAB script for the solution of part (a) of this problem is given below.
%Z_symbolic1.m
clc;clear all;
syms s
L1=1; L2=2; L6=1; C4=2; C5=1/2;%C3=1;
C3=inf;
Z1=s*L1; Z2=s*L2; Z3=1/(s*C3); Z6=s*L6; Z5=1/(s*C5); Z4=1/(s*C4);
Za=(Z1*Z2+Z2*Z3+Z3*Z1)/Z1; Zb=(Z1*Z2+Z2*Z3+Z3*Z1)/Z1;
Zc=(Z1*Z2+Z2*Z3+Z3*Z1)/Z1;
Zd=Z4*Zc/(Z4+Zc); Ze=Z5*Zb/(Z5+Zb); Zf=Z6*Za/(Z6+Za);
Z=(Ze+Zf)*Zd/(Ze+Zf+Zd); Z=collect(Z,s)
(b) Applying continued fraction expansion on ZðsÞ, and using (cfe.m) MATLAB
script (or cauer1_LC.m);
1
YðsÞ ¼ 2s þ :
1 1
sþ
2 2 1
sþ
3 4 1
sþ
3 2 1
sþ
5 25 1
sþ
2 1
s
10
Since denominator of ZðsÞ has higher degree than its numerator, first element
is a shunt capacitor. Cauer’s equivalent circuit is given in Fig. 8.14, with
component values of
558 8 Network Synthesis
1 2 4 2 25
C1 ¼ 2 F; L2 ¼ H; C3 ¼ F; L4 ¼ H; C5 ¼ F; L6 ¼ H;
2 3 3 5 2
1
C7 ¼ F:
10
Note that these component values are different than those given in the statement
of problem.
Cauer’s equivalent circuit contains seven components, while original circuit has
six reactive components.
(c) If the capacitor C3 ¼ 1; Z3 ðsÞ ¼ 0, entering C3 ¼ inf in the MATLAB script
Z_symbolic1.m, results in new form of ZðsÞ as
2s3 þ 8s
ZðsÞ ¼ :
4s2 þ 20s2 þ 7
Since denominator polynomial of ZðsÞ has higher order than its numerator, first
element is a shunt capacitor:
1 8 9
C1 ¼ 2 F; L2 ¼ H; C3 ¼ F; L4 ¼ H:
2 9 14
Cauer’s first form of ZðsÞ is shown in Fig. 8.15. It is noted that the values of
first two reactances of Cauer’s first form equivalent circuits remain the same.
Problem 8.2.6 For the lossless bridge configuration shown in Fig. 8.16,
(a) Determine the number of possible combinations of L’s and C’s.
(b) Find out the largest possible numerator to denominator orders of input impe-
dance, ZðsÞ ¼ Pm ðsÞ=Qn ðsÞ:
8.2 LC Driving Point Impedance (DPI) 559
(c) Select a configuration with a ratio of the largest denominator order of ZðsÞ; and
determine its continuous fraction expansion.
(d) Draw Cauer’s first form equivalent circuit of ZðsÞ.
(e) Plot magnitude and phase response of lossless input impedance (Z_symbolic3.m).
(f) If lossless circuit is source terminated by Rs = 1 X, determine the new input
impedance of the network, Zs(s), and poles and zeros of this function.
(g) Plot magnitude and phase response of Zs(s) as obtained (in part (f)), above.
Solution
(a) The number of combination of lossless bridge circuits is 25 ¼ 32:
(b) A MATLAB study (using Z_symbolic3.m) shows that largest possible orders
for Z(s) are P4 ðsÞ=Q5 ðsÞ and P5 ðsÞ=Q4 ðsÞ:
(c) Let the selection of capacitors be in place of Z1 ðsÞ; Z3 ðsÞ; Z5 ðsÞ and inductors
for Z2 ðsÞ and Z4 ðsÞ ðC1 ¼ 1 F; L2 ¼ 2 H; C3 ¼ 3 F; L4 ¼ 4 H; C5 ¼ 5 FÞ
184s4 þ 32s2 þ 1
ZðsÞ ¼ :
120s5 þ 96s3 þ 9s
(e) Magnitude and phase response of lossless ZðsÞ is shown in Fig. 8.18.
(f) If lossless circuit is source terminated by Rs = 1 X, the new input impedance of
the network is Zs(s) = Z(s) + Rs, or
Bode Diagram
50
0
Magnitude (dB)
-50
-100
-150
270
180
Phase (deg)
90
-90
-1 0
10 10
Frequency (rad/s)
(g) Magnitude and phase responses of Zs(s) = Z(s) + Rs are shown in Fig. 8.19.
%Z_symbolic3.m
%Equivalent resistance of an unbalanced bridge
clc;clear all;
syms s
L1=1; L2=2; L3=3; L4=4; L5=5; C1=1; C2=2; C3=3; C4=4; C5=5;
Z1=1/(s*C1);Z3=1/(s*C3);Z2=s*L2;Z5=1/(s*C5);Z4=s*L4;
Za=(Z3*Z5+Z2*Z3+Z2*Z5)/Z5; Zb=(Z3*Z5+Z2*Z3+Z2*Z5)/Z2;
Zc=(Z3*Z5+Z2*Z3+Z2*Z5)/Z3;
Zd=Z1*Za/(Z1+Za); Ze=Z4*Zb/(Z4+Zb); Zf=Zd+Ze; ZZ=Zf*Zc/(Zc+Zf);
factor(ZZ)
N=sym2poly(184*s^4 + 32*s^2 + 1);
D=sym2poly(3*s*(40*s^4 + 32*s^2 + 3));
%Continuous fraction expansion (division method)
format rational;
B=D; A=N;%order of B>order of A for cfe
F=tf(B,A); x{1}=B; x{2}=A;
for i=1:size(B,2)-1
[tmp1,tmp2]=deconv(x{i},x{i+1});
loc=find(tmp2~=0);
q{i}=tmp1(1);%quotients
x{i+2}=tmp2(min(loc):end);
end
q=cell2mat(q)'
Z=tf(N,D)
bode(Z,{.1,1});grid on;figure; Zs=Rs+Z
bode(Zs,{.1,1});grid on;format short
zero(Zs)
pole(Zs)
pzmap(Zs);
Bode Diagram
400
300
Magnitude (dB)
200
100
0
90
45
Phase (deg)
-45
-90
-1 0
10 10
Frequency (rad/s)
1
ZLC ðsÞ ¼ s þ :
1 1
sþ
4 8 1
sþ
5 5 1
sþ
12 4 1
sþ
5 5 1
sþ
4 8 1
sþ
35 34 1
sþ
4 1
s
35
Since numerator of ZLC ðsÞ has a higher degree of than its denominator, first
element of Cauer’s first form ladder circuit is an inductor.
8.2 LC Driving Point Impedance (DPI) 563
1 8 5 4
L1 ¼ 1 H; C2 ¼ F; L3 ¼ H; C4 ¼ F; L5 ¼ H;
4 5 12 5
5 8 34 1
C6 ¼ F; L7 ¼ H; C8 ¼ F; L9 ¼ H:
4 35 4 35
Yn
ðs þ r2i Þ
ZðsÞ ¼ r2i1 \r2i for each i
i¼1
ðs þ r2i1 Þ
Note that there are other realizations, namely Foster 2 and Cauer 2 circuits [2, 3];
however, they are not included in this figure.
Foster form realizations of a general nth degree RC driving point impedance
function Z(s) involves partial fractions expansion of Z(s) rational function. Cauer’s
synthesis is performed by continued fractions of the same function.
Transformations between these equivalent forms are also possible [4–6].
Foster 1 form for the synthesis of RC driving point impedance functions (DPIFs)
can be described as follows:
If Z(s) = N(s)/D(s) is an RC DPIF, then
an sn þ an1 sn1 þ þ a1 s þ a0 kR X n
ki
ZRC ðsÞ ¼ ¼ k R þ þ ;
bn sn þ bn1 sn1 þ þ b1 s þ b0 s i
s þ ri
where
1 1 ki
kC ¼ ; kR ¼ R; ki ¼ ; Ri ¼ :
C Ci ri
an sn þ an1 sn1 þ þ a1 s þ a0 1
ZRC ðsÞ ¼ ¼ Y1 þ :
bn sn þ bn1 sn1 þ þ b1 s þ b0 1
Z2 þ
1
Y3 þ
1
Z4 þ
Yn
a1 b1 a0 b2
RT min ¼ ; ZRC ðsÞ ¼ 1
b21
a0
RT min ¼ ; ZRC ðsÞ\1:
b0
Problem 8.3.2 In the circuits shown in Fig. 8.22,
VðsÞ
(a) Z 1 ðsÞ ¼ ¼? ðR1 ¼ 1 X; C 1 ¼ 10 FÞ
IðsÞ
VðsÞ
(b) Z 2 ðsÞ ¼ ¼? ðR1 ¼ 1 X; C 1 ¼ 10 F; R2 ¼ 1 X; C2 ¼ 1 FÞ:
IðsÞ
8.3 RC Driving Point Impedance 565
Solution
1
VðsÞ R1 R1 0:1
C1
(a) Z1 ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼
¼ ¼
IðsÞ sR1 C1 þ 1 1 1 s þ 0:1
R1 C1 s þ sþ
R1 C1 R1 C1
VðsÞ R1 R2 R1 R2 C2 s þ R1 þ R1 R2 C2 s þ R2
(b) Z2 ðsÞ ¼ ¼ þ ¼
IðsÞ sR1 C1 þ 1 sR2 C2 þ 1 ðsR1 C1 þ 1ÞðsR2 C2 þ 1Þ
R1 þ R2
R1 R2 sðC1 þ C2 Þ þ
sR1 R2 ðC1 þ C2 Þ þ ðR1 þ R2 Þ R R
Z2 ðsÞ ¼
¼
1 2
1 1 1 1
R1 C1 s þ R2 C2 s þ R1 R2 C1 C2 s þ sþ
R1 C 1 R2 C 2 R1 C1 R2 C2
R1 þ R2 R1 þ R2
sðC1 þ C2 Þ þ ðC1 þ C2 Þ s þ
R 1 2 ðC1 þ C2 Þ
R
¼
R1 R2
¼
1 1 1 1
C1 C2 s þ sþ C1 C2 s þ sþ
R1 C1 R2 C2 R1 C1 R2 C2
sðC1 R1 R2 þ C2 R1 R2 Þ þ ðR1 þ R2 Þ
Z2 ðsÞ ¼ ; C1 ¼ 10 F; C2 ¼ 1 F; R1 ¼ R2 ¼ 1 X
s2 ðC1 C2 R1 R2 Þ þ sðR1 C1 þ R2 C2 Þ þ 1
6. All of the residues of the poles of Z(s) are real and positive numbers,
7. Z(∞) ˂ Z(0).
Following Z(s) are not RC DPI functions. State the basic reason for each transfer
function (Foster11.m).
s2 þ 1:5s þ 0:5
(a) ZðsÞ ¼ ;
s3 þ 8s2 þ 15s
s þ 2:5s þ 1
2
(b) ZðsÞ ¼ ;
s2 þ 1
s2 þ 3s þ 2
(c) ZðsÞ ¼ ;
s þ 0:5
s2 þ 5s þ 4
(d) ZðsÞ ¼ 2 ;
s 6s
s3 þ 11s2 þ 26s þ 16
(e) ZðsÞ ¼ 3 ;
s þ 7:5s2 þ 15:5s þ 6
s2 þ 3s þ 2
(f) ZðsÞ ¼ ;
s3 þ s
sþ3
(g) Z ðsÞ ¼ 3 ;
s þ 8s2 þ 16s
s2 þ 4s þ 3
(h) ZðsÞ ¼ 4 :
s þ 11s3 þ 38s2 þ 40s
Solution
s2 þ 1:5s þ 0:5 ðs þ 0:5Þðs þ 1Þ
(a) ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ ; noninterlaced roots
s3 þ 8s2 þ 15s sðs þ 3Þðs þ 5Þ
s2 þ 2:5s þ 1 ðs þ 0:5Þðs þ 2Þ
(b) ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ ; complex roots in DðsÞ
s2 þ 1 ðs þ iÞðs iÞ
s2 þ 3s þ 2 ðs þ 2Þðs þ 1Þ
(c) ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ ; Num. order [ Denom. order
s þ 0:5 s þ 0:5
s2 þ 5s þ 4 ðs þ 1Þðs þ 4Þ
(d) ZðsÞ ¼ 2 ¼ ; root in right hand s-plane
s 6s sðs 6Þ
s3 þ 11s2 þ 26s þ 16
(e) ZðsÞ ¼ 3
s þ 7:5s2 þ 15:5s þ 6
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 2Þðs þ 8Þ
ZðsÞ ¼ ; noninterlaced roots
ðs þ 0:5Þðs þ 3Þðs þ 4Þ
s2 þ 3s þ 2 ðs þ 2Þðs þ 1Þ
(f) ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ ; complex roots in DðsÞ
s3 þ s sðs2 þ 1Þ
sþ3 sþ3
(g) ZðsÞ ¼ 3 ¼ ; noninterlaced multiple roots
s þ 8s2 þ 16s sðs þ 4Þ2
s2 þ 4s þ 3 ðs þ 1Þðs þ 3Þ
(h) ZðsÞ ¼ 4 ¼ ; noninterlaced roots:
s þ 11s3 þ 38s2 þ 40s sðs þ 2Þðs þ 4Þðs þ 5Þ
8.3 RC Driving Point Impedance 567
ðs þ 2Þðs þ 4Þ
ZðsÞ ¼
sðs þ 3Þðs þ 5Þ
Solution
(a) jZðjx ¼ 1Þj ¼ 0, because the (order of num) < (order of denum).
(b) Since the poles and zeros of Z(s) are interlaced in alternating
(p ! z ! p ! z) order, and all poles and zeros are real numbers located in left
half of s-plane, this is an RC driving point impedance circuit.
(c) Using PFE,
ðs þ 2Þðs þ 4Þ A B C
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ þ þ
sðs þ 3Þðs þ 5Þ s sþ3 sþ5
ðs þ 2Þðs þ 4Þ ð2Þð4Þ 8
s¼0: A¼ ¼ ¼
ðs þ 3Þðs þ 5Þ ð3Þð5Þ 15
ðs þ 2Þðs þ 4Þ ð1Þð1Þ 1
s ¼ 3 : B¼ ¼ ¼
s ð s þ 5Þ ð3Þð2Þ 6
ðs þ 2Þðs þ 4Þ ð3Þð1Þ 3
s ¼ 5 : C¼ ¼ ¼
s ð s þ 3Þ ð5Þð2Þ 10
8 1 3
ZðsÞ ¼ 15 þ 6 þ 10 : ð8:13Þ
s sþ3 sþ5
It is further verified that Z(s) is an RC transfer function, since all residues are real
and positive.
First term in the right side of (8.13) is
1 1 15
¼
! C¼ F:
sC 15 8
s
8
1 1 1
R1
sC1 R1 C1
Z1 ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 6
1 sR1 C1 þ 1 1 sþ3
R1 þ sþ
sC1 R1 C1
1 1
¼ ! C1 ¼ 6 F
C1 6
1 1 1 1 1
¼ 3 ! R1 C1 ¼ ! R1 ¼ ¼ ¼ X:
R1 C1 3 3C1 3 6 18
1 3
C2 10
Z2 ¼ ¼
1 sþ5
sþ
R2 C2
1 3 10
¼ ! C2 ¼ F
C2 10 3
1 1 1 3
¼ 5 ! R2 ¼ ¼ ¼ X:
R2 C2 5 C2 10 50
5
3
kR X n
ki
ZðsÞ ¼ kR þ þ
s i
s þ ri
where
1 1 ki
kC ¼ ; kR ¼ R; ki ¼ ; Ri ¼ :
C Ci ri
Solution
sþ2 1 k1
(a) ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ 1þ ¼ Rþ (Fig. 8.25)
sþ1 sþ1 s þ ri
1 k1 1
C1 ¼ ¼ 1 F; R ¼ kR ¼ 1 X; R1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 X:
k1 r1 1
1 1 1 1 k1 0:5
C¼ ¼ ¼ 2 F; C1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 2 F; R1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:25 X:
kC 0:5 k1 0:5 r1 2
s2 þ 5s þ 4 ðs þ 1Þðs þ 4Þ 2 1
(c) ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ 1þ þ (Fig. 8.27)
s þ 2s
2 sðs þ 2Þ s sþ2
1 1 1 1
R ¼ 1 X; C¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 F; C1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 F;
kC 2 k1 1
k1 1
R1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 X:
r1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
C¼ ¼ ¼ 2:5 F; C1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 3 F; C2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 3:75 F;
kC 0:4 k1 0:3333 k2 0:2667
k1 0:3333 k2 0:2667
R1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:1667 X; R2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:0533 X:
r1 2 r2 5
8.3 RC Driving Point Impedance 571
1:7857 2 1:7143
Z ðsÞ ¼ 1 þ þ þ
s þ 0:5 s þ 2 sþ4
1 1 1 1
R ¼ 1 X; C1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:56 F; C2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 F;
k1 1:7857 k2 2
1 1
C3 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5833 F;
k3 1:7143
k1 1:7857 k2 2 k3 1:7143
R1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 3:5714 X; R2 ¼ ¼ ¼ 1 X; R3 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:4286 X:
r1 0:5 r2 2 r3 4
Following is a MATLAB script file for checking the RC DPI function realiz-
ability conditions for a given Z(s). Then, it is synthesized if Z(s) is an RC DPI
function (Foster11.m).
572 8 Network Synthesis
R0 = 1
R = 0.5000 -Inf
C = 1.0000 0.5000
Problem 8.3.6 Determine the sum of exponential rising voltages from the given
sum of exponential decaying voltages of the form, vðtÞ ¼ 0:5et 0:1e5t þ 0:6.
Solution
Problem 8.3.7 Determine v(t) for a unit step current response of a driving point
impedance with n parallel RC sections. Then, determine the equation of “transient
impedance”, z(t) (Fig. 8.30).
Solution
For a single section,
0 1 0 1
B1 1C B1 1 C
VðsÞ ¼ R@ ¼ R@ ; s ¼ RC
s 1A s 1A
sþ sþ
RC s
VðtÞ ¼ L1 ½VðsÞ ¼ Rð1 et=s Þ:
0 t1
X
n
vðtÞ ¼ Ri @1 e si A ðVÞ:
i¼1
t t
s
zðtÞ ¼ R1 R1 e 1 þ R2 R2 e 2s
0 t t1
zðtÞ ¼ ðR1 þ R2 Þ @R1 e s1 þ R2 e s2 A:
576 8 Network Synthesis
For n RC sections,
0 t t t1
zðtÞ ¼ ðR1 þ R2 þ Rn Þ @R1 e s1 þ R2 e s2 þ Rn e sn A
t
X
n X
n
zðtÞ ¼ ðRi Þ R i e si
i¼1 i¼1
t
X
n
zðtÞ ¼ s
Ri ð1 e i Þ
i¼1
Problem 8.3.8 Plot magnitude and phase angle as functions of angular frequency
(on the same graph) for the following RC driving point impedances, and then
synthesize them using Foster 1 form.
1
(a) ZðsÞ ¼ ;
s þ 0:1
s þ 1:1
(b) ZðsÞ ¼ ;
s þ 0:1
2ðs þ 0:05Þ
(c) ZðsÞ ¼
sðs þ 0:1Þ
ðs þ 2:05Þðs þ 0:05Þ
(d) ZðsÞ ¼ :
sðs þ 0:1Þ
Solution
Using MATLAB script files (Foster11.m), (Mag_phase_fom_TF1.m);
(a) R1 = 10 X, C1 = 1 F (Figs. 8.32 and 8.33)
(b) R = 1 X, R1 = 10 X, C1 = 1 F (Figs. 8.34 and 8.35)
(c) C = 1 F, R1 = 10 X, C1 = 1 F (Figs. 8.36 and 8.37)
(d) R = 1 X, R1 = 10 X, C1 = 1 F, C = 1 F (Figs. 8.38 and 8.39).
10 0
8 -20
Phase, degree
6 -40
Magnitude
4 -60
2 -80
0 -100
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
w rad/sec
12 0
10 -10
8 -20
Phase, degree
Magnitude
6 -30
4 -40
2 -50
0 -60
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
w rad/sec
Fig. 8.35 Magnitude and phase response plots for Problem 8.3.8b
578 8 Network Synthesis
s3 þ 6s2 þ 10s þ 4
ZðsÞ ¼ :
s4 þ 7s3 þ 15s2 þ 10s þ 1
200 -70
Phase, degree
Magnitude
100 -80
0 -90
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
w rad/sec
Fig. 8.37 Magnitude and phase response plots for Problem 8.3.8c
200 0
Phase, degree
Magnitude
100 -50
0 -100
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
w rad/sec
Fig. 8.39 Magnitude and phase response plots for Problem 8.3.8c
580 8 Network Synthesis
Bode Diagram
20
10
Magnitude (dB) 0
-10
-20
-30
-40
0
Phase (deg)
-45
-90
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Solution
ðs þ 3:4142Þðs þ 2Þðs þ 0:5858Þ
(a) ZðsÞ ¼ :
ðs þ 3:5321Þðs þ 2:3473Þðs þ 1Þðs þ 0:1206Þ
(b) Bode plots for magnitude and phase functions as functions of angular frequency
(Fig. 8.40);
(c) The resistance seen at input is the dc gain of Z(0),
4
Zð0Þ ¼ ¼ 4 X:
1
Nyquist Diagram
2
1.5
1
Imaginary Axis
0.5
0
System: H
Real: 0.553
-0.5 Imag: -0.966
Frequency (rad/sec): 0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Real Axis
R1 ¼ 0; R2 ¼ R3 ¼ R4 ¼ R5 ¼ 1 X; C1 ¼ C2 ¼ C3 ¼ C4 ¼ 1 F:
Problem 8.4.1 Show that following DPI function is obtained by its continued
fraction expansion:
s2 þ 6s þ 8 1
Z RC ðsÞ ¼ ¼ 1þ :
s2 þ 4s þ 3 1 1
sþ
2 4 1
þ
3 3 1
sþ
2 3
Solution
By continued fraction expansion of rational function ZRC ,
s2 þ 6s þ 8 2s þ 5
ZRC ðsÞ ¼ Z ¼ ¼ 1þ 2 ¼ q 1 þ Z1
s2 þ 4s þ 3 s þ 4s þ 3
ð8:14Þ
2s þ 5 1 s2 þ 4s þ 3
Z1 ¼ 2 ¼ ; Y1 ¼
s þ 4s þ 3 Y1 2s þ 5
8.4 RC Driving Point Impedance Synthesis 583
s2 þ 4s þ 3 1 3
sþ3 1
Y1 ¼ ¼ sþ 2 ¼ s þ Y2 ¼ q 2 þ Y 2
2s þ 5 2 2s þ 5 2
ð8:15Þ
3
sþ3 1 2s þ 5
Y2 ¼ 2 ¼ ; Z2 ¼ 3
2s þ 5 Z2 2sþ3
2s þ 5 4 1 4
Z2 ¼ 3 ¼ þ3 ¼ þ Z3 ¼ q 3 þ Z3 ð8:16Þ
2sþ3
3 2sþ3 3
1 1 3 3
Z3 ¼ 3 ¼ ; Y3 ¼ s þ 3 ¼ s þ Y4 ð8:17Þ
2sþ3
Y3 2 2
1 1
Y4 ¼ 3 ¼ ; Z4 ¼ ¼ q5 ð8:18Þ
Z4 3
s2 þ 6s þ 8 1
ZRC ðsÞ ¼ ¼ q1 þ : ð8:19Þ
s2 þ 4s þ 3 1
q2 þ
1
q3 þ
1
q4 þ
q5
Substituting quotient terms found in (8.14)–(8.18) into (8.19) yield the expected
result.
Problem 8.4.2 Synthesize the following RC driving point impedance function,
ZðsÞ;
1
ZðsÞ ¼ 1 þ :
1 1
sþ
2 2 1
þ
3 9 15
sþ
4 2
Solution
This function can be synthesized using Cauer I form, since it is a continued fraction.
Final ratio is seen to be
15 1
¼
2 2
15
1 2 9 2
R1 ¼ 1 X; C1 ¼ F; R2 ¼ X; C2 ¼ F; R3 ¼ X:
2 3 4 15
Problem 8.4.3 Synthesize the following input impedance functions using Cauer 1
form (CauerRC.m).
ð s þ 1Þ ð s þ 4Þ
(a) ZðsÞ ¼ ;
s ð s þ 2Þ
ð s þ 5Þ
(b) ZðsÞ ¼ ;
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 10Þ
ð s þ 1Þ ð s þ 3Þ
(c) ZðsÞ ¼ ;
s ð s þ 2Þ
ð s þ 2Þ ð s þ 4Þ
(d) ZðsÞ ¼ ;
ð s þ 1Þ ð s þ 3Þ
ð s þ 2Þ ð s þ 3Þ
(e) ZðsÞ ¼
:
5
ð s þ 1Þ s þ
2
Solution
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 4Þ s2 þ 5s þ 4 1
(a) ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ 2 ¼ 1þ (Fig. 8.44)
s ð s þ 2Þ s þ 2s 1 1
sþ
3 9 1
þ
2 1
s
6
1 9 1
R1 ¼ 1 X; F; R2 ¼ X; C2 ¼ F;
C1 ¼ R3 ¼ 1
3 2 6
ð s þ 5Þ ðs þ 5Þ
(b) ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ (Fig. 8.45)
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 10Þ s2 þ 11s þ 10
1 9 1
R1 ¼ 0; C1 ¼ 1 F; R2 ¼ X; C2 ¼ F; R3 ¼ X
6 5 3
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 3Þ s2 þ 4s þ 3
(c) ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ 2
s ð s þ 2Þ s þ 2s
1 1
R1 ¼ 1 X; C1 ¼ F; R2 ¼ 4 X; C2 ¼ F; R3 ¼ 1
2 6
8.4 RC Driving Point Impedance Synthesis 585
Circuit schematic is similar to the one in part (a), and redrawn in Fig. 8.46.
ðs þ 2Þðs þ 4Þ s2 þ 6s þ 8
(d) ZðsÞ ¼ ¼
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 3Þ s2 þ 4s þ 3
1 4 3 1
R1 ¼ 1 X; C1 ¼ F; R2 ¼ X; C2 ¼ F; R3 ¼ X
2 3 2 3
ð s þ 2Þ ð s þ 3Þ s2 þ 5s þ 6
(e) ZðsÞ ¼
¼
5 7 5
ð s þ 1Þ s þ s2 þ s þ
2 2 2
2
R1 ¼ 1 X; C1 ¼ F; R2 ¼ 1:2857 X; C2 ¼ 4:0833 F; R3 ¼ 0:1143 X
3
Problem 8.4.4 Determine the values of components in the following driving point
impedances so that both transfer functions are numerically identical (Fig. 8.47),
586 8 Network Synthesis
Fig. 8.47 Two circuits with identical DPI functions for Problem 8.4.4
sþ2
Z 1 ðsÞ ¼ Z 2 ðsÞ ¼ ZðsÞ ¼ :
s2 þ 4s þ 3
Solution
In order that
Z1 ðsÞ ¼ Z2 ðsÞ ¼ ZðsÞ;
Foster 1 and Cauer 1 forms of these impedances should be realized using Z(s).
Foster 1 form:
sþ2 sþ2 k1 k2
Z1 ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ þ
s2 þ 4s þ 3 ðs þ 1Þðs þ 3Þ s þ 1 s þ 3
1 þ 2 1 3 þ 2 1
k1 ¼ ¼ ; k2 ¼ ¼
1 þ 3 2 3 þ 1 2
1=2 1=2
Z1 ðsÞ ¼ þ
sþ1 sþ3
k1 1=2 1 k1 1=2 1 1
Ra ¼ ¼ ¼ X; Rb ¼ ¼ ¼ X; Ca ¼ ¼ 2 F;
1 1 2 3 3 6 k1
1
Cb ¼ ¼ 2 F:
k2
Cauer 1 form:
sþ2
Z2 ðsÞ ¼ Z1 ðsÞ ¼ ZðsÞ ¼ :
s2 þ 4s þ 3
s2 þ 4s þ 3 2s þ 3
¼ sþ
sþ2 sþ2
1
sþ2 1
¼ þ 2
2s þ 3 2 2s þ 3
2s þ 3
¼ 4s þ 6
1
2
s2 þ 4s þ 3 1 1
¼ Y1 þ ¼ 1s þ
sþ2 1 1 1
Z2 þ þ
Y3 þ Y4 2 1
4s þ
1
6
Y1 1 Y3
Cc ¼ ¼ 1 F; R c ¼ Z2 ¼ X; Cd ¼ ¼ 4 F; Rd ¼ Z4 ¼ 1=6 X:
s 2 s
Problem 8.4.5 Synthesize ZðsÞ input impedance function,
ð s þ 2Þ ð s þ 6Þ
ZðsÞ ¼ k
ð s þ 1Þ ð s þ 4Þ
(a) for k = 1,
(b) for k = 10,
(c) Draw a conclusion from these results.
Solution
(a) for k = 1,
ðs þ 2Þðs þ 6Þ s2 þ 8s þ 12
ZðsÞ ¼ 1 ¼ 2
ð s þ 1Þ ð s þ 4Þ s þ 5s þ 4
(c) It can be concluded that Z(0) (=k) term causes R’s to increase, C’s to decrease
by a factor of k.
588 8 Network Synthesis
Problem 8.4.6 Determine the driving point (input) impedance Z(s) for each circuit
that has been realized in Foster 1 form, given in Figs. 8.48, 8.49, 8.50 and 8.51,
using a MATLAB script (Foster 1RC_to_ TF.m).
(a) R1 = 3 Ω, R2 = 4 Ω, C1 = C2 = 1 F
(b) R = 1 Ω, R1 = 3 Ω, R2 = 4 Ω, C1 = C2 = 1 F
(c) R1 = 3 Ω, R2 = 4 Ω, C1 = C2 = C = 1 F
(d) R = 1 Ω, R1 = 3 Ω, R2 = 4 Ω, C1 = C2 = C = 1 F.
Solution
General form of Foster 1 realization of a driving point impedance function is
1 Xm
Ri
ZðsÞ ¼ R þ þ :
sC i¼1
1 þ sRi Ci
1
X
m þ2
Ri X
m þ2
Ci
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ :
1 þ sRi Ci 1
i¼1 i¼1 sþ
Ri Ci
R ¼ ½0 0 3 4 ;
C ¼ ½0 0 1 1 ;
7
sþ
24s þ 7 24
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ 2
:
12s2 þ 7s þ 1 1 1
sþ sþ
3 4
R ¼ ½1 0 3 4 ; C ¼ ½0 0 1 1 ;
R ¼ ½0 1 3 4 ; C ¼ ½0 1 1 1 ;
R ¼ ½0 1 3 4 ; C ¼ ½0 1 1 1 ;
N 1 s2 þ N 2 s þ N 3
ZðsÞ ¼
D1 s3 þ D2 s2 þ D3 s þ 1
N 1 ¼ C2 C3 R1 R2 R3
N 2 ¼ C2 R1 ðR2 þ R3 Þ þ C 2 R3 ðR1 þ R2 Þ
N 3 ¼ R1 þ R2 þ R3
D1 ¼ R1 R2 R3 C 1 C 2 C 3
D2 ¼ C1 C2 R1 ðR2 þ R3 Þ þ C 1 C 3 R3 ðR1 þ R2 Þ þ C2 C3 R2 R3
D3 ¼ C1 ðR1 þ R2 þ R3 Þ þ C2 ðR2 þ R3 Þ þ C 3 R3 :
s2 þ 40s þ 300
If ZðsÞ ¼ ;
s3 þ 50s2 þ 600s þ 1000
(a) Determine component values of ZðsÞ using Cauer 1 form. Draw the circuit.
(b) Prove that components values found in part (a) satisfy polynomial coefficients
of Z(s).
(c) Synthesize ZðsÞ in Foster 1 form, and draw the circuit.
(d) Prove that the values of found in part (c) satisfy polynomial coefficients of
ZðsÞ, if
8.4 RC Driving Point Impedance Synthesis 591
N 1 ¼ R1 R2 R3 ðC 1 C 2 þ C1 C3 þ C2 C 3 Þ
N 2 ¼ C 1 R1 ðR2 þ R3 Þ þ C 2 R2 ðR1 þ R3 Þ þ C2 R3 ðR1 þ R2 Þ
N 3 ¼ R1 þ R2 þ R3
D1 ¼ R1 R2 R3 C 1 C 2 C 3
D2 ¼ C 1 C 2 R1 R2 þ C 1 C 3 R3 R1 þ C2 C3 R2 R3
D3 ¼ C 1 R1 þ C 2 R2 þ C 3 R3
(Foster_Cauer1.m, Foster_proof1.m).
Solution
(a) Cauer 1 form of ZðsÞ yields R1 ¼ 0; C1 ¼ C2 ¼ C3 ¼ 1 F; R2 ¼ R3 ¼ R4 ¼
0:1 X (Fig. 8.53).
(b) Cauer 1 polynomial coefficients are calculated as
Rf 1 ¼ R1 ; Rf 2 ¼ R2 ; Rf 3 ¼ R3 ; Cf 1 ¼ C1 ; Cf 2 ¼ C2 ; Cf 3 ¼ C3 :
s2 þ 40:1s þ 300:7
ZðsÞ ¼ :
s3 þ 50:1s2 þ 601:4s þ 1002
%Foster_proof1
clc;
R1=0.0033;R2=0.0225;R3=0.2742;C1=9.2959;C2=2.8629;C3=1.8412;
N1=C2*C1*R1*R2*R3 + C3*C1*R1*R2*R3 + C3*C2*R1*R2*R3;
N2=C1*R1*R3 + C1*R1*R2 + C2*R2*R3 + C2*R1*R2 + C3*R2*R3 + C3*R1*R3;
N3=R1+R2+R3;
D1=C3*C2*C1*R1*R2*R3;
D2= C2*C1*R1*R2 + C3*C1*R1*R3 + C3*C2*R2*R3;
D3=C1*R1 + C2*R2 + C3*R3;
N=[N1 N2 N3]/D1;
D=[D1 D2 D3 1]/D1;
H=tf(N,D)
s3 þ 6s2 þ 10s þ 4
ZðsÞ ¼ :
s4 þ 7s3 þ 15s2 þ 10s þ 1
Solution
(a) R0 ¼ 0; Rf 1 ¼ 0:0147 X; Rf 2 ¼ 0:0782 X; Rf 3 ¼ 0:3333 X; Rf 4 ¼ 3:5737 X,
(Fig. 8.55)
(b) RC1 ¼ 0; RC2 ¼ RC3 ¼ RC4 ¼ RC5 ¼ 1 X; CC1 ¼ CC2 ¼ CC3 ¼ CC4 ¼ 1 F
(Fig. 8.56)
ðs þ 3:4142Þðs þ 2Þðs þ 0:5858Þ
(c) ZðsÞ ¼ :
ðs þ 3:5321Þðs þ 2:3473Þðs þ 1Þðs þ 0:1206Þ
Figures 8.57 and 8.58 display the magnitude and phase response of given
impedance function.
Problem 8.4.9 Determine driving point impedance of the ladder circuit shown in
Fig. 8.59, in terms of its symbolic components.
Determine Z(s) if C1 = C2 = C3 = 1 F, R1 = R2 = R2 = 1 Ω.
Determine poles and zeros of Z(s).
Plot |Z(jx)| and u(jx) using given component values above.
Plot Nyquist diagram using given component values. Find the angular frequency
at which (Im[Z(jx)]) is a maximum. Find Re[Z(jx)] at that frequency (Bode2.m).
Solutions
The circuit can be viewed as ZðsÞ ¼ ð1=sC1 Þ==½R1 þ ½ð1=sC2 Þ==½R2 þ ½ð1=sC3 Þ==R3
Using given component values, this yields,
594 8 Network Synthesis
3.5
3
Impedance, Ohm
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
angular frequency,rad/sec
-10
-20
Phase Angle, rad
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
angular frequency,rad/sec
s2 þ 4s þ 3 ðs þ 1Þðs þ 3Þ
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ :
s3 þ 5s þ 6s þ 1 ðs þ 3:247Þðs þ 1:555Þðs þ 0:1981Þ
2
The zeros are at (−1, −3) rad/s, and the poles are at (−3.247, −1.555,
0.1981) rad/s.
Plottings of magnitude and phase angle of Z(jx) as functions of angular fre-
quency are shown in Figs. 8.60, 8.61 and 8.62. First two of these graphs are
obtained using a standard MATLAB command “bode (sys)”. Additional couple of
complementary figures is given to provide further insight to magnitude plots having
y-axis in terms of (linear scaled) impedance unit, rather than decibels.
Bode Diagram
10
0
Magnitude (dB)
-10
-20
-30
-40
0
Phase (deg)
-45
-90
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
2.5
2
Impedance, Ohm
1.5
0.5
0
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
angular frequency,rad/sec
-10
-20
Phase Angle,deg
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
angular frequency, rad/sec
Fig. 8.62 Alternative plot for the phase angle against angular frequency
Nyquist diagram for driving point impedance having component data of part
(b) is given in Fig. 8.63.
Note that dc gain (=resistance) of Z(0) is 3 Ω. This is seen from the magnitude
and Nyquist plots. However, it is also obvious from given Z(s) that Z(0) = 3 Ω.
8.4 RC Driving Point Impedance Synthesis 597
Nyquist Diagram
1.5
0.5
Imaginary Axis
-0.5
System: H
-1 Real: 1.53
Imag: -1.4
Frequency (rad/sec): 0.213
-1.5
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Real Axis
%Bode2
% Plotting pole-zero diagram, mag and phase
%Nyquist plot of a given transfer function H(s) = N(s)/D(s)
clc;clear;
N=[1 4 3];
D=[1 5 6 1];
H = tf(N,D) %Transfer function
zero(H)
pole(H)
%pzmap(H);figure; bode(H);grid on;figure; nyquist(H);
w = logspace(-2,2,20);
h = freqs(N,D,w);
mag = abs(h);
phase = angle(h);
% To convert to hertz, degrees, and decibels, use
% f = w/(2*pi); mag = 20*log10(mag);
phase = phase*180/pi; semilogx(w,mag);grid on;
xlabel('angular frequency,rad/sec');ylabel('Impedance, Ohm');
figure;
semilogx(w,phase);grid on;
xlabel('angular frequency,rad/sec');ylabel('Phase Angle, deg');
598 8 Network Synthesis
dvðtÞ d d
¼ 0:6dðtÞ ð0:5et Þ ð0:1e5t Þ ¼ 0:6dðtÞ þ 0:5et þ 0:5e5t :
dt dt dt
Dropping the first (impulse) term, and taking the Laplace transform of remaining
terms in right side of above equation yields
1 1
ZðsÞ ¼ 2 þ 2 ð8:20Þ
sþ1 sþ5
sþ3
ZðsÞ ¼ : ð8:21Þ
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 5Þ
Foster 1 type synthesis can be performed using (8.20), i.e., partial fractions
expanded form of Z(s) (Fig. 8.64),
1 1
sþb k1 k2 2
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ þ ¼ þ 2
ðs þ aÞðs þ cÞ s þ a s þ c s þ 1 s þ 5
1 1
1 1 k1 2 1 k2 2 1
Cf 1 ¼ ¼ 2 F; Cf 2 ¼ ¼ 2 F; Rf 1 ¼ ¼ ¼ X; Rf 2 ¼ ¼ ¼ X:
k1 k2 a 1 2 c 5 10
Cauer 1 type synthesis can be performed using (8.21), and by continued frac-
tions expansion of Z(s),
8.4 RC Driving Point Impedance Synthesis 599
sþ3 sþ3
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ 2 :
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 5Þ s þ 6s þ 5
s2 þ 6s þ 5 3s þ 5
¼ sþ
sþ3 sþ3
sþ3 1 4
¼ þ 3
3s þ 5 3 3s þ 5
3s þ 5 9 15
¼ sþ
4 4 4
3
s2 þ 6s þ 5 1 1
¼ Y1 þ ¼ 1s þ
sþ3 1 1 1
Z2 þ þ
Y3 þ Y4 3 9 1
sþ
4 4
15
Y1 1 Y3 9 4
Cc1 ¼ ¼ 1 F; Rc2 ¼ Z2 ¼ X; Cc2 ¼ ¼ F; Rc3 ¼ Z4 ¼ X:
s 3 s 4 15
600 8 Network Synthesis
Transfer function:
s+3
-------------
s^2 + 6 s + 5
Foster 1 circuit
R0 = 0
R = 1/10 1/2
C= 2 2
Cauer 1 circuit
R1 C1 R2 C2 R3
dvðtÞ d d
¼ 0:6667dðtÞ ð0:5et Þ ð0:1667e3t Þ
dt dt dt
¼ 0:6667dðtÞ þ 0:5et þ 0:5e3t :
Concentrating on the right side of this equation, dropping the first (impulse)
term, and taking the Laplace Transform of remaining terms yields
1 1
ZðsÞ ¼ 2 þ 2 ð8:22Þ
sþ1 sþ3
sþ2
ZðsÞ ¼ : ð8:23Þ
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 3Þ
Foster 1 type synthesis can be performed using (8.22), i.e., partial fractions
expanded form of Z(s) (Fig. 8.66),
1 1
sþb k1 k2
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ þ ¼ 2 þ 2
ðs þ aÞðs þ cÞ s þ a s þ c s þ 1 s þ 3
1 1
1 1 k1 2 1 k2 2 1
Cf 1 ¼ ¼ 2 F; Cf 2 ¼ ¼ 2 F; Rf 1 ¼ ¼ ¼ X; Rf 2 ¼ ¼ ¼ X
k1 k2 a 1 2 c 3 6
Cauer 1 type synthesis can be performed using (8.23), and by continued frac-
tions expansion of Z(s),
sþ2 sþ2
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ :
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 3Þ s2 þ 4s þ 3
s2 þ 4s þ 3 2s þ 3
¼ sþ
sþ2 sþ2
1
sþ2 1
¼ þ 2
2s þ 3 2 2s þ 3
2s þ 3
¼ 4s þ 6
1
2
s2 þ 4s þ 3 1 1
¼ Y1 þ ¼ 1s þ
sþ2 1 1 1
Z2 þ þ
Y3 þ Y4 2 1
4s þ
1
6
Y1 1 Y3
Cc1 ¼ ¼ 1 F; Rc2 ¼ Z2 ¼ X; Cc2 ¼ ¼ 4 F; Rc3 ¼ Z4 ¼ 1=6 X:
s 2 s
Transfer function:
s+2
-------------
s^2 + 4 s + 3
Foster 1 circuit
R0 = 0
R = 1/6 1/2
C= 2 2
Cauer 1 circuit
R1 C1 R2 C2 R3
0 1 1/2 4 1/6
8.4 RC Driving Point Impedance Synthesis 603
1
f
0.9 first derivative
0.8
0.7
0.6
voltage, (V)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
time, (sec)
Fig. 8.68 Graph of voltage at the input (response) and its derivative. (The lines appear thick due
to printing of dot symbols on plot function.)
dvðtÞ
¼ 0:5et þ 0:5e5t :
dt
Taking the Laplace transform of the right side of above equation yields
1 1
sþ3
ZðsÞ ¼ 2 þ 2 ¼ :
s þ 1 s þ 5 ðs þ 1Þðs þ 5Þ
Response voltage data (due to unit step current excitation) is generated using the
following MATLAB (diff_fit1.m) script. The same script takes the numerical
derivative simulated “sampled data,” and fits the double decaying exponential
model into this derivative vector.
It must be pointed out here that decreasing step size (h) from h = 0.1 to
h = 0.00001 improves the fit, mainly the two coefficients of exponents (but not
decay constants). In order to provide more accuracy, this (derivative fitting and
transformation) approach necessitates relatively larger number of samples to be
input to computer (which does not create a problem for real-time data import, but
may be quite cumbersome—if not impossible—for manual data input).
0.7
0.6
0.5
voltage,(V)
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time,(sec)
0.6
0.5
0.4
Voltage (V)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
vi vs. x
fit
-0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time (sec)
dvðtÞ d d
¼ 0:6dðtÞ ð0:5et Þ ð0:1e5t Þ ¼ 0:6dðtÞ þ 0:5et þ 0:5e5t :
dt dt dt
Dropping the first (impulse) term, and taking the Laplace transform of remaining
terms in right side of above equation yields
1 1
ZðsÞ ¼ 2 þ 2 ð8:24Þ
sþ1 sþ5
sþ3
ZðsÞ ¼ : ð8:25Þ
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 5Þ
Foster 1 type synthesis can be performed using (8.24), i.e., partial fractions
expanded form of Z(s),
1 1
sþb k1 k2
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ þ ¼ 2 þ 2
ðs þ aÞðs þ cÞ s þ a s þ c s þ 1 s þ 5
1 1
1 1 k1 2 1 k2 2 1
Cf 1 ¼ ¼ 2 F; Cf 2 ¼ ¼ 2 F; Rf 1 ¼ ¼ ¼ X; Rf 2 ¼ ¼ ¼ X:
k1 k2 a 1 2 c 5 10
sþ3 sþ3
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ :
ðs þ 1Þðs þ 5Þ s2 þ 6s þ 5
clc;clear all;
% Curve fitting
x = (0:0.5:6)';
vi = (-1/2)*exp(-1*x)+ (-1/10)*exp(-5*x)+6/10;
plot(x,vi,'o');grid on; xlabel('time,(sec)');ylabel('voltage,(V)');
Problem 8.5.1 Starting from general form of the relations, show that
Z1
2 xIm½XðjxÞ
Re½XðjxÞ ¼ P dx
p x2 x2
0
Z1
2x Re½XðjxÞ
Im½XðjxÞ ¼ P dx;
p x2 x 2
0
Z1 Z0 Z1
1 Im½XðjxÞ 1 Im½XðjxÞ 1 Im½XðjxÞ
Re½XðjxÞ ¼ P dx ¼ P dx P dx
p xx p xx p xx
1 1 0
Z0 Z1
1 Im½XðjxÞ 1 Im½XðjxÞ
¼ P dx P dx
p x x p xx
1 0
Z1 Z1
1 Im½XðjxÞ 1 Im½XðjxÞ
¼ P dx P dx
p xþx p xx
0 0
Z1
Z1
1 Im½XðjxÞ Im½XðjxÞ P ðx x þ x þ xÞIm½XðjxÞ
¼ P þ dx ¼ dx
p xþx xx p x2 x2
0 0
Z1
2P xIm½XðjxÞ
¼ dx:
p x2 x2
0
8.5 Hilbert (Kramers–Kronig) Transforms 609
Similarly,
Z1 Z0 Z1
1 Re½XðjxÞ 1 Re½XðjxÞ 1 Re½XðjxÞ
Im½XðjxÞ ¼ P dx ¼ P dx þ P dx
p xx p x x p xx
1 1 0
Z1 Z1
1 Re½XðjxÞ 1 Re½XðjxÞ
¼ P dx þ P dx
p xþx p xx
0 0
Z1
Z1
1 Re½XðjxÞ Re½XðjxÞ P ðx x þ x þ xÞIm½XðjxÞ
¼ P þ dx ¼ dx
p xx xþx p x2 x 2
0 0
Z1
2xP Re½XðjxÞ
¼ dx:
p x2 x 2
0
Because integral limits start at 0, rather than 1, these relations can be more
helpful in numerical computations, in a real life situation, as they consist of only
positive frequencies.
Problem 8.5.2 Derive a form of Hilbert (Kramers–Kronig) transform that elimi-
nates the need for computing Cauchy principal value of integral.
Solution
Z1 Z1
1 P 1 1
P dx ¼ dx
x2 x2 2x x x xþx
0 0
2 xh 3
Z
Z1
1 1 1 1 1
¼ lim 4 dx þ dx5
2x h!0 x x xþx x x xþx
0 xþh
1 h i
¼ lim ðlnjx xj lnjx þ xjÞjxh
0 þ ðlnjx xj lnjx þ xjÞj1
xþh
2x h!0
1 h i
þh 1
¼ lim ðlnjx xj lnjx þ xjÞjx
xh þ ðlnjx xj lnjx þ xjÞj0
2x h!0
1 1 x x
¼ ðlnjx xj lnjx þ xjÞj1 ¼ lim ln ðlnjxj lnjxjÞ
2x 0
2x x!1 x þ x
¼ 0 0 ¼ 0:
Thus,
Z1 Z1
2P xIm½XðjxÞ 2P Re½XðjxÞ
dx ¼ 0; dx ¼ 0:
p x2 x2 p x2 x2
0 0
610 8 Network Synthesis
Adding the equation to general form of integral relations (with positive fre-
quencies only), one obtains the following results:
Z1
2 xIm½XðjxÞ xIm½XðjxÞ
Re½XðjxÞ ¼ dx
p x2 x2
0
Z1
2x Re½XðjxÞ Re½XðjxÞ
Im½XðjxÞ ¼ dx:
p x2 x 2
0
2
RðxÞ ¼ :
4 þ x2
a2 x
$ :
a2 þ x 2 a2 þ x2
Solution
(a) ZðjxÞ ¼ RðxÞ þ jXðxÞ:
Using Hilbert transform,
Z1 Z1
1 RðxÞ 1 2 x
XðxÞ ¼ dx ¼ dx ¼ :
p xx p ð4 þ x 2 Þðx xÞ 4 þ x2
1 1
2 x 2 jx 2 jx 2 jx 1
(b) ZðjxÞ ¼ þ j ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ :
4 þ x2 4 þ x2 4 þ x2 4 ðjxÞ2 ð2 jxÞð2 þ jxÞ 2 þ jx
Since
s 1 1
s ¼ jx ! x ¼ ; ðanalytic continuationÞ; ZðsÞ ¼
¼ :
j s sþ2
2þj
j
8.5 Hilbert (Kramers–Kronig) Transforms 611
1
YðsÞ ¼ ¼ s þ 2 ¼ sC þ G; C ¼ 1 F; G ¼ 2 S or C ¼ 1 F; R ¼ 0:5 X:
ZðsÞ
x2
RðxÞ ¼ :
x2 þ a2
Solution
(a) Using Hilbert transform and x ! x;
Z1
1 RðxÞ
IðxÞ ¼ dx ð8:26Þ
p xx
1
2
x2 1 1 a ðx xÞ x2
¼ 2 þ : ð8:27Þ
ð a þ x2 Þ
2 xx a þ x2 a 2 þ x2 xx
Z1 2
1 1 a ðx xÞ x2 ax
IðxÞ ¼ þ dx ¼ 2 :
p a2 þ x2 a2 þ x 2 xx a þ x2
1
x2 ax jxða jxÞ jx
(b) HðjxÞ ¼ RðxÞ þ jIðxÞ ¼ þj 2 ¼ ¼ ;
a þx
2 2 a þx 2 ða þ jxÞða jxÞ a þ jx
since x ¼ s=j;
612 8 Network Synthesis
s
j
j s
HðsÞ ¼
¼ :
s sþa
aþj
j
This is a high-pass filter with cutoff frequency at a (rad/s).
Problem 8.5.5
(a) Determine the Hilbert transform of the real part of a causal function
a2
AðxÞ ¼ :
x 2 þ a2
(b) Determine the complex function HðsÞjs¼jx ¼ AðxÞ þ jBðxÞ in s-domain.
Solution
Z1
a2 1 AðxÞ
(a) H 2 ¼ dx
x þa 2 p xx
1
a2 a2 xþx 1
¼ þ
ða2 þ x2 Þðx xÞ x2 þ a2 a2 þ x2 x x
Z1
a2 xþx 1 ax
BðxÞ ¼ 2 dx ¼ 2
x þa 2 a þx
2 2 xx x þ a2
1
a 2
ax aða jxÞ a
(b) HðjxÞ ¼ j 2 ¼ ¼
x2 þ a2 x þ a2 ða jxÞða þ jxÞ ða þ jxÞ
s
s ¼ jx !x¼ ;
j
a a
HðsÞ ¼
¼ :
s sþa
aþj
j
.
8.5 Hilbert (Kramers–Kronig) Transforms 613
Solution
(a) For this single-tank circuit (Voigt circuit or Foster 1 form),
1 R
ZðsÞ ¼ jj ¼ ; s ¼ jx;
sC sRC þ 1
Rð1 jxRCÞ R xR2 C
ZðjxÞ ¼ 2
¼ 2
j
1 þ ðxRC Þ 1 þ ðxRC Þ 1 þ ðxRC Þ2
R
Z 0 ðxÞ ¼ ; ð8:28Þ
1 þ ðxRC Þ2
xR2 C
Z 00 ðxÞ ¼ ð8:29Þ
1 þ ðxRCÞ2
R R=ðRCÞ2 a2 1
ðbÞ Z 0 ðxÞ ¼ ¼ ¼R ; a¼ ð8:30Þ
1 þ ðxRCÞ 2 2
1=ðRCÞ þ x2 a2 þ x2 RC
00 a2 ax
Z ðxÞ ¼ H R ¼ R 2 : ð8:31Þ
a2 þ x2 a þ x2
Substituting the value assigned for a ¼ 1=ðRCÞ in (8.31) yields Eq. (8.29):
1 1
x x xR2 C
00 RC C
Z ðxÞ ¼ R 1 ¼ ¼
2 þx
2 1 1 þ ðxRCÞ2
ðRC Þ 2
þ x2
ðRC Þ
R1 R2 Rn
(c) Z 0 ðxÞ ¼ þ þ þ
1 þ ðxR1 C1 Þ2 1 þ ðxR2 C2 Þ2 1 þ ðxRn Cn Þ2
614 8 Network Synthesis
!
00 xR21 C1 xR22 C2 xR2n Cn
Z ðxÞ ¼ þ þ þ
1 þ ðxR1 C1 Þ2 1 þ ðxR2 C2 Þ2 1 þ ðxRn Cn Þ2
or,
X
n
Ri X
n
xR2i Ci
Z 0 ðxÞ ¼ 2
; Z 00 ðxÞ ¼ :
i¼1 1 þ ðxRi Ci Þ i¼1 1 þ ðxRi Ci Þ2
sþ4
If ZðsÞ ¼ ; FðsÞ ¼ ?
sþ1
Solution
1 s þ 4 s þ 4 1 ðs þ 4Þð1 sÞ þ ð4 sÞðs þ 1Þ
Re½ZðjxÞ ¼ þ ¼
2 s þ 1 s þ 1 2 ð s þ 1Þ ð 1 s Þ
1 2s þ 4
2
¼
2 ðs þ 1Þð1 sÞ
1 4 s2 ð2 sÞðs þ 2Þ
¼ 2 ¼
2 ð1 þ sÞð1 sÞ ð1 þ sÞð1 sÞ
s þ 2 ðs 2Þ sþ2 2 s
¼ ¼ :
s þ 1 ð1 sÞ sþ1 1 s
It follows that
sþ2 2s
FðsÞ ¼ ; FðsÞ ¼ :
sþ1 1s
Problem 8.6.2 Given a parallel RC circuit,
(a) Determine Yðjx), the admittance of this circuit.
(b) If a shunt inductor is connected to the circuit, determine the new admittance of
the circuit Y1 ðjxÞ.
(c) Based on the results obtained in this problem, determine if a circuit function is
uniquely specified when its real part is given.
Solution
1
(a) YðjxÞ ¼ þ jxC1
R
1 1 1 1
(b) Y1 ðjxÞ ¼ jxL
1
þ YðjxÞ ¼ þ jxC1 j ¼ þ j xC1
R xL R xL
1
(c) Re½Y1 ðjxÞ ¼ Re½YðjxÞ þ Re ¼ Re½YðjxÞ:
jxL
The real parts of both admittances are the same, but the admittances themselves
are different. Therefore, if the real part is given, it is not possible to know Y1(s) or Y
(s) which corresponds to given real part. There can be an infinite number of
functions that differ from Y(s).
It should be noted here that, when an impedance function is given, its real part is
determined uniquely. However, converse may not be true always. For example, the
real (even) part of Z(s) is unaltered by the addition of an arbitrary rational reactance
function. Therefore, Z(s) should not have a pole on the imaginary axis.
616 8 Network Synthesis
Problem 8.6.3 Make a literature survey if there are simple methods other than
Hilbert transforms (Kramers–Kronig relations) to construct a minimum phase
network function if its real part is available. Indicate related references.
Solution
The integral calculations of Hilbert transforms are not easy. In fact, the strength of
the Hilbert transform is found in what it says rather than what it does. It states that if
the real or the even part (conversely, if the imaginary or odd part) of a circuit is
given, then the circuit is specified completely.
Alternative methods to construct a minimum phase function from its real part are
due to Bode [3, 10], Brune-Gewertz [3, 10, 11], Miyata [3, 11], and Ho [12].
Problem 8.6.4 Describe Bode’s procedure to construct a minimum phase network
function if its real part is available.
Solution
Bode’s procedure to construct a minimum phase network function from its real part:
Let an immitance function be ZðjxÞ;
NðjxÞ
ZðjxÞ ¼ ¼ Re½ZðjxÞ þ jIm½ZðjxÞ
DðjxÞ
1
Re½ZðjxÞ ¼ ½ZðjxÞ þ ZðjxÞ
2
x ¼ js;
1
Ev½ZðsÞ ¼ Re½ZðjxÞjx¼js ¼ ½ZðsÞ þ ZðsÞ
2
NðsÞ
¼ :
ðs p1 Þ s p
1 . . . ðs þ p1 Þ s þ p
1 . . .
Assume that all poles in Ev½ZðsÞ are simple, by partial fraction expansion of
Ev½ZðsÞ;
k1 k1
k2 k2
R1
Ev½ZðsÞ ¼ þ þ þ þ...þ
s p1 s p
1 s p2 s p
2 2
k1 k1
k2 k2
ZðsÞ ¼ 2ZðsÞjs 0 ¼ 2 þ þ þ þ R1 :
s p1 s p
1 s p2 s p
2
8.6 Constructing a Network Function from Its Real Part 617
Note that Bode’s method is conceptually simple and it is based on expanding the
even part of transfer function into its partial fractions.
Problem 8.6.5 Write a MATLAB script for Bode’s procedure to construct a
minimum phase network function if its real part is available. Use this m.file
(R_to_Z1.m) to compute transfer functions Z(s) from their real parts RðxÞ given
below:
1
(i)
x2 þ1
1
(ii)
x6 þ 1
x2
(iii)
x6 þ 1
x4
(iv)
x6 þ 1
1
(v)
2x6 þ 1
3x4 6x2 þ 6
(vi)
x6 þ 1
2x2 1
(vii)
x6 þ 1
x2 þ 1
(viii)
x4 x2 þ 1
x2 1
(ix)
x x2 þ 1
4
x2
(x)
x x2 þ 1
4
x2 þ 16
(xi)
x 16x2 þ 16
4
x4 16x2 þ 16
(xii)
x6 þ 1
x4 16
(xiii)
x6 þ x4 þ x2 þ 1
x8 16
(xiv)
x8 þ x6 þ x4 þ x2 þ 1
6x2 þ 6
(xv)
x8 þ x6 þ x2 þ 1
x4 þ x2 þ 2
(xvi)
x4 þ 16
x þ 128
4
(xvii) :
x6 þ 64
618 8 Network Synthesis
Solution
1 1
(i) RðxÞ ¼ ; ZðsÞ ¼
þ1
x2 sþ1
1 1 2s2 þ 4s þ 3
(ii) RðxÞ ¼ 6 ; ZðsÞ ¼ 3
x þ1 3 s þ 2s2 þ 2s þ 1
x2 1 s2 þ 2s
(iii) RðxÞ ¼ ; ZðsÞ ¼ 3
x6 þ 1 3 s þ 2s2 þ 2s þ 1
x4 1 2s2 þ s
(iv) RðxÞ ¼ ; ZðsÞ ¼ 3
x6 þ 1 3 s þ 2s2 þ 2s þ 1
1 0:4454s2 þ 0:2646s þ 0:1179
(v) RðxÞ ¼ ; ZðsÞ ¼
2x6 þ1 s3þ 1:782s2 þ 1:587s þ 0:7071
3x4 6x2 þ 6 4s2 þ 5s þ 6
(vi) RðxÞ ¼ ZðsÞ ¼
x6 þ 1 s3 þ 2s2 þ 2s þ 1
2x 1
2
1
(vii) RðxÞ ¼ 6 ZðsÞ ¼ 3 :
x þ1 s þ 2s2 þ 2s þ 1
Note that this result can also be obtained by adding the results of (ii) and (iii).
x2 þ 1 2s þ 1
(viii) RðxÞ ¼ ZðsÞ ¼
x4 x2 þ 1 s2 þ s þ 1
x2 1 1
(ix) RðxÞ ¼ 4 ZðsÞ ¼ 2
x x2 þ 1 s þsþ1
x2 s
(x) RðxÞ ¼ 4 ZðsÞ ¼ 2 :
x x2 þ 1 s þsþ1
This result can also be obtained by adding the results of (viii) and (ix), and
dividing by 2.
x2 þ 16 2s2 þ 32
(xi) RðxÞ ¼ ZðsÞ ¼
x4 16x2 þ 16 s4 þ 16s2 þ 16
x4 16x2 þ 16 6s2 þ 11s þ 16
(xii) RðxÞ ¼ ZðsÞ ¼ 3
x þ1
6 s þ 2s2 þ 2s þ 1
x 16
4
ðs þ 1Þ
(xiii) RðxÞ ¼ 6 ZðsÞ ¼ 4:25 3
x þx þx þ1
4 2 s þ 2:414s2 þ 2:414s þ 1
x8 þ 16 10:61s3 þ 24:77s2 þ 25:07s þ 12:3
(xiv) RðxÞ ¼ ZðsÞ ¼
x8 þ x6 þ x4 þ x2 þ 1 s4 þ 3:078s3 þ 4:236s2 þ 3:078s þ 1
6x2 þ 6 4s3 þ 10s2 þ 10s þ 6
(xv) RðxÞ ¼ ZðsÞ ¼
x8 þ x6 þ x2 þ 1 s4 þ 3s3 þ 4s2 þ 3s þ 1
x4 þ x2 þ 2 1:945s þ 4:5
(xvi) RðxÞ ¼ ZðsÞ ¼
x4 þ 16 s2 þ 2:828s þ 4
x4 þ 128 3s2 þ 11s þ 16
(xvii) RðxÞ ¼ ZðsÞ ¼ :
x6 þ 64 s3 þ 4s2 þ 8s þ 8
8.7 Constructing a Network Function from Its Phase 619
Problem 8.7.1
(a) Determine the admittance of a series RL circuit, Y(jx).
(b) Show its real and imaginary parts, Y′(jx) and Y″(jx).
(c) Find the phase function of this admittance.
Solution
ZðjxÞ ¼ R þ jxL
1 1 1ðR jxLÞ R jxL
(a) YðjxÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
ZðjxÞ R þ jxL ðR þ jxLÞðR jxLÞ R2 þ ðxLÞ2
R xL
(b) YðjxÞ ¼ 2
j ¼ Y 0 ðxÞ þ jY 00 ðxÞ
R2 þ ðxLÞ R2 þ ðxLÞ2
xL
(c) uðxÞ ¼ a tan :
R
1 R
ZðsÞ ¼ Rjj ¼
sC 1 þ sRC
R Rð1 jxRC Þ R xR2 C
ZðjxÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ j
1 þ jxRC 1 þ ðxRC Þ2 1 þ ðxRC Þ2 1 þ ðxRC Þ2
xR2 C
uðxÞ ¼ tan1 ¼ tan1 ðxRC Þ:
R
Problem 8.7.3
(a) Determine the phase function of ZðsÞ shown in Fig. 8.75.
(b) Calculate the frequency of minimum phase angle.
(c) Plot the phase angle change if R1 = 1 X, C1 = 1 F and the value of resistor R2
is varied 3 decades between 0.01 and 10 X (phase_analysis1.m).
Solution
1
R1
sC1 R1 sR1 R2 C1 þ R2 þ R1
(a) ZðsÞ ¼ R2 þ 1 ¼ R2 þ sC1 R1 þ 1 ¼
R1 þ
sR1 C1 þ 1
sC1
Therefore,
R1 þ R2 1=2 1 R1 þ R2 1=2
xx ¼ ¼ :
R21 C12 R2 R1 C1 R2
(c) Phase functions as functions of R2 and frequency are displayed in Fig. 8.76.
Minimum phase extrema are marked on each phase plot. Impedance functions
for different values of R2 are given as follows:
0:01s þ 1:01 0:1s þ 1:1
R2 ¼ 0:01 X; ZðsÞ ¼ ðblueÞ; R2 ¼ 0:1 X; ZðsÞ ¼ ðgreenÞ
sþ1 sþ1
sþ2 10s þ 11
R2 ¼ 1 X; ZðsÞ ¼ ðredÞ; R2 ¼ 10 X; ZðsÞ ¼ ðcyanÞ:
sþ1 sþ1
8.7 Constructing a Network Function from Its Phase 621
Bode Diagram
0
System: h
Frequency (rad/sec): 1.05
Phase (deg): -2.73
System: h
Frequency (rad/sec): 1.41
-30
Phase (deg): -19.5
Phase (deg)
System: h
Frequency (rad/sec): 3.32
Phase (deg): -56.4
-60
System: h
Frequency (rad/sec): 10
Phase (deg): -78.6
-90
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
%phase_analysis1.m
%phase response analysis of Z = R2 + (R1//C1)
R1=1; C1=1; n=2 % R2 is evaluated at n+2 decades
for i=-n:1
R2=10.^(i)
z=(R1+R2)/(R1*R2*C1); p=1/(R1*C1); N=R2*[1 z];D=[1 p];
h=tf(N,D)
P = bodeoptions; % Set magnitude visiblity to off
P.MagVisible = 'off';
h = bodeplot(h,P);grid on;
hold on
wx=sqrt((R1+R2)/(R1*R1*C1*C1*R2))
phix=atan(-wx*R1*R1*C1/((R1+R2)+wx*wx*R1*R1*R2*C1*C1));
phix = radtodeg(phix)
end
Solution
1 1 1 1
RC s s sC
1 sRC RC RC ¼ C R
CðsÞ ¼ ¼
¼ :
1 þ sRC 1 1 1
RC s þ sþ sþ
RC RC RC
The pole is in LH s-plane, and the zero is in RH s-plane. There is no unique way
to assign the zero and pole of ZðsÞ, and the following may be suitable for ZðsÞ:
1 1
sC
R C
; :
1 1
sþ sþ
RC RC
The second one is a minimum phase function and it can be selected as the
answer
1
C R
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ :
1 sRC þ 1
sþ
RC
Problem 8.7.5 A general expression for the angle of a transfer function FðjxÞ is
1 F ðjxÞ 1
uðxÞ ¼ ln ¼ CðjxÞ: ð8:32Þ
j2 F ðjxÞ j2
Show that
1 þ tan uðxÞ
ðaÞ CðjxÞ ¼ ð8:33Þ
1 tan uðxÞ
ðs2 s þ 1Þð1 sÞ
(b) If CðsÞ ¼ :
ðs2 þ s þ 1Þðs þ 1Þ
Is there a unique way to assign the zeros and poles of F(s)? Comment.
Solution
(a) FðjxÞ ¼ RðxÞ þ jXðxÞ
XðxÞ
tan uðxÞ ¼ :
RðxÞ
8.7 Constructing a Network Function from Its Phase 623
From (8.32),
FðjxÞ
CðjxÞ ¼ ¼ ej2uðxÞ ð8:34Þ
FðjxÞ
ejuðxÞ ejuðxÞ
j tan uðxÞ ¼ : ð8:35Þ
ejuðxÞ þ ejuðxÞ
ej2uðxÞ 1 CðjxÞ 1
j tan uðxÞ ¼ ¼ ð8:36Þ
ej2uðxÞ þ 1 CðjxÞ þ 1
All the poles of C(s) are in LH s-plane, whereas all the zeros are located in the
RH s-plane. Therefore, there is no unique way of assigning zeros and poles of
transfer function F(s). The following functions are suitable,
1s 1 s2 s þ 1
F1 ðsÞ ¼ ; F2 ðsÞ ¼ ; F3 ðsÞ ¼ :
s2 þ s þ 1 ðs2 þ s þ 1Þðs þ 1Þ sþ1
Each of them has the same phase angle for all values of angular frequency but
different magnitudes.
The only condition that provides unique transfer function is the minimumphase
requirement imposed upon F(s). Then, the unique transfer function will be F2(s).
Problem 8.7.6 Determine the impedance function that has the phase response of
(phase_to_Z1.m)
200x3 4000x
uðxÞ ¼ tan1 :
2400x2
624 8 Network Synthesis
Solution
If ZðsÞ is a minimum phase function (i.e., no zero or pole of ZðsÞ is located in the
right half s-plane), it can be constructed uniquely (without resorting to the Hilbert
transform) from its phase or the magnitude function:
Pm
ai si M1 ðsÞ þ N1 ðsÞ AðsÞ
ZðsÞ ¼ Pi¼0
n ¼ ¼ :
i¼0 bi s
i M2 ðsÞ þ N2 ðsÞ BðsÞ
M1 ðsÞ and N1 ðsÞ are even and odd parts of numerator polynomial, while
M2 ðsÞ; N2 ðsÞ are the even and odd parts of denominator polynomial:
Im½ZðjxÞ u ðsÞ
uðxÞ ¼ tan1 ¼ tan1 o js¼jx ;
Re½ZðjxÞ ue ðsÞ
where uo ðsÞ and ue ðsÞ are odd and even polynomials, with
uo ðsÞ þ ue ðsÞ ¼ AðsÞ BðsÞ.
Procedure:
AðsÞ
ZðsÞ ¼ :
BðsÞ
200s þ 4000s
3
s þ 20s
¼ tan1 j ¼ tan 1
j
2400s2 12s2
BðsÞ ¼ ðs 2Þðs 10Þ ¼ ðs þ 2Þ½ðs þ 10Þ ¼ ðs þ 2Þðs þ 10Þ ¼ s2 þ 12s þ 20
AðsÞ s
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ :
BðsÞ s2 þ 12s þ 20
200s
ZðsÞ ¼ :
s2 þ 12s þ 20
Problem 8.7.7 Determine the impedance function that has the following phase
response (phase_to_Z1.m)
1 x3 þ 7x
uðxÞ ¼ tan :
4x2 þ 10
Solution
s
x¼ ;
j
2
3
3 2 3 3
s s s
6 j þ7 j 7 6 j j7s 7
6 7
uðxÞ ¼ tan1 6
2 7 ¼ tan1 6 44s2 þ 105
7
4 s 5
4 þ 10
j
3
3
1 js j7s 1 s 7s
¼ tan ¼ tan j
4s2 þ 10 4s2 þ 10
pðsÞ ¼ s 7s þ 4s þ 10 ¼ s 4s 7s þ 10 ¼ ðs 1Þðs þ 2Þðs 5Þ:
3 2 3 2
AðsÞ ¼ s ð2Þ ¼ s þ 2:
BðsÞ ¼ ðs 1Þðs 5Þ
BðsÞ ¼ ðs 1Þðs 5Þ ¼ ðs þ 1Þ½ðs þ 5Þ ¼ ðs þ 1Þðs þ 5Þ
AðsÞ sþ2 sþ2
ZðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ :
BðsÞ ðs þ 1Þðs þ 5Þ s2 þ 6s þ 5
626 8 Network Synthesis
-10
-20
Phase, degrees
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10
w, rad/sec
Problem 8.7.8 Data from a phase response measurement that was obtained during
a metal oxide implant corrosion study is displayed in Fig. 8.77. It is known that
unknown impedance Z(s) of this system has the equivalent circuit as given in
Fig. 8.75. Determine the component values of Z(s) and its phase function (phi.
synthesis1.m, phi.m).
Solution
Impedance function of this circuit is
1 R1 þ R2
R1 R2 s þ
sC1 R1 R1 R2 C1 k ðs þ zÞ
ZðsÞ ¼ R2 þ ¼ R2 þ ¼ ¼ :
1 sC1 R1 þ 1 1 sþp
R1 þ sþ
sC1 R1 C1
Impedance function
0:1075ðs þ 5:0995Þ
ZðsÞ ¼ :
s þ 0:1
MATLAB scripts that are used in the solution of the problem have also been
included here.
%phi_synthesis1.m
%phase response synthesis of Z = R2+(R1//C1)
clc;clear all;
global w f ff pnorm i E
R1=5; R2=0.1; C1=2; Z0=[R1 R2 C1]'% Actual data
z=(R1+R2)/(R1*R2*C1); %ZERO
p=1/(R1*C1); %POLE
N=R2*[1 z]; D=[1 p]; h=tf(N,D)
i=50; % number of samples
w = logspace(-2,2,i);[mag,phase]=bode(h,w); %phase in degrees
j=1:i;
f(j)=phase(:,:,j); %phase vector,degrees
%-------------------------optimization----------------------
%Make a guess for initial estimate x0, then invoke FMINSEARCH.
u=2.7;
x0=[u u u]';% initial guess parameters [R1 R2 C1]
pnorm=2;% norm value can be set to 2,4,8,16,32
options = optimset('TolX',0.1,'MaxFunEvals',200,'MaxIter',100);
[Z,fval,pass] = fminsearch(@(x)phi(x),x0,options)
semilogx(w,f,w,ff,'r','linewidth',2);ylabel('Phase,degrees');
xlabel('w, rad/sec');
title('Actual Phase (blue), Predicted Phase (red)');figure;
plot(E);
title('Prediction phase Error = Actual phase - Predicted phase');
ylabel('Phase Error, degrees');xlabel('w, rad/sec');
%----------resulting functions-------------------
z=(Z(1)+Z(2))/(Z(1)*Z(2)*Z(3)); %ZERO
p=1/(Z(1)*Z(3)); %POLE
Num=Z(2)*[1 z]; Den=[1 p];
H=tf(Num,Den)
%phi=atan(-aw/(b+cw^2))
628 8 Network Synthesis
a=Z(1)^2*Z(3)
b=Z(1)+Z(2)
c=Z(1)^2*Z(2)*Z(3)^2
Notes:
Initial estimate vector x0 ¼ ½ R1 R2 C1 ¼ ½ 2:7 2:7 2:7 provides a good
approximation to phase response (at 2 norm with maximum function evaluation
number = 200, with 100 iterations). Phase response is evaluated at i = 50 points
between 0.01 and 100 rad/s.
Playing with these numbers presents different phase response graphics and
provides extensive details about the optimization procedure. The reader is urged to
run these m files and demonstrate various results of changing parameters described
in this program.
The scripts used also provide an error curve which is not displayed here for
space saving reasons.
Problem 8.7.9 Use circuit in Fig. 8.75 to demonstrate numerically that an impe-
dance function Z(s) with the same poles and zeros can be realized using different
sets of component values (phi.synthesis1.m, phi.m).
Solution
Impedance function of this circuit is
1 R1 þ R2
R1 R2 s þ
sC1 R1 R2 C1 k ðs þ zÞ
ZðsÞ ¼ R2 þ ¼ ¼
1 1 sþp
R1 þ sþ
sC1 R1 C1
0:1ðs þ 5:1Þ
ZðsÞ ¼ :
s þ 0:1
8.7 Constructing a Network Function from Its Phase 629
0:1075ðs þ 5:1Þ
ZðsÞ ¼ :
s þ 0:1
0:2386ðs þ 5:1Þ
ZðsÞ ¼ :
s þ 0:1
It is seen that the same form of impedance function with identical pole and zero
values are obtained although different sets of component values are used, only
difference being the coefficient value of k, which equals to the value of resistor R2.
The solution of this problem is made easier using MATLAB scripts phi.syn-
thesis1.m and phi.m, and varying content of input vector (x0), and noting at the end
of each nonlinear optimization procedure that the approximation of phase function
remains within acceptable limits.
The reader is urged to run these MATLAB m files individually, and observe the
result of changing input vector (x0) described in this program.
Problem 8.8.1 What are the basic equations defining an impedance and
admittance?
What do microstructural models describe? Describe layer models and effective
medium models.
Solution
Basic equations defining impedance (based on impedance diagram of Fig. 8.78),
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi p
j¼ 1 ¼ ej2
ZðxÞ ¼ Z 0 þ jZ 00 ; ReðZÞ ¼ Z 0 ¼ jZj cos h; ImðZÞ ¼ Z 00 ¼ jZj sin h
Z 00
h ¼ tan1 0 ; jZj ¼ ½ðZ 0 Þ2 þ ðZ 00 Þ2 1=2
Z
ZðxÞ ¼ jZjejh ;
ejh ¼ cos h þ j sin h:
(Euler’s identity)
Admittance: Y ¼ Z 1 ¼ Y 0 þ jY 00
Impedance spectra of polycrystalline solids are related to microstructure of these
materials. Microstructural models are used to describe grains, grain boundaries,
suspensions and porous materials which fall into two types: layer models and
effective medium models.
It should be noted here that the dc parameter models are not the subject of
Impedance Spectroscopy , alone.
Complex conductivity in a microstructural model is expressed for phase i as
Wi ¼ ri þ jx 2i
where ri ¼ dc conductivity, 2i = permittivity.
An example to macroscopic property is the resistivity of a sample as a function
of its grain boundaries (measurable), while an example for microscopic property is
the resistivity of grain boundary (phase) (estimated using a model).
A model provides a hypothetical microstructure. Overall complex conductivity
is calculated for such a structure, which can be later converted to complex resis-
tivity. These are represented by equivalent electrical circuits whose parameters are
found by IS.
As an example, a Voigt (Foster 1) circuit for each phase is an equivalent circuit
to represent the complex conductivity.
Layer Models
(a) Series layer model: The phases are assumed to be stacked in layers parallel to
the measurement electrodes, see, Fig. 8.79.
For a two-phase model, using linear mixing rule (x1 þ x2 ¼ 1) complex con-
ductivity is
W1 ¼ x1 W1 1
1 þ x2 W 2 ð8:37Þ
complex resistivity,
q ¼ x1 q1 þ x2 q2 ð8:38Þ
with
r1 ¼ x1 g1 ; r 2 ¼ x 2 g2 ð8:39Þ
21 ¼ x1 C1 ; 2 2 ¼ x2 C 2 ð8:40Þ
(b) Parallel layer model: The phases are assumed to be stacked across the mea-
surement electrodes, see, Fig. 8.80.
W ¼ x1 W 1 þ x2 W 2 ð8:42Þ
2W1 þ W2 2xðW1 W2 Þ
Wt ¼ W1 : ð8:45Þ
2W1 þ W2 þ xðW1 W2 Þ
ðW W2 Þð1 xÞ
Wt ¼ W2 þ x P 1 ð8:46Þ
3
1þ i¼1 ðW1 W2 Þ=ðui W1 þ W2 Þ
3
(with negated part of imaginary axis and omitted positive imaginary values) con-
sists of a semicircle (Fig. 8.82).
Problem 8.8.2 Describe briefly some applications of IS in medical field.
Solution
In the medical field, electrical impedance spectroscopy has applicability in neo-
plastic conditions to differentiate between normal, precancerous, and cancerous
tissues (neoplasias). In these applications, EIS exploits the different electrical re-
sistivities of each specific tissue type based on its cellular structure. It can be
applied for the diagnosis of various cancers and precancerous conditions (e.g.,
within the cervical and gastro-esophageal cancer diagnostic pathway).
Electrical spectroscopic properties are known to change during the development
of neoplasia, with more dysplastic tissue exhibiting a reduced resistance to the flow
of current as a result of physical changes in its structure. If one measures the
electrical impedance at different frequencies, then it is possible to create a char-
acteristic spectrum according to the structure of the tissue. Each reading is given a
nominal value which is compared to a reference, providing a semi-quantitative,
reproducible assessment of the tissue such as cervical tissue.
In one research, [15] a pencil probe (diameter 5 mm) was used to measure
electrical impedance spectra from eight points on the cervix in 124 women with
abnormal cervical smears. Variables that should be sensitive to the expected tissue
changes were calculated. These were compared with the colposcopic results. The
measured electrical impedance changes were those predicted on the basis of the
expected tissue structures. Measurements made on normal squamous tissues were
well separated from those made on precancerous tissues. characteristics of the
electrical impedance spectra of tissues can be explained by changes in cell
arrangements (layering) and in the size of the nuclei. This relation opens the way to
deriving tissue structure from electrical impedance spectral measurements. EIS
634 8 Network Synthesis
approach can be used to give good separation of normal and precancerous cervical
tissues.
Another study [16] recruited women referred to colposcopy with an abnormal
Papanicolaou smear. A pencil probe incorporating four gold electrodes was used to
measure electrical impedance spectra from cervical epithelium. Colposcopy
examinations, including probe positioning, were video recorded to allow for cor-
relation between results obtained from colposcopic impression, histopathologic
examination of colposcopic punch biopsies, and impedance measurements.
Cervical impedance-derived parameters were assessed to see if significant differ-
ence in values obtained in CIN and normal epithelium existed. The performance of
the probe in identifying women with CIN was also assessed. 176 women were
recruited and 1168 points analyzed. It was concluded that cervical impedance
spectrometry provides a potentially promising real-time screening tool for CIN with
similar sensitivity and specificity to currently used screening tests.
Balasubramani et al. [17] reported their EIS studies in which a pencil type probe
was used to record impedance spectra from 12 points on the cervix before and after
the application of 5% acetic acid (AA). Spectra were also recorded from tissue
boundaries (165 women, either with a clinical indication or abnormal cervical
cytology, were recruited into the study). The results showed no significant differ-
ence, indicating that application of AA does not produce a large change in spectra.
The probe could distinguish tissue boundaries from homogeneous tissue points.
Tidy et al. [18] presented a prospective, comparative, multi-center (two in
England and one in Ireland) clinical study recruiting 474 women (referred with
abnormal cytology). They concluded that if EIS is used as an adjunct to colposcopy,
it improves colposcopic performance, and the addition of EIS could lead to more
appropriate patient management with lower intervention rates.
References [19–28] are other examples of continuing research related to this
field.
Problem 8.8.3 In impedance spectroscopy, the circuits shown in Fig. 8.83 are
named as Voigt and Maxwell models, respectively. In electrical circuits (synthesis)
these are known as Foster 1 and Foster 2 forms of an RC driving point impedance.
Driving point impedances of both circuits are the same at all frequencies if
Ra ¼ R1 þ R2 ð8:47Þ
C1 C2
Ca ¼ ð8:48Þ
C1 þ C2
R1 R2 ðR1 þ R2 ÞðC 1 þ C2 Þ2
Rb ¼ ð8:49Þ
ðR1 C 1 R2 C2 Þ2
ðR1 C1 R2 C 2 Þ2
Cb ¼ : ð8:50Þ
ðC1 þ C2 ÞðR1 þ R2 Þ2
8.8 Impedance Spectroscopy 635
R1 R2 ðC1 þ C2 Þs þ ðR1 þ R2 Þ
Zf ðsÞ ¼ : ð8:51Þ
R1 C1 R2 C2 s2 þ ðR1 C1 þ R2 C2 Þs þ 1
Driving point impedance for the second (lower) circuit of Fig. 8.83 is calculated
as follows:
Ra
sCa Ra
Za ðsÞ ¼ Ca k Ra ¼ ¼
1 1 þ sRa Ca
Ra þ
sCa
1 1 þ sRb Cb
Zb ðsÞ ¼ þ Rb ¼
sCb sCb
Ra 1 þ sRb Cb
:
1 þ sRa Ca sCb
Zm ðsÞ ¼ Za ðsÞ k Zb ðsÞ ¼
Ra 1 þ sRb Cb
þ
1 þ sRa Ca sCb
Ra ð1 þ Rb Cb sÞ
Zm ðsÞ ¼
sCb Ra þ ð1 þ sCb Rb Þð1 þ sCa Ra Þ
sRa Rb Cb þ Ra
¼
sCb Ra þ 1 þ sCa Ra þ sCb Rb þ s2 Ca Cb Ra Rb
636 8 Network Synthesis
sRa Rb Cb þ Ra
Zm ðsÞ ¼ : ð8:52Þ
s2 Ca Cb Ra Rb þ sðCa Ra þ Cb Rb þ Ra Cb Þ þ 1
Ra ¼ R1 þ R2 ð8:53Þ
Ra Rb Cb ¼ R1 R2 ðC1 þ C2 Þ; C1 C2 R1 R2 ¼ Ca Cb Ra Rb
Ca Ra þ Cb Ra þ Cb Rb ¼ C1 R1 þ C2 R2 :
Ca R1 R2 ðC1 þ C2 Þ ¼ C1 C2 R1 R2 ! Ca ðC1 þ C2 Þ ¼ C1 C2
C1 C2
Ca ¼ :
C1 þ C2
C2 R1 R2 s þ ðR1 þ R2 Þ
Zc ðsÞ ¼ ð8:54Þ
C1 C2 R1 R2 s2 þ ðR1 C1 þ R2 C2 þ C1 R2 Þs þ 1
Cb Ra Rb s þ Ra
Zm ðsÞ ¼ : ð8:55Þ
Ca Cb Ra Rb s2 þ ðCa Ra þ Cb Rb þ Cb Ra Þ þ 1
Ra ¼ R1 þ R2 ð8:56Þ
Cb Ra Rb ¼ C2 R1 R2 ð8:57Þ
Ca Cb Ra Rb ¼ C1 C2 R1 R2 ð8:58Þ
Ca Ra þ Cb Rb þ Cb Ra ¼ R1 C1 þ R2 C2 þ C1 R2 : ð8:59Þ
Ca ðC2 R1 R2 Þ ¼ C1 C2 R1 R2
Ca ¼ C1 : ð8:60Þ
C2 R1 R2
Cb Rb ¼ : ð8:61Þ
R1 þ R2
C2 R1 R2
C1 ðR1 þ R2 Þ þ þ Cb ðR1 þ R2 Þ ¼ R1 C1 þ R2 C2 þ C1 R2
R1 þ R2
C2 R1 R2
Cb ðR1 þ R2 Þ ¼ R1 C1 þ R2 C2 þ C1 R2 R1 C1 C1 R2
R1 þ R2
R1
R2 C2 1
2
R1 þ R2 R2
Cb ¼ ¼ C2 : ð8:62Þ
R1 þ R2 R1 þ R2
In summary,
Ra ¼ R1 þ R2 ; Ca ¼ C1
2
R1 R2
Rb ¼ ðR1 þ R2 Þ; Cb ¼ C2 :
R2 R1 þ R2
638 8 Network Synthesis
Rp
Z 0 ¼ Re½ZðjxÞ ¼ Rs þ ð8:64Þ
ðxRp CÞ2 þ 1
ðxRp CÞ2
Z 00 ¼ Im½ZðjxÞ ¼ : ð8:65Þ
1 þ ðxRp CÞ2
A modified plot of this equation is shown in Fig. 8.86. Note that the sign of
ordinate axis is minus. As a rule, this sign convention is used for drawing spec-
trograms in IS.
Problem 8.8.6 An electrical circuit model used to simulate impedance spectro-
scopic data of a composite material is shown in Fig. 8.87 [29]. These kinds of
circuits represent time constants as a measure of accessibility of different parts of an
internal layer surface. The circuit includes an electrolytic resistance in the outermost
layer (=R1) and subsequent resistances related to conductivity in the inner layers.
8.8 Impedance Spectroscopy 639
(e) Plot magnitude and phase functions of Z(jx) for data set given in part (b).
(f) Plot Im[Z(jx)] versus Re[Z(jx)] for the same data set given in part (b). List the
values of real and imaginary parts of impedance function at pole frequencies
(Nyquist1.m).
Solution
(a) The circuit is equivalent to an RC ladder circuit, as shown in Fig. 8.88.
One terminal of this equivalent circuit is shown to be grounded (which may not
be necessarily the case).
It can be noted from this equivalent circuit that dc resistance seen at the ter-
minals of of driving point impedance equals to the sum of all resistances that
appear in the equivalent circuit.
(b) Z(s), using component values of Ci ¼ 1 F; Ri ¼ 1 X; i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; 7 is com-
puted as
(d) Foster 1 equivalent form circuit component values of Fig. 8.89 are:
R ¼ ½ R1 R2 ... R7 ; C ¼ ½ C1 C2 . . . C7 ;
R ¼ ½ 0:0030 0:0132 0:0352 0:0822 0:2000 0:6315 6:0349 ðXÞ
C ¼ ½ 86:7508 22:6676 10:8541 6:7902 5:0000 4:1459 3:7914 ðFÞ:
MATLAB script for ladder circuit transfer function calculation from component
values is given below (Impedance_calc1.m).
syms s
R=1;C=1;
z1=R; y1=1/z1; y2=s*C+y1; z2=1/y2;
z3=R+z2; y3=1/z3; y4=s*C+y3; z4=1/y4;
z5=R+z4; y5=1/z5; y6=s*C+y5; z6=1/y6;
z7=R+z6; y7=1/z7; y8=s*C+y7; z8=1/y8;
z9=R+z8; y9=1/z9; y10=s*C+y9; z10=1/y10;
z11=R+z10; y11=1/z11; y12=s*C+y11; z12=1/y12;
z13=R+z12; y13=1/z13; y14=s*C+y13; z14=1/y14;
%N=numerator, D=Denominator
[N,D] = numden(z14)
The plot of Im[Z(jx)] versus Re[Z(jx)] for data set given in part (b) is shown in
Fig. 8.90. The graph consists of 50 data points and it is drawn between angular
frequencies of 0.001–1000 rad/s.
The values of real and imaginary parts of impedance function at pole frequencies
are listed as follows:
Nyquist Diagram
4
2
Imaginary Axis
-1
-2
-3
-4
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Real Axis
x Re(jx) Im(jx)
3.8271 0.0530 0.2362
3.3383 0.0658 0.2647
2.6180 0.0944 0.3213
1.7909 0.1564 0.4253
1.0000 0.3002 0.6248
0.3820 0.6974 1.0875
0.0437 3.9743 3.1003
Problem 8.8.7
(a) Discuss the use of Kramers–Kronig (K–K) relations (Hilbert transform) for
impedance spectrum validation.
(b) What are the limitations of K–K method for impedance spectrum
(EIS) consistency verification?
Solution
(a) Electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) data analysis requires the fulfillment
of causality, linearity, finiteness, and stability conditions. Noncompliance with
any of these conditions may cause wrong interpretations. The Kramers–Kronig
relations are helpful tools in EIS consistency verification.
Let ZðjxÞ ¼ Z 0 ðxÞ þ jZ 00 ðxÞ be an analytic complex function. The Kramers–
Kronig relations are used to calculate the imaginary part from real part of the
complex physical (stable) functions (or vice versa). The real and imaginary
parts of such a function are dependent, and the full function can be recon-
structed given just one of its parts. Z 0 ðxÞ is an even and Z 00 ðxÞ is an odd
function of frequency.
The Kramers–Kronig relations (in a physically realistic form) are
8.8 Impedance Spectroscopy 643
Z1
0 0 2 xZ 00 ðxÞ xZ 00 ðxÞ
Z ðxÞ Z ð1Þ ¼ dx
p x2 x2
0
Z1
00 2x Z 0 ðxÞ Z 0 ðxÞ
Z ðxÞ ¼ dx:
p x2 x 2
0
Problem 8.8.8 A microporous isotropic layer of Titanium Oxide has been pro-
duced on a Titanium substrate. Four points in-line probe measurements (with equal
interelectrode spacing of 1 cm) yield data as shown in Table 8.2.
(a) Compute and plot bulk electrical resistivity of the sample as a function of
frequency.
(b) If thickness of the oxide layer is 1 µm, compute and plot sheet resistance as
function of frequency (Rho Tio2 1.xlsx).
644 8 Network Synthesis
Solution
(a) qðxÞ ¼ 2pd jZðjxÞj ¼ 2 3:141592 0:01 jZðjxÞj Xm
Resistivity values computed from given data are plotted as shown in Fig. 8.91.
(b) If TiO2 film thickness is t = 1 µm, t d,
p 3:141592
Rsh ðxÞ ¼ jZðjxÞj ¼ jZðjxÞj ¼ 4:5324 jZðjxÞj Xm:
lnð2Þ 0:69315
Rho
350.0
300.0
250.0
Rho, ohm.m
200.0
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
1 10 100 1000
frequency, Hz
Rsh
25,000.0
20,000.0
Rsh, ohm.m
15,000.0
10,000.0
5,000.0
0.0
1 10 100 1000
frequency, Hz
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Lancet 355:892–895
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in the detection of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Int J Gynaecol Cancer 16:1823–1832
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17. Balasubramani L, Brown BH, Healey J, Tidy JA (2009) The detection of cervical
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Measurement of high frequency electrical transfer impedances from biological tissues.
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impedance measurements. Electron Lett 37(25):1515–1517
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(2003) Low frequency electrical bioimpedance for the detection of inflammation and
dysplasia in Barrett’s oesophagus. Physiol Meas 24(2):291–296
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spectroscopy: a new tool to assess early esophageal changes linked to gastroesophageal
reflux disease? Dis Esophagus 24:462–469
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dysplasia. Oncology News March–April issue
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Chapter 9
Two-Port Networks
Solution
V1
z11 ¼ ¼ open circuit input impedance ¼ R1 þ R2 ¼ 30 X
I1 I2 ¼0
V2
z22 ¼ ¼ open circuit output impedance ¼ R2 ¼ 20 X
I1 I1 ¼0
V1
z12 ¼ ¼ open circuit transfer impedance from port 1 to port 2 ¼ R2 ¼ 20 X
I2 I1 ¼0
V2
z21 ¼ ¼ open circuit transfer impedance from port 2 to port 1 ¼ R2 ¼ 20 X
I1 I ¼0
2
30 20
½ z ¼ X
20 20
(Fig. 9.2).
Problem 9.3 Determine the z-parameters for the circuit shown in Fig. 9.3.
ðR1 ¼ 50 X; R2 ¼ 60 X; R3 ¼ 70 XÞ:
9 Two-Port Networks 649
Solution
Problem 9.4 Calculate z-parameters of the circuit as shown in Fig. 9.4, using pi to
T (D YÞ network transformation, with
1
Za ¼ R; Zb ¼ sL; Zc ¼
sC
Solution
Za Zb R sL s2 RLC
Z1 ¼ ¼ ¼
Z a þ Z b þ Zc 1 sRC þ s2 LC þ 1
R þ sL þ
sC
1
Za Zc R R
Z2 ¼ ¼ sC ¼
Z a þ Z b þ Zc 1 sRC þ s2 LC þ 1
R þ sL þ
sC
1 L
Zb Zc sL sL
Z3 ¼ ¼ sC ¼ C ¼
Z a þ Z b þ Zc 1 sRC þ s2 LC þ 1 sRC þ s2 LC þ 1
R þ sL þ
sC sC
s RLC þ R
2
Rðs2 LC þ 1Þ
z11 ¼ Z1 þ Z2 ¼ 2 ¼
s LC þ sRC þ 1 s2 LC þ sRC þ 1
R þ sL
z22 ¼ Z2 þ Z3 ¼
s2 LC þ sRC þ 1
R
z12 ¼ z21 ¼ Z2 ¼ 2 :
s LC þ sRC þ 1
(Fig. 9.5)
Problem 9.5 Determine z-parameters of a circuit, the y-parameters of which are
given as
s 1=2
y¼ :
1=2 2
Solution
y22 2 8
z11 ¼ ¼ ¼
Dy 1 8s 1
2s
4
y12 1=2 2
z12 ¼ z21 ¼ ¼ ¼
Dy 1 8s 1
2s
4
y11 s 4s
z22 ¼ ¼ ¼ :
Dy 1 8s 1
2s
4
Therefore,
2 3
8 2
6 17
½z ¼ 4 8s 2 1 8s4s 5:
8s 1 8s 1
9 Two-Port Networks 651
6 2 4
Za ¼ z11 z12 ¼ 1 þ ¼ 1þ
s s s
3 2 1
Zb ¼ z22 z12 ¼ s þ ¼ s þ
s s s
2
Zc ¼ z12 ¼ z21 ¼ :
s
The circuit of Fig. 9.7 can be constructed using following component values:
1 1
R1 ¼ 1 X; C1 ¼ F; C2 ¼ F; C3 ¼ 1 F; L ¼ 1 H:
4 2
652 9 Two-Port Networks
Problem 9.7 Thevenin equivalent of the circuit at the output terminal (without ZL )
is as follows (Fig. 9.8):
z12 z21
ZTh ¼ z22
z11 þ Zs
z21
VTh ¼ Vs
z11 þ Zs
For
10 20
½Z ¼ X; Zs ¼ Rs ¼ 50 X; Vs ¼ 760 VðrmsÞ:
30 200
Find the load impedance for maximum power transfer and power delivered to
the load.
Solution
Since the circuit is purely resistive, maximum power transfer condition is fulfilled if
Zth ¼ ZL ¼ RL
z12 z21 20 30 600
ZTh ¼ z22 ¼ 200 ¼ 200 ¼ 190 X
z11 þ Zs 10 þ 50 60
Vth 2 V2 ð760Þ2
Pmax ¼ Rth ¼ th ¼ ¼ 760 W:
2Rth 4Rth 4 190
Problem 9.8 Use SPICE, and obtain z-parameters for the circuits in Fig. 9.9.
(z1.cir), (z2.cir).
R1 ¼ 4 X; R2 ¼ 8 X; R3 ¼ 10 X; R4 ¼ 2 X; R5 ¼ 6 X; R6 ¼ 12 X:
Solution
The z-parameters z11 ; z21 are obtained by applying a current source I1 at the input
and measuring input voltage V1 and V2 , and then calculating
V1 V2
z11 ¼ and z21 ¼ ;
I1 I1
while z22 ; z12 are obtained by applying a current source I2 at the output and mea-
suring output voltages V2 and V1 ; and then calculating
V2 V1
z22 ¼ and z12 ¼ :
I2 I2
sðs2 þ 3sÞ
y22 ¼ :
ðs2 þ 2Þðs2 þ 4Þ
Solution
s3 þ 3s
y22 ðsÞ ¼
s4 þ 6s2 þ 8
1 s4 þ 6s2 þ 8 3s2 þ 8
ZA ¼ ¼ ¼ s þ ¼ sL1 þ ZB
y22 s3 þ 3s s3 þ 3s
L1 ¼ 1 H
(Fig. 9.10)
1
1 s3 þ 3s 1 s
YB ¼ ¼ 2 ¼ s þ 23 ¼ sC2 þ YC
ZB 3s þ 8 3 3s þ 8
C2 ¼ 1 F
(Fig. 9.11)
1 3s2 þ 8 24
ZC ¼ ¼ ¼ 9s þ
YC 1 s
s
3
L3 ¼ 9 H
1
C4 ¼ F:
24
Since all transmission zeros of H ðsÞ are at s ¼ 1; Cauer’s first form can be used to
realize y22 ,
s2 þ 1 1 1 1 1 pffiffiffi
y22 ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffi s þ pffiffiffi ¼ Cs þ ! C ¼ pffiffiffi F; L ¼ 2 H
2s 2 2s Ls 2
s2 L þ s
L
þ
1 p ffiffi
ffi pffiffiffi pffiffiffi 2 pffiffiffi
R RC C 2s2 þ 2s þ 2 2ðs þ 2s þ 1Þ
Z ðsÞ ¼ sL þ ¼ ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffi
1 þ sRC 1 s þ 2 sþ 2
sþ
pffiffiffi RC
2 1
Z ðsÞ ¼ pffiffiffi :
s þ 2 H ðsÞ
V0 ðsÞ 106
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ 2 ;
Vi ðsÞ s þ 106 s þ 109
M1 ðsÞ
H ðsÞ ¼ ;
M2 ðsÞ þ N2 ðsÞ
where M and N are even and odd parts of numerator and denominator polynomials.
Since all transmission zeros of H ðsÞ are at s ¼ 1; Cauer’s first form can be used to
realize y22
M2 s2 þ 109 6 103 1
y22 ¼ ¼ ¼ 10 s þ ¼ sC þ
N2 106 s s sL
C ¼ 106 F; L ¼ 1 mH:
By unscaling,
106
RL ¼ 50 1 ¼ 50 X; L ¼ 50 mH; C ¼ F ¼ 20 nF:
50
1
Rþ
y22
Z ðsÞ ¼ z11 :
R þ z22
1 pffiffiffi
C ¼ pffiffiffi F; L¼ 2 H
2
Solution
Two-port parameters of LC circuit (without termination resistor) are
pffiffiffi
s2 LC þ 1 pffiffiffi s2 þ 1 s2 þ 1 1 2
z11 ¼ ¼ 2 ; y22 ¼ pffiffiffi ; z22 ¼ ¼ :
sC s 2s sC s
1
1þ
1 s þ 1 pffiffiffi 2
pffiffiffi
1þ pffiffiffi
y22 pffiffiffi s2 þ 1 2 s 2ðs2 þ 2s þ 1Þ
Z ðsÞ ¼ z11 ¼ 2 pffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffi :
1 þ z22 s 2 sþ 2
1þ
s
Problem 9.13 Synthesize the two-port RC VTF,
k
H ðsÞ ¼ ;
ð s þ aÞ ð s þ bÞ
with a ¼ 3; b ¼ 5 (cauerRC1.m)
Solution
z21 k
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ð9:1Þ
z11 ðs þ aÞðs þ bÞ
Select z11 as
ðs þ aÞðs þ bÞ
z11 ¼ ; c\a\d\b: ð9:2Þ
ðs þ cÞðs þ d Þ
658 9 Two-Port Networks
k
z21 ¼ :
ð s þ cÞ ð s þ d Þ
Using Cauer’s first form (continued fraction expansion) to realize z11 will yield
H ðsÞ, and letting c ¼ 1; d ¼ 4 in Eq. (9.2):
ðs þ 3Þðs þ 5Þ s2 þ 8s þ 15
z11 ðsÞ ¼ ¼ 2 :
ð s þ 1Þ ð s þ 4Þ s þ 5s þ 4
The circuit in Fig. 9.16 (with the computed component values) is obtained using
Cauer’s first form (CauerRC1.m) to realize z11 , and thus H ðsÞ:
1 9 2 1
R1 ¼ 1 X; C1 ¼ F; R2 ¼ X; C2 ¼ F; R3 ¼ X.
3 4 3 2
Note that the output voltage V2 is taken across the last resistor element R3 .
Problem 9.14 Realize following voltage transfer functions (VTFs) by lossless
circuits each terminated by R = 1 Ω load resistors.
V 2 ðsÞ 1
(a) H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ;
V1 ðsÞ 3s3 þ 3s2 þ 4s þ 1
V 2 ðsÞ 1
(b) H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ 4 ;
V1 ðsÞ 3s þ 3s þ 5s2 þ 4s þ 1
3
V 2 ðsÞ 1
(c) H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ;
V 1 ð s Þ ð s þ 3Þ 3
V 2 ðsÞ 1
(d) H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ :
V1 ðsÞ s3 þ 12 s2 þ 3s þ 1
Solution m1
1 m 1 þ n1 m1 n2 y21
(a) H ðsÞ ¼ 3 ¼ ¼ ¼ m ¼
3s þ 3s þ 4s þ 1 m2 þ n2 m2 þ n2 1 þ
2 2 1 þ y22
n2
9 Two-Port Networks 659
m2 3s2 þ 1
y22 ¼ ¼ 3 :
n2 3s þ 4s
All transmission zeros of H(s) are at s = ∞, y22 can be realized using Cauer’s
first form.
Since denominator polynomial of y22 has a degree higher than the degree of
numerator of y22 ;
1 3s3 þ 4s 1
Z¼ ¼ 2 ¼ sþ :
y22 3s þ 1 1
sþ
3s
Because y22 (and Z) “looks” from the output of “LC circuit” to the LC circuit,
first element is L1 = 1 H; then C2 = 1 F, and L3 = 3 H. Realized circuit is shown in
Fig. 9.17.
m1
V2 ðsÞ 1 m1 n2 y21
ðbÞ H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
V1 ðsÞ 3s4 þ 3s3 þ 5s2 þ 4s þ 1 m2 þ n2 1 þ m2 1 þ y22
n2
m2 3s4 þ 5s2 þ 1
y22 ¼ ¼ :
n2 3s3 þ 4s
All transmission zeros of H(s) are at s = ∞, and y22(s) can be realized using
Cauer’s first form:
1
y22 ðsÞ ¼ s þ
1
3s þ
1
sþ
s
C1 ¼ 1 F; L2 ¼ 3 H; C3 ¼ 1 F; L4 ¼ 1 H:
1 m2
(c) H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ :
s3 þ 3s2 þ 3s þ 1 m2 þ n2
Since the degree of denominator of y22 is higher than the degree of its numerator,
by Cauer’s first form
1 s3 þ 3s 1 1
Z¼ ¼ 2 ¼ sþ
y22 3s þ 1 3 9 1
sþ
8 8
s
3
1 9 8
L1 ¼ H; C2 ¼ F; L3 ¼ H:
3 8 3
1 2
m2 2 s þ 1
y22 ¼ ¼ 3 :
n2 s þ 3s
Since the degree of denominator of y22 is higher than the degree of its numerator,
by Cauer’s first form:
9 Two-Port Networks 661
1 2
s þ1 s3 þ 3s 2s3 þ 6s 1
Y ¼ 23 !Z¼ ¼ 2 ¼ 2s þ
s þ 3s 1 2 1s þ 2 1 1
s þ1 sþ
2 2 s
1
L1 ¼ 2 H; C2 ¼ F; L3 ¼ 1 H:
2
Solution
(a) Dropping s-operator for convenience,
V0 ¼ V2
V i ¼ R s I1 þ V 1
V2
V0 V2 I1 z12
H¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
Vi Rs I1 þ V1 V1 Rs þ z11
Rs þ
I1
Vi
(b) Z ¼ Rs þ z11 ¼
I1
V0
V0 V0 V2 1 1 z21
H¼ ! Vi ¼ !Z¼ H ¼ ¼ z21 ¼ :
Vi H I1 I1 H H H
662 9 Two-Port Networks
Problem 9.16
(a) Realize the VTF of a third-order normalized filter
k
H ðsÞ ¼ ;
B3 ðsÞ
where B3 ðsÞ is a third-order Bessel polynomial, and k = 25/2. Use a lossless circuit,
source terminated by a Rs = 1 Ω resistor (cfe.m).
(b) Is this a Bessel type low-pass filter?
Solution
(a) B3 ðsÞ ¼ s3 þ 6s2 þ 15s þ 15:
Thus,
m1
12:5 m1 n z12
H ðsÞ ¼ 3 ¼ ¼ m2 2 ¼ :
s þ 6s þ 15s þ 15 m2 þ n2
2
þ 1 1 þ z11
n2
All transmission zeros of H(s) are at s = ∞, Cauer’s first form can be used to
realize z11 :
m2 6s2 þ 15 1 1 1 12 5
z11 ¼ ¼ 3 ¼ sþ ; L1 ¼ H; C2 ¼ F; L3 ¼ H:
n2 s þ 15s 6 12 1 6 25 6
sþ
25 5
s
6
15
H 3 ðsÞ ¼ :
B 3 ðsÞ
Problem 9.17
(a) Why h-parameters are called hybrid parameters? Draw the h-parameter
equivalent network of a two-port network.
(b) What are the z–z and h–h relationships for reciprocal networks?
Solution
(a) The z- and y-parameters of the part networks sometimes do not exist. For
example, ideal transformer does not have z-parameters. This third set of
parameters is called hybrid, since they are a hybrid combination of ratios:
V 1 V 1 I 2 I 2
h11 ¼ ; h12 ¼ ; h21 ¼ ; h22 ¼ ;
I 1 V2 ¼0 V 2 I1 ¼0 I 1 V 2 ¼0 V 2 I1 ¼0
where
h11 is short-circuit input impedance
h12 is open-circuit reverse voltage gain
h21 is short-circuit forward current gain
h22 is open-circuit output admittance.
Problem 9.18 Determine the h-parameters for the circuit of Fig. 9.3 from its z-
parameters.
ðR1 ¼ 50 X; R2 ¼ 60 X; R3 ¼ 70 XÞ:
Solution
120 70
½z ¼ X
70
130
Dz z12 z21 1
h11 ¼ ; h12 ¼ ; h21 ¼ ; h22 ¼
z22 z22 z22 z22
Dz ¼ z11 z22 z12 z21 ¼ ð120Þð130Þ ð70Þ2 ¼ 15600 4900 ¼ 10700
10700 70
h11 ¼ ¼ 82:31 X; h12 ¼ ¼ 0:538
130 130
70 1
h21 ¼ ¼ 0:538; h21 ¼ ¼ 0:0077 S:
130 130
664 9 Two-Port Networks
hie ¼ h11 ¼ 1 kX; hre ¼ h12 ¼ 104 ; hfe ¼ h21 ¼ 100; hoe ¼ h22 ¼ 10 lS:
A signal source with 1 kX output impedance (in series with hie ¼ h11 ) supplies
1 mV sinusoidal signal to the input of the transistor (base). A 10 kX load resistor is
connected to the collector of the transistor (in parallel to hoe ¼ h22 ).
(a) Determine I1 ; I2 ; V1 ; V2 :
(b) Determine voltage gain, ðV2 =V1 Þ:
(c) Determine the current gain, ðI2 =I1 Þ:
(d) Determine the input impedance of the circuit, ðV1 =I1 Þ:
Solution
(a) For the input circuit,
V2
I2 ¼ ¼ hfe I1 þ hoe V2
RL
I2 ¼ 104 V2 ¼ 100I1 þ 10 106 V2 ! 0 ¼ 100I1 þ 104 þ 105 V2
or in matrix equation,
103 2000 104 I1
¼ :
0 100 0:00011 V2
9 Two-Port Networks 665
V2 476
(b) AV ¼ ¼ ¼ 923:8 ðV=VÞ
V1 0:515
I2 47:6
(c) AI ¼ ¼ ¼ 91:54 ðA=AÞ
I1 0:52
V1 0:515 mV
(d) Ri ¼ ¼ ¼ 990 X:
I1 0:52 lA
Solution
(a) hie ¼ h11 ; hfe ¼ h21 ; hoe ¼ hre ¼ 0 ¼ h22 ¼ h12
v0 ¼ hfe ib ¼ RL ; Vi ¼ hie ib
v0 hfe ib RL hfe
AV ¼ ¼ ¼ RL :
vi hie ib hie
100 50
50 ¼ RL ¼ 0:1RL ! RL ¼ ¼ 500 X
1000 0:1
v0 hfe ib RL hfe RL
Avs ¼ ¼ ¼ :
vs ðRs þ hie Þib Rs þ hie
666 9 Two-Port Networks
100RL RL
50 ¼ ! 50 ¼ ! RL ¼ 5500 X:
11000 110
Problem 9.21 A two-port network is tested as follows:
With the output short circuited and the input current is 1 mA, the output current is
0.1 mA and the output voltage is measured as 3 V.
With the input open circuited and a voltage of 1 V applied to the output, the output
current is 0.02 mA and the input voltage is measured as 0.3 mV.
Determine the h-parameters of this network.
Solution
V1 3V
h11 ¼ ¼ ¼ 3 kX
I1 V2 ¼0 1 mA
I2 0:1 mA
h21 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:1
I1 V2 ¼0 1 mA
I2 0:02 mA
h22 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:02 mS
V2 I1 ¼0 1V
V1 0:3 mV
h12 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:3 103 :
V2 I1 ¼0 1V
Problem 9.22 Determine the y- and h-parameters of a two-port, if [z] has the form of
1280 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 1027:2 0:51
ðaÞ ; ðbÞ ; ðcÞ ; ðdÞ ; ðeÞ
10 0 10 10 20 0 5 1 1:3 12:53
(z_to_y_h.m).
Solution
z22 z12 z11 z21
y11 ¼ ; y12 ¼ ; y22 ¼ ; y21 ¼
Dz Dz Dz Dz
Dz z12 z21 1
h11 ¼ ; h12 ¼ ; h21 ¼ ; h22 ¼ :
z22 z22 z22 z22
00:1
(a) ½ y ¼ ; ½h does not exist ðz22 ¼ 0Þ
12:8
0:1
0 1
(b) [y] does not exist Dz ¼ 0; ½h ¼ ;
1 0:1
9 Two-Port Networks 667
Reference
1. Darlington S (1939) Synthesis of reactance 4-poles which produce prescribed insertion loss
characteristics. J Math Phys 18:257–353
Chapter 10
Operational Amplifiers
Problem 10.1.1
(a) Determine the ½z; ½y, and ½h parameters of the inverting op-amp circuit.
(b) In an inverting op-amp configuration of Fig. 10.1, input resistor value is 1 kΩ,
while the feedback resistor value is 10 kΩ. If vi ðtÞ ¼ 10 sinð5tÞ mV, determine
the output voltage.
Solution
(a) For an inverting op-amp circuit, V 1 ¼ V i ; V 2 ¼ V o ;
V1 V2
z11 ¼ ¼ Ri ; z22 ¼ ¼ 0;
I1 I2
V1 V2
z12 ¼ ¼ 0; z21 ¼ ¼ Rf ;
I2 I1
Ri 0
½Z ¼
Rf 0
[y] does not exist for an invertin op-amp circuit, since [z]−1 does not exist
(determinant = 0). Since, Z22 ¼ 0; ½h does not exist for an inverting op-amp
circuit.
Rf
(b) vo ðtÞ ¼ vi ¼ 10 10 sin 5t ¼ 100 sin 5t ðmVÞ
Ri
Problem 10.1.2 For the ideal inverting op-amp configuration, calculate output
voltage, the current supplied by the voltage source to input resistor of 1 kΩ, and
current magnitude through the feedback resistor with a value of 10 kΩ, if the input
signal is 1 mV dc voltage.
Solution
Rf 10
Vo ¼ Vi ¼ 1 mV ¼ 10 mV
Ri 1
Vi 1 mV
i¼ ¼ ¼ 1 lA
Ri 1 kX
R jV0 j R jVi j
V0 ¼ Vi ! ¼ ! Rx ¼ R
Rx jVi j Rx jV 0 j
2:5
Rx ¼ 1 ¼ 0:25 kX ¼ 250 X
10
V0 10 ðVÞ
i¼ ¼ ¼ 10 mA
R 1 ðkXÞ
Rf
V0 ¼ Vi
Ri
V0 ¼ 1 V if Tchamber ¼ Tambient ; Rf ¼ Ri
V0 [ 1 V if Tchamber \Tambient ; Rf [ Ri
V0 \1 V if Tchamber [ Tambient ; Rf \Ri
Problem 10.1.5
(a) Find out the expression V0 = f (V1, V2, V3) for the circuit shown in Fig. 10.4.
(b) What happens if feedback resistor value Rf is greater than R?
(c) If v1 = sin2t, v2 = −sin3t, v3 = sin4t, V0 =? Plot the signals. (Plot_
time_function_1.m)
Solution
(a) By KCL at node a
( )
1 X3
i1 þ i2 þ i3 i ¼ ðVi Va Þ ðVa Vo Þ ¼ 0;
R i¼1
X
3
Va ¼ Vb ¼ 0 V; ! V1 þ V2 þ V3 þ Vo ¼ 0 ! Vo ¼ Vi
i¼1
(b) This is a summer circuit with inverted output. If the feedback resistor = Rf > R
there is amplification,
Rf
Vo ¼ ðV1 þ V2 þ V3 Þ
R
t=0:0.01:10;
v0=-sin(2*t)+sin(3*t)-sin(4*t);
plot(t,sin(2*t),'r',t,-sin(3*t),'g',t,sin(4*t),'k');hold on;
plot(t,v0,'linewidth',2);xlabel('t [s]');ylabel('Vo(t) [V]');
title('Vo(t)=-sin(2*t)+sin(3*t)-sin(4*t)');
legend('sin(2*t)','-sin(3*t)','sin(4*t)','v0(t)'); grid on;
Vo(t)=-sin(2*t)+sin(3*t)-sin(4*t)
3
sin(2*t)
-sin(3*t)
2 sin(4*t)
v0(t)
1
Vo(t) [V]
-1
-2
-3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
t [s]
Fig. 10.5 The signals at the terminals of inverting summing amplifier circuit
Solution
0 1 0 1
R R
B C B C
V0 ¼ @ 2 A V1 @ 2 A V2
R R
2
1 1 1
¼ V1 V2 ¼ V1 þ V2 ¼ 3 þ ð3Þ ¼ 1:5 V
2 2 2
Problem 10.1.8 Use two ideal op-amps and seven resistors at maximum, to
implement the equation,
Solution
R2 R 2R
V01 ¼ V1 ¼ V1 ¼ V1 ; V02 ¼ V2 ¼ 2V2
R1 R R
3R 4R
V03 ¼ V3 ¼ 3V3 ; V04 ¼ V4 ¼ 4V4
R R
Problem 10.1.9 Two signals, Vdc ¼ 2 V; and Vs ¼ 5 sin xt are available. A signal
Vo ¼ ð5 þ 5 sin xtÞ is to be obtained using an op-amp inverting summer circuit.
Realize this circuit.
Solution
(Figure 10.11)
R1
Vo1 ¼ Vdc ¼ 5
R3
R1 R1
2 ¼ 5 ! ¼ 2:5ðX=XÞ
R3 R3
R1 R1 R1
Vo2 ¼ Vs ¼ 5 sin xt ¼ 5: sin xt
R2 R2 R2
R1 ¼ R2 ; ! Vo2 ¼ 5 sin xt;
R1
Vo ¼ Vo1 þ Vo2 ¼ Vdc 5 sin xt
R3
Vn Vo 8 Vn
¼
10k 5k
Vn Vo ¼ 16 2Vn ! Vo ¼ 16 2Vn Vn ¼ 16 3Vn
Vo ¼ 3Vn 16
Since Vp ¼ Vn ¼ 4 V; Vo ¼ 3 4 16 ¼ 12 16 ¼ 4 V
Problem 10.1.11
(a) What is the input resistance of an inverting op-amp circuit with a 1 kΩ resistor
connected to its inverting terminal and feedback resistor value is 100 kΩ ?
(b) If input voltage source Vs has an internal resistance of Rs = 99 kΩ, what is the
signal strength at the input of inverting op-amp circuit?
(c) In a practical application, the required gain of an inverting op-amp configu-
ration is G = 200. It is required that the input resistance be 1 MΩ, or less. The
resistors in stock are all less than 1 MΩ. Design an inverting amplifier to satisfy
these conditions.
Solution
Vi Vi
(a) Ri ¼ ¼ ¼ R1
ii Vi
R1
Therefore, Ri ¼ R1 ¼ 1 kX.
(b) Using voltage division rule,
R1 1 kX
Vi ¼ Vs ¼ Vs ¼ 0:01Vs
Rs þ R1 99 kX þ 1 kX
Rf Rf
G ¼ 200 ¼ ¼ ! Rf ¼ 200 MX
Ri 1 MX
Here,
V ¼ V þ ¼ 0
Vi V Vi Vi R2
ii ¼ ¼ ¼ iR2 ; Va ¼ V iR2 R2 ¼ R2 ¼ Vi
R1 R1 R1 R1
0 Va Va R2 1 R2
iR3 ¼ ¼ ¼ Vi ¼ Vi
R3 R3 R1 R3 R1 R3
Vi R2
iR2 þ iR3 iR4 ¼ 0 ! iR4 ¼ þ Vi
R1 R1 R3
Select R2 ¼ R4 ¼ 1 MX,
R4 R4 1 MX 1 MX
199 ¼ 1 þ ! 198 ¼ ¼ ! R3 ¼ ¼ 5:05 kX:
R3 R3 R3 198
678 10 Operational Amplifiers
Problem 10.1.12 Derive the voltage transfer function for the noninverting op-amp
configuration, Fig. 10.14.
Solution
Since no current flows to input terminals of op-amp, by employing nodal analysis at
node a,
Va Va Vo
¼
R1 R2
Vi Vi Vo
¼
R1 R2
dividing both sides by Vi and arranging one obtains the resulting equation,
Vo R2
¼ 1þ
Vi R1
Problem 10.1.13 Determine the voltages (V0) of the circuits shown in Fig. 10.15.
Solution
(a) Inspection of circuit shown in Fig. 10.15a (left) reveals that ðR1 k R3 Þ, Thus,
R1 k R3 R1 R3
V0 ¼ Vb ¼ Vb
R2 R2 ðR1 þ R3 Þ
(b) In the circuit shown in Fig. 10.15b (right), there is no current flow through
resistor R4 . The second op-amp is a buffer circuit, thus, the voltage at the output
of first op-amp has the same value as found in part (a).
Problem 10.1.14
(a) A signal V1 ¼ AX B is given where A, B are constant terms (voltages) and
X is the measurand. Design a noninverting summer to obtain the output signal
of the linear form V0 ¼ AX, without using negative reference voltages.
(b) Repeat part (a) using a differencing circuit.
Solution
(a) The output voltage of a possible circuit shown in Fig. 10.16 is,
Rf 2 1
V0 ¼ 1þ ðV1 R2 þ V2 R1 Þ
Rf 1 R1 þ R2
If R1 ¼ R2 ¼ Rf 2 ¼ Rf 1 ¼ R,
1 1
V0 ¼ ð1 þ 1Þ ðV1 R þ V2 RÞ ¼ 2 RðV1 þ V2 Þ ¼ ðV1 þ V2 Þ
2R 2R
V2 ¼ B; V1 ¼ AX B; V0 ¼ ðAX BÞ þ B ¼ AX
Problem 10.1.15
(a) In the circuit shown in Fig. 10.18, determine the current through the load
resistor RL.
(b) Calculate the value of R, if the current through RL is to be 1 mA, U = 2.5 V,
RL = 1 kΩ.
(c) Find the voltage at the output of op-amp.
Solution
(a) Due to op-amp property, V+ = V−, the current through R is iR ¼ U=R which is
also the current through RL. The circuit acts as a constant current source for the
floating RL.
(b) Using given values,
2:5 V
R¼ ¼ 2:5 kX
1 ðmAÞ
Problem 10.1.16
(a) Determine the voltage at the output of op-amp circuit shown in Fig. 10.19.
(b) Determine the output voltage, if V1 ¼ V2
Solution
R2
Let V2 ¼ 0; ! V0 ¼ V1 1 þ ;
R1
(a)
R2
Let V1 ¼ 0; ! V0 ¼ V2
R1
Summing above (output) equations (superposition !),
R2 R2 R2 R2 R2
V0 ¼ V1 1 þ V2 ¼ V1 þ V1 V2 ¼ V1 þ ðV1 V2 Þ
R1 R1 R1 R1 R1
(b) V1 ¼ V2 ;
R2 R2
V0 ¼ V2 þ ð2V2 Þ ¼ V2 1 þ 2
R1 R1
Solution
R3
(a) Vb ¼ V2 ¼ Va
R3 þ R2
V2 R3 V2 R3
V1 Vo
V1 Va Va Vo R2 þ R3 R þ R3
¼ ! ¼ 2
R1 R4 R1 R4
V1 ðR2 þ R3 Þ V2 R3 V2 R3 Vo ðR2 þ R3 Þ
¼
R1 ðR2 þ R3 Þ R4 ðR2 þ R3 Þ
R4 V1 ðR2 þ R3 Þ V2 R3 R4 ¼ V2 R3 R1 Vo ðR2 þ R3 ÞR1
V1 R4 ðR2 þ R3 Þ V2 R3 R4 V2 R3 R1 ¼ Vo R1 ðR2 þ R3 Þ
R4 ðR2 þ R3 Þ ðR3 R4 þ R1 R3 Þ
V1 V2 ¼ Vo
R1 ðR2 þ R3 Þ R1 ðR2 þ R3 Þ
R3 ðR1 þ R4 Þ R4
V2 V1 ¼ Vo
R1 ðR2 þ R3 Þ R1
(b) If R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R3 ¼ R4 ¼ R; V2 V1 ¼ Vo
(c) If R4 ¼ R3 ¼ Ad ; R3 ¼ Ad R2 ; R4 ¼ Ad R1
R1 R2
A d R 2 ðR 1 þ A d R 1 Þ Ad R1 Ad R1 R2 ð1 þ Ad Þ
Vo ¼ V2 V1 ¼ V2 V1 Ad
R1 ðR2 þ Ad R2 Þ R1 R1 R2 ð1 þ Ad Þ
Vo ¼ Ad V2 Ad V1 ¼ Ad ðV2 V1 Þ
Solution
For ideal op-amp;
R4 1
Vþ ¼ U ¼ 1 ¼ 0:5 V; V þ ¼ V ¼ 0:5 V
R3 þ R4 2
U V U V 1 0:5
i¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:5 mA
R2 R1 1
10
Problem 10.1.19 Find the voltage transfer ratio in the circuit shown in Fig. 10.22.
Solution
R4
Vþ ¼ Vi ¼ V
R4 þ R3
R2 R2 R4
V0 ¼ 1 þ Vþ ¼ 1 þ Vi
R1 R1 R4 þ R3
V0 R2 R4
¼ 1þ
Vi R1 R4 þ R3
Solution
R2 10
vo ¼ ðv2 v1 Þ ¼ ðv2 v1 ÞV
R1 1
¼ 10½10 sinð2p50tÞ þ sinð2p500tÞ 10 sinð2p50tÞ þ sinð2p500tÞ
vo ¼ 10½2 sinð2p500tÞ ¼ 20 sinð2p500tÞ V
Problem 10.1.21 Find the output voltage of differential amplifier circuit shown in
Fig. 10.24,
if V1 ¼ 10 sinð2p 60tÞ 0; 1 sinð2p 1000tÞ, and V2 ¼ 10 sinð2p 60tÞ þ
0; 1 sinð2p 1000tÞ.
Solution
20R
V0 ðtÞ ¼ ðV2 V1 Þ ¼ 20ðV2 V1 Þ
R
¼ 20½0:1 sinð2p 1000tÞ ½0:1 sinð2p 1000tÞ
¼ 20½0:2 sinð2p 1000tÞ ¼ 4 sinð2p 1000tÞV
Problem 10.1.22 Design (i.e., determine the resistor values for) a differential
amplifier with Vo = 10(V2 − V1), using a 10 kΩ feedback resistor.
Solution
Figure 10.25 is the circuit topology for op-amp-based differential amplifier.
Since the voltage gain is given by
R2 R4
¼ ¼ 10; ! R3 ¼ R1 ¼ 1 kX; ! R2 ¼ R4 ¼ 10 kX
R1 R3
Problem 10.1.23 Design a noninverting amplifier with voltage gain G = 15 V/V
using a single op-amp and maximum four resistors consisting of 15 and 1 kX.
Solution
Rf Rf
G ¼ 1þ ! 14 ¼
Ri Ri
Solution
R4 R2
Vþ ¼ ðV1 V0 Þ ¼ V ¼ ðV2 V0 Þ
R3 þ R4 R1 þ R2
R4 R2
ðV1 V0 Þ ¼ ðV2 V0 Þ
R3 þ R4 R1 þ R2
R4 R4 R2 R2
V1 V0 ¼ V2 V0
R3 þ R4 R3 þ R4 R1 þ R2 R1 þ R2
R2 R4 R2 R4
V0 V0 ¼ V2 V1
R1 þ R2 R3 þ R4 R1 þ R2 R3 þ R4
R2 R4 R2 R4
V0 ¼ V2 V1
R1 þ R2 R3 þ R4 R1 þ R2 R3 þ R4
R2 R4
V2 V1
R1 þ R2 R3 þ R4 R2 ðR3 þ R4 ÞV2 R4 ðR1 þ R2 ÞV1
V0 ¼ ¼
R2 R4 R2 ðR3 þ R4 Þ R4 ðR1 þ R2 Þ
R1 þ R2 R3 þ R4
Denominator: R2 R3 þ R2 R4 R1 R4 R2 R4 ¼ R2 R3 R1 R4
Finally,
V2 R2 ðR3 þ R4 Þ V1 R4 ðR1 þ R2 Þ
V0 ¼
R2 R3 R1 R4
Problem 10.1.25 Determine the output signal for the op-amp circuit shown in
Fig. 10.28.
(Rf1 = 10 kΩ, Rf2 = 5 kΩ, R = 1 kΩ).
Solution
The output of first op-amp (left) is (inverting summer),
Rf 1
Vo1 ¼ ðV1 þ V2 Þ
R
Solution
Vo 2R1 R3
¼ 210 ¼ 1þ
Vd RG R2
Problem 10.1.28 Calculate the ratio, Vs =Is for circuit shown in Fig. 10.31, in terms
of three resistor values. What function does this circuit perform?
Solution
Noninverting amplifier output is,
R2
Vo ¼ Vs 1 þ
R1
Solution
Use an inverting op-amp configuration. Since the amplification factor is (−10), one
may select the feedback resistor 10 kX, input resistor as 1 kX. Figure 10.32 dis-
plays input (red) and output (blue) signals. The SPICE netlist is attached.
'v(1)' 'v(3)'
1
0
voltage [V]
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
time [sec]
Fig. 10.32 The input (red) and output (blue) signals for the circuit of Problem 10.1.29
690 10 Operational Amplifiers
'v(1)' 'v(3)'
6
5
voltage [V]
0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5
time [sec]
Fig. 10.33 The input (red) and output (blue) signals for the circuit of Problem 10.1.30
'v(1)' 'v(3)'
10.0
0.0
-10.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
time [sec]
inverting ac amplifier
.lib national.lib
VCC 10 0 DC 15 V
VEE 11 0 DC -15 V
*vi 1 0 SIN(bias Vm f )
vi 1 0 SIN(0 1 10)
Ri 1 2 1 k
Rf 2 3 10 k
XOA1 0 2 10 11 3 LM741
*XOA1 NI I + - Vo LM741
*tran .1 m 0.5 0 1 m uic
'v(3)'
12.0
8.0
4.0
Voltage [V]
0.0
-4.0
-8.0
-12.0
-3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0
sweep [V]
Fig. 10.35 The input output curve for the circuit in Problem 10.1.32
VEE 11 0 DC -12 V
vi 1 0 dc 1v
Ri 1 2 1 k
Rf 2 3 10 k
XOA1 0 2 10 11 3 LM741
*XOA1 NI I + - Vo LM741
*.dc vi -3 3 .1
Problem 10.1.33 There’s an error voltage present at the output of an op-amp due
to unbalances in its internal transistors and resistors. The net error is modeled as an
offset voltage, Voff, in series with op-amp’s input terminals. The input offset
voltage ranges from microvolts to millivolts, it can be either polarity. (The cause of
input offset voltage is due to the inherent mismatch of the input transistors and
components during fabrication of the silicon die, and stresses placed on the die
during the packaging process (minor contribution). These effects collectively pro-
duce a mismatch of the bias currents that flow through the input circuit, and
primarily the input devices, resulting in a voltage differential at the input terminals
of the op-amp. It has been reduced with modern manufacturing processes through
increased matching and improved package materials and assembly [1]).
Use SPICE and build a noninverting op-amp circuit with gain of (11). Apply 0 V
to its input. What do you measure at the output? What is the input offset voltage for
this op-amp?
Solution
Since the amplification factor is 11, one may select the feedback resistor 10 kX,
input resistor as 1 kX . Figure 10.36 displays the output signal. It is noted here that
when the input signal is 0 V, output signal is measured as 12 mV. Therefore the
input offset voltage is calculated as 12/11 = 1.091 mV.
10.1 Basic Op-amp Circuits 693
15.0m
'v(3)'
5.0m
0.0m
0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
time [sec]
Fig. 10.36 The output signal for the circuit in Problem 10.1.33
Analysis: Transient
OPAMP OFFSET VOLTAGE 741
.lib national.lib
VCC 10 0 DC 12 V
VEE 11 0 DC -12 V
vi 1 0 dc 0mv
Ri 2 0 1 k
Rf 2 3 10 k
XOA1 1 2 10 11 3 LM741
*XOA1 NI I + - Vo LM741
*.tran 1 10 0 uic
LT1001 Ib
Fig. 10.38 The input bias current as a function of input CM voltage for LT1001
OP27 Ib
Fig. 10.39 The input bias current as a function of input CM voltage for OP27
LM741 Ib
Fig. 10.40 The input bias current as a function of input CM voltage for 741
Figs. 10.41, 10.42 and 10.43. Test circuit is a buffer op-amp configuration, and
input current is plotted against temperature sweep. (For the netlist, refer to .cir file).
Problem 10.1.37 A NTC Thermistor is shunted by a fixed resistor Rp. Determine
the equation of op-amp output voltage as a function of thermistor temperature, in
the circuit of Fig. 10.44.
Solution
The equation of op-amp output voltage as a function of thermistor temperature can
be derived as follows: Thermistor R-T exponential relationship,
696 10 Operational Amplifiers
LT1001:
OP 27:
LM 741:
T T0
1 1
b
RT ¼ R0 e ð10:1Þ
Rp RT
Ri ¼ Rp k RT ¼ ð10:2Þ
Rp þ RT
b 2TM
Rp ¼ RTM ð10:4Þ
b þ 2TM
Problem 10.1.38
(a) Determine the voltage at the output of op-amp as a function of temperature in
the circuit shown in Fig. 10.45. RT = R(T) denotes a NTC thermistor and Rs is
the linearization resistor.
(b) Use MATLAB to plot the voltage at the output of op-amp as a function of
temperature for Vi = −2.5 V, Rf = 1.5 kX, NTC thermistor is EPCOS
Solution
Ri ¼ Rs þ RT ; ð10:8Þ
T T0
1 1
b
RT ¼ R0 e ð10:9Þ
Rf Rf
V0 ðT Þ ¼ Vi ¼ Vi ð10:10Þ
Ri Rs þ RT
b 2TM
Rs ¼ RTM ð10:11Þ
b þ 2TM
Rf ðb þ 2TM Þ
V0 ðT Þ ¼ Vi ð10:12Þ
2TM ðRT RTM Þ þ RT ðb þ 2TM Þ
Rf ðb þ 2TM Þ
V0 ðT Þ ¼ Vi ð10:13Þ
2TM ðRT RTM Þ þ RT ðRT þ RTM Þ
Rf ðb þ 2TM Þ
V0 ðTM Þ ¼ Vi ð10:14Þ
2bRTM
1.9
1.8
1.7
Vs, V
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46
temperature, C
Solution
Ri ¼ Rs þ RT ; ð10:15Þ
RM ðRH þ RL Þ 2RH RL
Rs ¼ ð10:16Þ
RH þ RL 2RM
V0 ðT Þ Rf Rf
¼ ¼ ð10:17Þ
Vi Ri Rs þ RT
At this stage, this equation is not processed further and left in its relatively
implicit form.
(b) First, an R-T characteristic curve for the given type of NTC thermistor element
(EPCOS–TDK- C620/2.2 k) is obtained (in plotted as well as in text data form)
in LTSPICE, see, Fig. 10.48. Then, data (in text file) is exported into
MATLAB (LTSPICE File/export/select trace to export; then go back to “all
files,” select relevant .txt file—open to check its contents first—then close,
drag-and-drop by Mouse from LTSPICE/all files area into MATLAB current
file area, then initiate file/import data procedure, after “data1” file appears in the
MATLAB workspace, it is copied into current file area and renamed as
TRdata1.mat for future applications). The R-T curve is replotted in MATLAB,
as shown in Fig. 10.49. (Remark to trace name).
Fig. 10.48 The R-T characteristic curve for an NTC thermistor (SPICE plot)
6000
5000
Resistance ohms
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature C
(c) If the slope p1 and offset p2 of the first-order function are computed via curve
fitting, first-order linear approximation as a function of temperature T has the
form y ¼ p1:T þ p2. The voltage transfer function Vs = V0/Vi (as a function of
temperature) is plotted (without any attempt to use the beta parameter of given
thermistor, Rf = 1.5 kX) along with the approximating first-order polynomial
function (Vss = −0.01508T − 0.1739) as shown in Fig. 10.50. Vs is a lin-
earized voltage transfer function using a single series resistor and Vss is the best
linear approximation to this function in least square sense.
Then, first-order linearization error in voltage transfer function is
errV ¼ y VS
Vs p2
t¼
p1
errT ¼ t T
0
Vs
-0.2 Vss
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
Vs & Vss, V
-1
-1.2
-1.4
-1.6
-1.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
temperature, C
Fig. 10.50 Graph of the voltage transfer function along with the approximating first-order
polynomial as functions of temperature
10.1 Basic Op-amp Circuits 703
0.06
0.04
0.02
error, V/V
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
temperature, C
It is noted here that larger temperature spans cause relatively large errors.
Working in smaller temperature ranges considerably reduces the temperature
measurement error. This is demonstrated in Fig. 10.52. It should also be pointed out
that each interval change results in a different value of resistance in series with NTC
thermistor element. For example, thermistor linearization within 0–25 °C temper-
ature interval requires a series implementation of a resistor with a value of
2665.3 X, in contrast to Rs = 722.2 X for a temperature range of 0–100 °C, and
Rs = 1647.4 X for 0–50 °C.
This circuit is advantageous as compared to bare series resistor and NTC ther-
mistor linearization implementation, because inverting op-amp configuration pro-
vides the strength of slope adjustment possibility (which is a significant matter).
This is illustrated in Fig. 10.51. As it would be expected, feedback resistor change
is reflected on transfer function slope, directly proportional to the value of feedback
resistor.
However, by running circuit simulation studies at different feedback resistance
values at a constant temperature interval, it is noted that feedback resistance vari-
ation does not influence the temperature error, besides the voltage gain and the
voltage error, all are functions of temperature (Figs. 10.52 and 10.53).
A MATLAB script (thermlin7.m) for thermistor linearization using inverting
op-amp:
704 10 Operational Amplifiers
1
Temp.error, C
-1
-2
-3
-4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
temperature, C
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
Vs
-0.8 Vss
Vs & Vss, V
-1
-1.2
-1.4
-1.6
-1.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
temperature, C
Fig. 10.53 The voltage transfer function at different feedback resistance values at a constant
temperature interval
10.1 Basic Op-amp Circuits 705
Problem 10.1.40 In the circuit shown in Fig. 10.54, determine the voltage transfer
ratio.
Solution
KCL at (a):
Va Vo Va Va Vs Va Vo Va Va Vs
þ þ ¼0 ! þ þ ¼0
Rf R2 R1 Rf Rf R2 R1 R1
1 1 1 Vs Vo
Va þ þ ¼ ð10:18Þ
R2 Rf R1 R1 Rf
Vb Vb Vs Va Va Vs
þ ¼0 ! þ ¼0
R4 R3 R4 R3 R3
1 1 Vs
Va þ ¼
R3 R4 R3
Vs Vs R3 R4 R4
Va ¼ ¼ ¼ Vs ð10:19Þ
1 1 R3 ðR3 þ R4 Þ R3 þ R4
R3 þ
R3 R4
(10.19) ! (10.18):
R4 Vs 1 1 1 Vs Vo
þ þ ¼
R3 þ R4 R2 Rf R1 R1 Rf
Vo R4 1 1 1 1
¼ Vs þ þ
Rf R3 þ R4 R2 Rf R1 R1
Vo R4 1 1 1 1
¼ A ¼ Rf þ þ V=V
Vs R3 þ R4 R2 Rf R1 R1
Problem 10.1.41 Is the circuit shown in Fig. 10.55, always suitable for a
biomedical temperature or pressure sensing application?
Solution
Diffamp used in this circuit has low-input impedance. It will load the Wheatstone
bridge.
Ra ¼ R1 þ R2 k ðRi þ Rf Þ
Vs
ia ¼
Ra
R2 Ri þ Rf R2 Ri þ Rf
Va ¼ ia ¼ Vs ð10:20Þ
R2 þ Ri þ Rf R1 R þ R2 Ri þ Rf
R2
Va ¼ Vs ð10:21Þ
R1 þ R2
U
Vþ ¼ ¼ V
2
U U
U V0 U U 2V0
i¼ 2 ¼ 2 ! ¼
R R þ DR 2R 2ðR þ DRÞ
U ðR þ DRÞ ¼ RðU 2V0 Þ ¼ UR 2V0 R ! U ðR þ DRÞ UR ¼ 2V0 R
U
V0 ¼ DR
2R
Problem 10.1.43 Determine the voltage at the output of circuit shown in
Fig. 10.57.
Solution
R R
Vþ ¼ ¼ ¼ V ð10:22Þ
R þ R þ DR 2R þ DR
U V V V0
i¼ ¼ ð10:23Þ
R R þ DR
U V V V0
¼ ð10:24Þ
R R R þ DR R þ DR
V0 U 1 1
¼ V þ ð10:25Þ
R þ DR R R R þ DR
Solution
R4 10 R2 20
Va ¼ Vi ¼ Vi ¼ 0:833Vi ; Vb ¼ Vi ¼ Vi ¼ 0:625Vi
R3 þ R4 2 þ 10 R1 þ R2 12 þ 20
Vo ¼ GðVa Vb Þ ¼ 22 ð0:833 0:625ÞVi ¼ 4:583 Vi
Vo
¼ 4:583 ðV=VÞ
Vi
(b) Inspection of the AD 620 data sheet given by its manufacturer [5] (Analog
Devices Inc., Norwood, MA, U.S.A), shows that AD620 is a monolithic in-
strumentation amplifier based on a modification of the classic three op-amp
approach. Absolute value trimming allows the user to program gain with a
single resistor. The gain is given by
R1 þ R2
G¼ þ1
RG
where the internal gain resistors, R1 and R2, are trimmed to 24.7 kX, then, the
gain equation becomes
49:4 kX
G¼ þ1
RG
The gain adjusting resistor value is calculated by substituting given gain value
into this equation,
49:4 kX 49:4 kX
RG ¼ ¼ ¼ 2:35 kX
G1 22 1
Problem 10.1.45 Design a Wheatstone bridge to measure the voltage over a Pt 100
type temperature sensor placed in one of its grounded arms using a commercially
available instrumentation amplifier (IA) with overall gain of 10 V/V. Run a
simulation using SPICE, and plot the voltage at the output of IA against resistance
of the sensor (wheatstone2.cir, ad620.cir).
Solution
Let R4 represent the sensor, and select the values of the other 3 resistors equal to
100 X. As the IA, AD620 (Analog Devices Inc.) can be used in this circuit. SPICE
Node assignments are shown in Fig. 10.59. The gain adjusting resistor value for the
IA is calculated by substituting given gain value (G = 10) into the following
equation,
49:4 kX 49:4 kX
RG ¼ ¼ ¼ 5:488 kX
G1 10 1
While the resistor R4 of the Wheatstone bridge is linearly varied between 0 and
100 X, the output of instrumentation amplifier changes as shown in Fig. 10.60. Due
to supply voltage limiting, output voltage of the instrumentation amplifier saturates
for R4 < 69 X.
(1 ms corresponds 1X on the horizontal axis, e.g., 82 ms corresponds a resis-
tance value of R4 = 82 X1).
SPICE net list:
wheatstone bridge with variable resistor
.lib ad620.cir
VCC 1 0 DC 12 V
VEE 5 0 DC -12 V
R1 1 2 100
R2 2 0 100
1
Voltage-controlled resistor simulation can also be performed by using “step parameter” statement
(e.g., .step param R 100 60 1 = sweep R from 100 to 60 by 1 X increments, see, for example,
LTSPICE). This requires no further effort to make axis manipulations. Introducing R parameter as
the variable component name is sufficient for a straightforward analysis.
10.1 Basic Op-amp Circuits 711
'v(4)'
12.0
10.0
Vout [V] 8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
60.0m 70.0m 80.0m 90.0m 100.0m
time [sec]
Fig. 10.60 Voltage at the output of IA against resistance of the sensor. Note that, horizontal axis
(in time) corresponds to the resistance of the sensor, e.g., 82 ms corresponds a resistance value of
R4 = 82 X
R3 1 3 100
*decreasing R4 causes increasing voltage at the output v4
R5 4 0 10Meg
R6 7 8 5.48888 k
*R6 is adjusted for gain=10 ;Formula: Rg=49.4/(G-1), in kiloohm
*XOA1 NI I + - Vo 0 Rg1 Rg2 ad620
XOA1 2 3 1 5 4 0 7 8 ad620
*VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED RESISTOR
* Control Voltage
Vcont 10 0 PWL(0mS 0 V 100mS 1.0 V)
R10 10 0 1MEG
* VCR subcircuit call
XVC1 30 10 0 VCR
.Subckt VCR 1 2 4 5
*Resistor terminals: 1,2 Control terminals: 4,5
eRes 1 3 Poly(2) (6,0) (4,5) 0 0 0 0 1
Vsense 3 2 DC 0 V
Fcopy 0 6 Vsense 1
RRes 6 0 100
.ends
*v(4) is plotted
*.tran 1 ms 100 ms 0 1 ms
Problem 10.1.46
(a) Determine the voltage at the output of noninverting amplifier of Fig. 10.61.
(b) Comment on the form of relationship between the output voltage and the
change of sensor resistance.
712 10 Operational Amplifiers
(c) Calculate the output voltage at 100 °C, if R3 is a Pt 100 type sensor (use
first-order approximation), R6 = 10 kX, R5 = 1 kX, U = 5 V.
Solution
The voltage at (a) is at virtual ground due to op-amp. Then, the current through R1
and R3 becomes
U U
I¼ ¼ ð10:26Þ
R1 R3
The current through R3 is the same as above, but its direction is negative with
respect to virtual ground . Since no current flows to the noninverting terminal of
op-amp through R5 , the voltage difference Vab is;
R3 R2
Vab ¼ ½U ðU Þ ð10:27Þ
R1 þ R3 R2 þ R4
U ðU DUÞ 2U þ DU 2U DU
R2 ¼ R2 ¼ R2 þ R2 ð10:30Þ
R2 þ R4 R2 þ R4 R2 þ R4 R2 þ R4
2U
R2 ¼ 0 ð10:31Þ
R2 þ R4
Then,
DU DU
Vb ¼ R2 ¼ ð10:32Þ
R2 þ R4 R4
1þ
R2
R4 R3
¼ ð10:33Þ
R2 R1
DU
Vb ¼ ð10:34Þ
R3
1þ
R1
If R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R3 ¼ R4 ,
DU ¼ I DR3 ð10:35Þ
U DR3 U DR
Vb ¼ ¼ ð10:36Þ
2 R3 2 R
V0 ¼ k DR ð10:39Þ
where;
U R6
k¼ 1þ ð10:40Þ
2R R5
714 10 Operational Amplifiers
R3 ¼ R0 ð1 þ aT Þ ¼ R0 þ aR0 T ¼ R0 þ DR ð10:41Þ
U DR UAaR0 T UAaT
V0 ¼ A ¼ ¼ ð10:42Þ
2 R 2R0 2
Here,
R6
A ¼ 1þ
R5
R6 ¼ 10 kX; R5 ¼ 1 kX; U ¼ 5 V; a ¼ 3:9 103
5 ð1 þ 101Þ 3:9 103
V0 ¼ T ¼ 107:25 103 T
2
At T ¼ 100 C,
Problem 10.1.47
(a) Determine the voltage at the output of the circuit shown in Fig. 10.62.
(b) Comment on the form of relationship between the output voltage and the
change of sensor resistance [6].
(c) Calculate the output voltage at 100 °C, if R3 is a Pt 100 type sensor (use
first-order approximation), R5 = 10 kX, R1 = R4 = 1 kX, U = 15 V,
a = 3.9 10−3
Solution
The voltage at (a) is at virtual ground due to op-amp. Then, the current through R1
and R3 becomes
U
I¼ ð10:43Þ
R1
The current through R3 is the same as above, but its direction is negative with
respect to virtual ground. Due to inverting behavior of the first (left) op-amp circuit,
the voltage at node c becomes
R3
Vc ¼ U ð10:44Þ
R1
Second op-amp to the right side of the bridge is wired as an inverting summer
circuit,
R5 R5
Vo ¼ U Vc ð10:45Þ
R2 R4
In balanced case,
R4 R3
¼
R2 R1
Which causes the output voltage to be zero volt. Let R3 be a sensor and a
variation take place in its value so that its new resistance becomes
Then,
R5 U R4 R3 þ DR3 R5 U R4 R3 DR3
Vo ¼ ¼ ð10:48Þ
R4 R2 R1 R4 R2 R1 R1
716 10 Operational Amplifiers
First two terms within the last parenthesis cancel out (balance condition),
R5 U DR3 R5 U
Vo ¼ ¼ k DR3 ; where k¼ ð10:49Þ
R4 R1 R1 R4
(b) This equation indicates that the output voltage is directly proportional to the
change in transducer resistance.
(c) If R3 is a Pt 100 type sensor a first-order approximation, with a ¼ 3:9 103 ,
gives
then,
R5 U
Vo ¼ k DR3 ¼ kaR0 T ¼ aR0 T ð10:51Þ
R1 R4
At 100 °C,
Problem 10.1.48
(a) In the circuit shown in Fig. 10.63, R4 is a transducer with a linear dependency
on the measure and x (temperature, pressure, strain…), i.e., R4 ¼
RN ð1 axÞ; R1 ¼ R3 and balanced bridge condition is obtained when
R2 = R4 = RN.
Find the voltage at the output of the instrumentation amplifier.
(b) State the condition under which the output voltage is a linear function of
measurand [7].
(c) Calculate V0 under the condition found in part (b), if g = 1, G = 9 V/V,
VR = 1.2 V, T = 100 °C for a RTD Pt 100 type temperature sensor.
10.1 Basic Op-amp Circuits 717
Solution
(a) Assume that only Wheatstone bridge with an external supply voltage at Vd
exists. Then
g ax
Vab ¼ 2
ax ð10:52Þ
ð 1 þ gÞ 1þ
1þg
here,
R1 R3
g¼ ¼ ð10:53Þ
R2 RN
Now, include the interface circuit. The voltage at the output of instrumentation
amplifier is
g ax
V0 ¼ G Vab ¼ G 2
ax Vd ð10:54Þ
ð1 þ gÞ 1þ
1þg
Vc ¼ bV0 ð10:55Þ
It is then fed to the noninverting input of unity gain differential amplifier circuit
whose other input is supplied by the reference voltage ðVR Þ. The output of
differencing circuit is
718 10 Operational Amplifiers
Vd ¼ bV0 þ VR ð10:56Þ
GgaxbV0 GgaxVR
¼ þ ð10:58Þ
2 ax 2 ax
ð 1 þ gÞ 1 þ ð 1 þ gÞ 1 þ
1þg 1þg
GgaxbV0 GgaxVR
V0 ¼ ð10:59Þ
2 ax 2 ax
ð 1 þ gÞ 1 þ ð 1 þ gÞ 1 þ
1þg 1þg
2 3
6 Ggaxb 7 GgaxVR
V0 6
41 75 ¼ ð10:60Þ
ax ax
ð 1 þ gÞ 2 1 þ ð 1 þ gÞ 2 1 þ
1þg 1þg
ax
GgaxVR ð1 þ gÞ2 1 þ
1þg GgaxVR
V0 ¼ ¼
2 ax 2 ax
ð1 þ gÞ 1 þ Ggaxb ð1 þ gÞ 1 þ Ggaxb
1þg 1þg
ax
ð 1 þ gÞ 2 1 þ
1þg
ð10:61Þ
(b) Factorize denominator,
GgaxVR
V0 ¼ " # ð10:62Þ
2 ax Ggaxb
ð 1 þ gÞ 1 þ
1 þ g ð 1 þ gÞ 2
GgaxVR
V0 ¼ ð10:63Þ
ax
ð 1 þ gÞ 2 1 þ ð1 þ g GgbÞ
1þg
If
1þg
bG ¼ ð10:64Þ
g
10.1 Basic Op-amp Circuits 719
GgaxVR
V0 ¼ ð10:65Þ
ax 1þg
ð 1 þ gÞ 2 1 þ ð1 þ g gÞ
1þg g
GgaxVR
V0 ¼ ¼ kx ð10:66Þ
ð 1 þ gÞ 2
This result indicates that the voltage obtained at the output of instrumentation
amplifier is linearly proportional to measurand value x under the condition that
the Eq. (10.64) is satisfied. The proportionality constant is
GgaVR
k¼ ð10:67Þ
ð1 þ gÞ2
100
¼ 0:0392 V ¼ 39:2 mV
255
Problem 10.1.50 Design a 5-bit Digital-to-Analog converter (DAC) using R-2R
circuit at the input of an op-amp.
Solution
The circuit of Fig. 10.64 is the solution.
Vo iRf
if Rf ¼ 2R
b 1 b2 b3 b4 b5
D¼ þ þ þ þ
2 1 22 23 24 25
V
Io ¼ ; Vo ¼ U D
64R
720 10 Operational Amplifiers
Solution
VR VR VR VR VR
i¼ b1 þ b2 þ b3 þ b4 þ b5
R 2R 4R 8R 16R
2 VR b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 2 VR
i¼ þ 2þ 3þ 4þ 5 ¼ B
R 2 2 2 2 2 R
Let Rf = R/2,
VR R
Vo ¼ i Rf ¼ 2 B ¼ VR B
R 2
0 0 0 0 0
B0 ¼ þ þ þ 4 þ 5¼0
2 22 23 2 2
0 0 0 0 1 1 1
B1 ¼ þ þ þ 4þ 5¼ 5¼ V
2 22 23 2 2 2 32
0 0 0 1 0 2
B2 ¼ þ þ þ 4þ 5¼ V
2 22 23 2 2 32
0 0 0 1 1 3
B3 ¼ þ þ þ 4þ 5¼ V
2 22 23 2 2 32
0 0 1 0 0 4
B4 ¼ þ þ þ 4þ 5¼ V
2 22 23 2 2 32
1 1 1 1 0 30
B5 ¼ þ þ þ 4þ 5¼ V
2 22 23 2 2 32
...
1 1 1 1 0 30
B30 ¼ þ þ þ þ ¼ V
2 22 23 24 25 32
1 1 1 1 1 31
B31 ¼ þ 2þ 3þ 4þ 5¼ V
2 2 2 2 2 32
5
if ðVR ¼ 5 VÞ; B5 ¼
32
5 25
Vo ¼ 5 ¼ V ¼ 0:78125 V
32 32
31 31
if B31 ¼ Vo ¼ 5 ¼ 4:84375 V
32 32
(c) Resistor spread = Max. resistor ratio = 2N1 ¼ 251 ¼ 24 ¼ 16
16R
note that; Max: resistor ratio ¼ ¼ 16 ;
R
X
m X
n
Vo ¼ bi Vbi ai Vaj
i¼1 j¼1
Here, a, b are the constant (gains). The number of inputs is (n + m). Note to the
presence of one extra element on the inverting input of the op-amp, which may be
included or not needed for a particular design.
Design steps [8] (see Fig. 10.66),
(1) Set Gf = 1 S, Gai = ai.S, i = 1,2, … n, Gbj = bjS, j = 1, 2 … m.
(2) Let d ¼ ð1 þ a1 þ a2 þ an Þ ðb1 þ b2 þ bm Þ
(a) If d > 0, Gg = d, ΔG = 0
(b) If d 0, Gg = 1S, ΔG = |d| + Gg
(3) Multiply all conductance values by some constant, k. This will scale computed
elements values to realize particular ones.
Design a MISO op-amp circuit to realize the relationship
(Here, indices a are for inverting, indices b are for noninverting terminal
connections).
Solution
Let Gf = 1S, Ga1 = 5S, Ga2 = 1S, Gb1 = 4S, Gb2 = 1S, then,
d ¼ ð1 þ a1 þ a2 Þ ðb1 þ b2 Þ ¼ ð1 þ 5 þ 1Þ ð4 þ 1Þ ¼ 2 [ 0;
Set DG ¼ 0; Gg ¼ d ¼ 2S
Let k = 10−3 = 0.001, this scaling yields
1 1 103
Rf ¼ ¼ 1 kX; Ra1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:2 kX
Gf Ga1 5S
1
Ra2 ¼ 1 kX; Rb1 ¼ ¼ 0:25 kX; Rb2 ¼ 1 kX
4S 103
1
Rg ¼ ¼ 0:5 kX
2S 103
Problem 10.2.1
(a) What is apassive filter?
(b) What is an active filter?
(c) What are the types of filters according to their frequency selectivities?
(d) What are the major limitations of passive filters?
(e) What are the advantages of active filters over passive ones?
(f) What are the disadvantages of active filters over passive ones?
Solutions
(a) A filter is called a passive filter if it consists of only R, L, and C.
(b) A filter is called an active filter if it consists of transistors, op-amps and other
types of active elements (such as operational trans-conductance amplifiers,
current conveyors, etc.) in addition to R, L, and C elements.
(c) There are basically four types of filters according to their frequency selectivi-
ties, no matter if they are passive or active:
1. A low-pass filter (LPF) passes low frequencies and stops high frequencies,
2. A high-pass filter (HPF) passes high frequencies and rejects low
frequencies,
3. A band-pass filter (BPF) passes frequencies between two (corner) fre-
quencies and stops or attenuates frequencies outside this band,
4. A bandstop (notch) filter (BSF) blocks or attenuates frequencies between
two (corner) frequencies and passes frequencies outside this band,
(Yet there exists a fifth type of filter, called an all-pass filter (APF) which
passes all frequencies but shifts the phase on a defined manner).
(d) Major limitations of the passive filters are,
1. They have a maximum gain of 1,
2. Passive filters may require inductors that costs and need larger volumes in a
printed circuit board.
3. Their frequency performance at low frequencies is relatively poor.
(e) Advantages of active filters over passive ones are,
1. Active filters occupy less space and they are less expensive, (they do not
require inductors). Therefore, their integrated circuit realizations are com-
mon in practice.
2. Active filters can provide gain (greater than unity).
3. Active filters can be buffered to isolate each stage of the filter from source
and load impedance effects, allowing independent stage design and cas-
cading flexibility.
(f) Major disadvantages of active filters over passive ones;
1. Active filters are generally of limited use at high frequencies, while passive
filters may operate at very high frequencies.
2. Active filters may be less stable and less reliable with respect to passive
ones.
3. Active filters may demand more power, especially a point of concern in
battery operated instruments. (This problem is circumvented by using
MOSFET structures.)
Problem 10.2.2
(a) Design an idealop-amp macromodel with a single-pole at 10 Hz and open loop
gain of 1 million (V/V). Determine its gain-bandwidth product (= unity gain
frequency).
(b) Using this macromodel, perform SPICE analysis to plot the voltage transfer
function of an inverting op-amp configuration, if the input and feedback resistor
values are 1 and 100 kX, respectively.
10.2 Filters and Other Op-amp Circuits 725
Solution
(a) Figure 10.68 is an op-amp macromodel.
Open-loop gain = 1106 V/V
1 f0 f0
fp ¼ ¼ 10 Hz ¼ ¼ 6
2pRp Cp A0 10
Vi 10 0 ac 1
R1 10 1 1k
R2 1 3 100 k
XOP 0 1 3 OAM
Rload 3 0 1meg
* Single pole opamp macromodel
*connections: (NI I output)
.Subckt OAM 1 2 99
Ri 1 2 1G; input resistance
*polefrq = 1/(Rp.Cp), rad/sec
*unity gain frequency = (dcgain).(polefrq)
e1 33 0 1 2 1meg; dc gain
Rp 33 34 100 k
Cp 34 0 159.15n
e2 35 0 34 0 1
Ro 35 99 1; output resistance
.ends
*.AC dec 10 1 10MEG ;v3
726 10 Operational Amplifiers
mag('v(3)')
100
80
Vo/Vi [V/V] 60
40
20
0
10 0 101 102 103 10 4 10 5 10 6 107
frequency [Hz]
Problem 10.2.3
(a) Determine the voltage transfer (gain) function for the circuit shown in
Fig. 10.70, and describe its frequency performance.
(b) Design a first-order filter having a dc gain of 60 dB, cutoff frequency of 100 Hz
and input resistance of 1 kΩ. Determine its unity gain frequency, and the phase
shift at that frequency.
Solution
R2
R2 k ð1=sCÞ 1 þ sR2 C R2 1
(a) HðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼
R1 R1 R1 1 þ sR2 C
This is a single time constant circuit with dc gain K ¼ R2 =R1 , and cutoff
frequency of x0 ¼ 1=CR2 , therefore performing as a first-order low-pass filter.
(b) R1 ¼ 1 kX,
R2
jK j ¼ 60 dB ¼ ¼ 1000 ! R2 ¼ jK jR1 ¼ 1000 1 kX ¼ 1 MX
R1
1
x0 ¼
R2 C
1 1
C¼ ¼ ¼ 1592:4 lF
x0 R2 628 106
10.2 Filters and Other Op-amp Circuits 727
The gain falls off at a rate of −20 dB/decade, thus it reaches 0 dB in three
decades at f ¼ 1000; f0 ¼ 100 kHz, where the phase shift will be almost +90°
Solution
(a) The single op-amp-based circuit of Fig. 10.71. can be used as a band-pass filter
for ECG signals and provide inverted gain.
1 R2 1 1 þ sC1 R1
(b) Z2 ¼ R2 k ¼ ; Z1 ¼ R1 þ ¼
sC2 1 þ sC2 R2 sC1 sC1
Vo ðsÞ Z2 sC1 R2 R2 1
¼ ¼ ¼
Vi ðsÞ Z1 ð1 þ sC2 R2 Þð1 þ sC1 R1 Þ R1 1
ð1 þ sC2 R2 Þ 1 þ
sC1 R1
R2
(c) 20 dB ¼ 10 V=V ¼
R1
Since two cutoff frequencies are two decades apart, midband gain can be cal-
culated in this manner.
let R2 ¼ 10 kX, then R1 ¼ 1 kX
1 1
xH ¼ ¼ 2p 100 ! C2 ¼ ¼ 159 nF
C2 R2 2p 100 10 103
1 1
xL ¼ ¼ 2p 0:1 ! C1 ¼ ¼ 1592 lF
C1 R1 2p 0:1 103
Problem 10.2.5 Calculate the ratio Z = V/I in the circuit of Fig. 10.72. What does
the circuit simulate?
If both resistors are 1 kX, and C = 1 lF, what is the value of simulated
quantity?
Solution
R1
Vp ¼ V ¼ Vn
1
R1 þ
sC
R1 1 sR1 C
V V V 1 R1 R1 þ V 1
V Vn R1 þ 1sC sC sR1 C þ 1
I ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼
R2 R2 R2 R2
V ðsR1 þ 1 sR1 CÞ 1
I ¼ ¼V
R2 ðsR1 C þ 1Þ sR1 R2 C þ R2
I 1
¼
V sR1 R2 C þ R2
V
¼ R2 þ sR1 R2 C ¼ Z
I
L ¼ R1 R2 C
signal vi(t). Determine the time constant of the circuit, in terms of the clock
frequency and capacitor values.
(b) Determine the time constant if C2 = 40 pF, C1 = 4 pF, fc = 100 kHz.
Solution
During u1 , (on) C1 is connected to Vi and it charges, qc1 ¼ C1 Vi
During u2 ; C1 is connected virtual ground (negative terminal of op-amp) and it
transfers its electrical charge ðqc1 Þ to C2 .
The average current flow from input (A) to virtual ground is:
qc1 C1 Vi iav C1
iav ¼ ¼ ! ¼
Tc Tc Vi Tc
Vi Tc
¼ ¼R
iav C1
In other words, an equivalent resistance appears between input node and the
virtual ground. Time constant of the circuit is:
C2 C2
s ¼ RC2 ¼ Tc ¼
C1 fc C1
40
s¼ ¼ 104 s ¼ 0:1 ms ¼ 100 ls
105 4
Tc 1
R¼ ¼ 5 ¼ 2:5 MX
C1 10 4 1012
730 10 Operational Amplifiers
Problem 10.2.7 Determine the voltage at the output of op-amp in the circuit shown
in Fig. 10.74.
Solution
Zt
1
V0 ¼ I1 ds þ V þ ð10:68Þ
C
1
Zt
1
Vþ ¼ I2 ds ð10:69Þ
C
1
Zt Zt Zt
1 1 V2 V1 1
V0 ¼ ðI2 I1 Þds ¼ ds ¼ ðV2 V1 Þds
C C R R RC
1 1 1
Solution
(a) By KCL at node 1,
Vi Vo Vi Vo 1 1
Ii ¼ þ ¼ ðVi Vo Þ þ
R1 R2 R1 R2
(b) This input impedance consists of series connected resistance and capacitance,
as in Fig. 10.76, it is not a pure capacitive reactance (in other words, the circuit
is a lossy capacitance simulator),
732 10 Operational Amplifiers
ðR1 þ R2 Þ R1 R1 R1 R2
Ceq ¼ C ¼ 1þ C ffi C; Req ¼ ffi R2 ; R1
R2
R2 R2 R2 R1 þ R2
R1
Ceq ¼ C ¼ kC; Req ¼ R2
R2
j10 10:1j
error ¼ ¼ 1%
10
Problem 10.2.9 A disturbance often seen in biomedical practice due to power line
interference is the generation of common-mode voltage, VCM, on a patient. It is
reduced by means of an instrumentation amplifier. This effect can be further
reduced by means of a feedback circuit, as shown in Fig. 10.77.
10.2 Filters and Other Op-amp Circuits 733
(a) Assume that the patient is coupled by a 10 pF stray capacitance to power line
and a differential amplifier is used without buffering and input of each port
having resistance of R = 10 MX. Find the voltage values at the input of
op-amp. Draw a conclusion.
(b) If the body is connected to a driven-right-leg feedback system and insulated
from ground, but coupling capacitance has the same value as given previously,
determine the common mode voltage equation.
(c) Assuming a European power-line system (230 V, 50 Hz), let
Ra = 40 kX = 2Rb, Rf = 5 MX compute the VCM. Compare this result with the
one found in part (a).
(d) Using MATLAB, plot the curve VCM as a function of Rf for
1 MX Rf 10 MX and repeat the same computations for the public
electrical network in the USA (120 V, 60 Hz) and Japan (100 V, 60 Hz). Plot
three curves on the same graph. (Vcm1.m)
Solution
(a) The equivalent circuit can be drawn as in Fig. 10.78 (for one terminal of
differential amplifier, the other one is the same).
By the voltage division rule,
734 10 Operational Amplifiers
A common mode voltage value of 7219 mV exists on the patient which is much
larger than the biopotential value, on the order of 1 mV.
(b) Applying KVL to the “patient’s body”
1
Vs Is VCM ¼ 0 ð10:70Þ
jxC
VCM VCM V0
þ þ ¼0 ð10:71Þ
Ra Rb Rf
ðVCM V0 Þ ¼ Is R0 ð10:72Þ
VCM V0
Vs VCM ¼ ð10:74Þ
jxR0 Cs
This equation shows that common mode voltage is a function of frequency and
the resistor values.
(c) For European public power network, using given values in (10.76),
It is seen that common mode voltage is reduced from 7219 to 9.6 mV by using
the feedback circuit.
(d) The variation of the induced common mode voltage on a patient as a function
of feedback resistance of an ECG front-end circuit, in European, the U.S. and
Japanese public electrical networks are displayed in Fig. 10.79
1 MX Rf 10 MX.
A MATLAB script is given below. (Vcm1.m).
736 10 Operational Amplifiers
0.05
0.045
0.04
0.035
0.03
Vcm, V
0.025
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6
Rf, ohms x 10
Fig. 10.79 The graph of VCM vs Rf . Legend: Blue line European, Red line USA, Black line
Japanese (60 Hz) network
Problem 10.2.10 Two RC circuit sections, (with capacitors grounded) are sepa-
rated by an ideal op-amp buffer. Input signal vi ðtÞ is applied to first R1C1 section,
producing the signal vi ðtÞ at node 1, it is buffered by the op-amp to the input of the
second R2C2 section (node 2), the output of which is vo ðtÞ.
10.2 Filters and Other Op-amp Circuits 737
(a) Derive the differential equation relating the circuit output vo ðtÞ to its input, vi ðtÞ.
(b) Determine its characteristic equation and find its roots.
(c) Can this circuit produce underdamped natural response?
Solution
(a) Due to the buffering action of op-amp, node 2 follows the signal at node 1
(Fig. 10.80).
Since input to op-amp (node 1) is connected to its noninverting terminal, there
is no current flowing into this terminal. The inverting input of op-amp is
shorted to its output terminal. Therefore, output terminal of op-amp follows its
input signal at noninverting terminal.
KCL at nodes 1 and 2:
From (10.77),
dv0 ðtÞ
v1 ðtÞ ¼ C2 R2 þ v0 ðtÞ ð10:79Þ
dt
R1 R2 C1 C2 s2 þ ðR1 R2 þ C1 C2 Þs þ 1 ¼ 0
1 1
s1 ¼ ; s2 ¼
R1 C1 R2 C2
(c) Since the roots of characteristic polynomial are always real, it does not produce
any underdamped response.
Problem 10.2.12 For the op-amp circuit in Fig. 10.81, find v0 for t [ 0.
C ¼ 1 lF; R ¼ 1 kX.
Solution
For t\0, by voltage division,
R
v1 ð0 Þ ¼ 10 ¼ 5V
2R
For t > 0,
v1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ v1 ð0 Þ ¼ V0 ¼ 5 V
KCL at node 2 :
dv1 0 v0 V0 t
¼ V0 eR:C ;
t
C ¼0 ! v0 ðtÞ ¼ RC :e R:C
dt R R:C
R 10
v1 ð0 þ Þ ¼ U¼ ¼ 2:5 V ¼ v1 ð1Þ ¼ v1 ðtÞ; t[0
4R 4
From (10.81):
From (10.80):
Problem 10.2.14 If the input to the circuit in Fig. 10.83 is vi ðtÞ ¼ A cos ðxtÞ V, the
output is known to be vo ðtÞ ¼ B cos ðxt þ uÞ V.
(a) If A = 10, Find values for R, C and resulting value of B for u ¼ 60 , at
f = 100 Hz.
(b) Determine the values of components such that B ¼ A=3. Find the phase angle
(f = 100 Hz). (RC3.cir)
Solution
The voltage transfer function (gain) can be written as
1
HðjxÞ ¼
x
1þj
x0
1
jH ðjxÞj ¼ sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2
x
1þ
x0
The role of op-amp here is to act ass a buffer to prevent loading of the RC circuit.
1
(a) x ¼ 2pf ¼ 2p
0 100
1 ¼ 628 rad s
B628C
60 ¼ tan1 @ ¼ tan1 ð628RC Þ
1 A
RC pffiffiffi
pffiffiffi 3
tan60 ¼ 3 ¼ 628RC ! RC ¼ ¼ 0:00276
628
Let C = 1 lF,
0:00276
R¼ ¼ 2760 X
106
B 1 10
¼ jH ðjxÞj ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ! B ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 5 V
A 1 þ ð628 RC Þ 1 þ ð628Þð2760Þ106
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 1 x x 628 pffiffiffi
(b) H ðjxÞ ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 ! 3 ¼ 1 þ ð Þ2 ! ¼ ¼ 8
3 x0 x0 1
x
1þ RC
pffiffiffi x0
8
RC ¼
628
Let C = 1 lF, then,
pffiffiffi
8
R¼ ¼ 4504 X
628 106
phase [Deg]
(−70.53°) -30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
100 101 102 103
frequency [Hz]
Problem 10.2.15 In the circuit of Fig. 10.85, determine output voltage for [ 0, if
R3 = 2R1 = 2R2 = 1 kX, C = 1000 lF.
Solution
For t\0; v2 ð0 Þ ¼ v0 ð0 Þ ¼ 10 V
For t [ 0; v2 ð0 þ Þ ¼ v0 ð0 þ Þ ¼ 10 V
KCL at node 1, V0 ðsÞ ¼ VC ðsÞ
V0 V1 V1 V1 V0 V0 V1 2V1 2ðV1 V0 Þ
¼0 ! ¼0
R3 R1 R2 R R R
3
3V0 5V1 ¼ 0 ! V1 ¼ V0 ð10:82Þ
5
V1 V0 V0 2ðV1 V0 Þ
¼0 ! sCV0
R2 1 R
sC
3 4
2V1 2V0 sRCV0 ¼ 0 ! 2 V0 2V0 sRCV0 ¼ V0 þ sRCV0 ¼ 0
5 5
4 4
sþ ¼0 ! s¼
5RC 5RC
v0 ðtÞ ¼ v0 est uðtÞ ¼ V0 e5RCt uðtÞ:
4
d2 x dx
€x ! ; x_ !
dt2 dt
where the prime refers to the derivative. Select the highest order derivative
term,
1 1 1 1
€x ¼ x_ x f ¼ x_ þ x þ f
3 4 3 4
Zt
1 1
x_ ¼ x_ þ x þ f dt
3 4
0
1 1
s2 þ s þ ¼ 0
3 4
Its roots are s1;2 ¼ 0:1667 j0:4714, indicating that the system shows an
underdamped h behavior,
pffiffi as shown
pin Fig. 10.86b, with the output equation of
ffiffi i
1 ffiffi
6t p
x ðtÞ ¼ e 5 2 sin 3 t þ 5 cos 3 t .
2 2 2
(b) Repeating similar procedure as in part (a) results in the analog computer circuit
as shown in Fig. 10.19a, only differences being R2 ¼ 6R; R3 ¼ ð6=5Þ R;
replacing R2 ¼ 4R; R3 ¼ 3R, respectively, all else remaining the same.
This system has the following characteristic equation;
744 10 Operational Amplifiers
(a)
0.3 0.3
x(t) [V]
x(t) [V]
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.0 0.1
-0.1
0.0
-0.2
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
Fig. 10.86 a Analog computer circuit for the solution of homogenous part of a second-order
differential equation with initial condition (switch opens at time zero). All resistors except R2 and
R3 are equal in value (=R). b Analog computer output x(t) for x(0) = 0.4 V, (part a). c Analog
computer output x(t) for x(0) = 0.4 V (part b)
5 1
s2 þ s þ ¼ 0
6 6
with roots of s1 ¼ 1=2 and s2 ¼ 1=3 both real and negative. Therefore, the
system described by such a differential equation has an overdamped nature, as
shown in Fig. 10.86c. with x ðtÞ ¼ 15 6et=3 4et=2 :
Note that for homogenous solution of given differential equations, f = 0. (This
is realized by connecting resister R1 to ground). If a complete solution is desired
for a differential equation with a forcing function, then the ground connection is
removed from resister R1 and forcing function injected at this point. It should
also be noted here that, the selection of op-amps is important in analog com-
puter applications, as they have different input offset voltages and bias currents.
(In the examples described here in, an ideal single pole op-amp model is
employed).
10.2 Filters and Other Op-amp Circuits 745
vi 7 0 sin(0 1e-6 1 0 0)
R1 1 7 1MEG
R2 1 6 6MEG
R3 1 2 1.2MEG
R4 2 3 1MEG
R5 4 5 1MEG
R6 5 6 1MEG
C1 1 2 1U
C2 3 4 1U IC=0.4
XOA1 0 1 2 OA1
XOA2 0 3 4 OA1
XOA3 0 5 6 OA1
*OPAMP MACRO MODEL
.SUBCKT OA1 1 2 6
*XOA NI I Vo OA1
RIN 1 2 100MEG
EGAIN 3 0 1 2 100000
RP1 3 4 10 K
CP1 4 0 1.6UF
EBUFF 5 0 4 0 1
ROUT 5 6 1
.ENDS
*.tran .1 m 25 0 10 m uic
Problem 10.2.17
(a) What is the expression for the general form of the magnitude of Butterworth
low-pass filter (LPF) with pass-band gain K and cutoff at xc ?
(b) Determine the first-order Butterworth LPF magnitude response and its transfer
function if pass-band gain is 20 dB and xc ¼ 100 Hz.
(c) Determine analytically the required number of poles (=degree of Butterworth
filter) if jH min =H max j is given, where H min ; H max are stop band gain and
pass-band gain, respectively.
(d) A LPF with f c ¼ 100 Hz and pass-band gain of +40 dB is to be designed with
minimum gain of +20 dB at 400 Hz. Determine the minimum order of LP
Butterworth filter.
746 10 Operational Amplifiers
Solution
(a) All Butterworth low-pass filters produce magnitude (gain) response of the form
jK j
jHn ðjxÞj ¼ sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2nffi
x
1þ
xc
where n is the order of filter (=number of poles), xc is the cutoff frequency, and
K is pass-band (maximum) gain.
10
ðbÞ jH1 ðjxÞj ¼ rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
x 2
1þ
314
The general form of first-order Butterworth LPF function with given values is
K 10 3140
H1 ðsÞ ¼ ¼ s ¼ s þ 314
s 1þ
D 314
xc
Hmax
jHðjxmin Þj ¼ sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi Hmin
xmin 2n
1þ
xc
xmin 400
Hmax
40 dB
(d) ¼ ¼ 4;
¼ ¼ 20 dB ¼ 10 V=V
xc 100 Hmin
20 dB
h i
2
1 ln ð10Þ 1 1 4:595
n ¼ ¼ 1:66 n = 2 is the minimum order
2 ln ð4Þ 2 1:386
Butterworth LPF.
Solution
1 1
H3 ðsÞ ¼ ¼
D ðsÞ ðs þ 1Þðs2 þ s þ 1Þ
x3c ð62:8Þ3
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
ðs þ xc Þ s2 þ xc s þ x2c ðs þ 62:8Þ s2 þ 62:8s þ ð62:8Þ2
247;673:152
H ðsÞ ¼
ðs þ 62:8Þðs2 þ 62:8s þ 3943:84Þ
Solution
x0 ¼ xc ¼ 2p:10 ¼ 62:8 rad=s
1 1 kx20
H2 ðsÞ ¼ ¼ pffiffiffi ¼
D2 ðsÞ s þ 2s þ 1
2 x0
s þ
2 s þ x20
Q
(a) RLC series circuit has a LP transfer function
1
LC kx20
HðsÞ ¼ ¼
R 1 x0
s2 þ sþ s2 þ s þ x20
L LC Q
with
1
x20 ¼ ð10:83Þ
LC
748 10 Operational Amplifiers
pffiffiffi
2
k ¼ 1; Q¼ ¼ 0:707 ðButterworth second order filter
2
rffiffiffiffi pffiffiffi
1 L 2
Q¼ ¼ ¼ 0:707 ð10:84Þ
R C 2
1 1 2:54 104
L¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ 2:54 H
2 2
x0 C ð62:8Þ 104 104
From (10.84),
rffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
L 2:54
C 104
R¼ ¼ ¼ 22:54 X
Q 0:707
1 1
x0 ¼ ; Q¼ ; k ¼ A; Rf ¼ ðA 1ÞR
RC 3A
1 1
R¼ ¼ ¼ 1592:4 X
x0 C ð62:8Þð105 Þ
pffiffiffi
For a second-order Buterworth filter, Q ¼ 2=2 ¼ 0:707
1 1
A¼3 ¼3 ¼ 1:586 ¼ k
Q 0:707
Solution
1 0:159 0:159 10
(a) fH ¼ ¼ 7
¼ ¼ 0:48 Hz
2pR1 C1 ð3:3 10 Þð10 Þ
6 3:3
1 1
fL ¼ ¼ ¼ 10fH ¼ 4:8 Hz
2pR2 C2 C1
2pR2
10
(b) Let Zf ¼ Zc k R; Zs ¼ Zc þ R,
R
Zf sRC2 þ 1 sRC1
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ ¼
Zs sRC1 þ 1 ðsRC2 þ 1ÞðsRC1 þ 1Þ
sC1
sRC1 s
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
1 1 1
RC2 s þ RC1 ðs þ 1RC1 Þ RC2 s þ sþ
RC2 RC2 RC1
s
H ðsÞ ¼
1 1 1
RC2 s þ s
2 þ þ 2
RC1 RC2 R C1 C2
(c) Fig. 10.90 shows the log–log magnitude response as a function of frequency (in
Hz)
MATLAB script (plot_transfer_function5.m) is given below.
%Galvanic skin response BPF
R=3.3e6; C1=100e-9; C2=10e-9;
a=1/(R*C1); b=1/(R*C2); A=a+b; w0=1/(R^2*C1*C2);
num=[-b 0]; den=[ 1 A w0]; H=tf(num,den)
L=400; w=1;
for k=1:L;
s=i*w*k; N=-s*b; D=s.^2+A*s+w0; H1(k)=abs(N/D);
end
k=1:L; f=k*w*0.159;
loglog(f,H1);grid on;xlabel('frequency [Hz]');
ylabel('Gain [V/V)');
0
10
Gain [V/V)
-1
10
-2
10
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
frequency [Hz]
Vo ðsÞ R2 1
¼ :
Vi ðsÞ R1 1
ð1 þ sC2 R2 Þ 1 þ
sC1 R1
where R2 ; R1 are the feedback and input resistances, C2 ; C1 are the feedback
and input capacitance values, respectively. From this last equation it can be
concluded that the mid-band gain is expected to be K ¼ R2 =R1 .
Since R2 ¼ R1 ; K ¼ 1 . However, in many biomedical applications, two corner
frequencies are usually close to each other. On the other hand, the gain equation
is valid in (flat) midrange if the two corner frequencies are distant apart from
each other at least by two decades.
Therefore, computational mid-band gain value ðK ¼ 1Þ is not to be used here,
because two corner frequencies are only one decade apart from each other.
Problem 10.2.21 A sensor output signal with spectral power concentrated between
0 and 100 Hz is to be sampled by a frequency of 500 Hz. An anti-alias filter is
required with pass-band gain of +10 dB and stop band gain of −20 dB in aliasing
752 10 Operational Amplifiers
range. Construct and realize this filter in Butterworth form, use Sallen–Key struc-
ture for quadratic sections. (LPF3.cir).
Solution
The degree of required filter is
" #
Hmax 2
ln 1
1 Hmin
n
2 xmin
ln
xmax
fc ¼ 100 Hz; fs ¼ 500 Hz; fmin ¼ fs fc ¼ 400 Hz
Hmax
¼ 30 dB ¼ 20 log x ! x ¼ 103=2 ¼
Hmax
H
H
min min
h i
3=2 2
1 ln 10 1 1 6:907
n ¼ ¼ 2:49
2 2p 400 2 1:386
ln
2p 100
K 3:16
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ " 2 #
s s s s
D3 þ1 þ þ1
xc xc xc xc
2
Note that this second-order section should not to be confused with the second-order Butterworth
pffiffiffi
type filter, because the latter has linear (s) coefficient term of 2 in denominator polynomial.
10.2 Filters and Other Op-amp Circuits 753
K K
H2 ðsÞ ¼ 2 ¼ 2
s s s s
þ 2f þ1 þ þ1
xc xc xc xc
1 1
C¼ ¼ ¼ 160 nF
xc R 628 104
Rf 2
K2 ¼ 1 þ ¼ 1 þ 1 ¼ 2 ðstage gainÞ
R
1 1
x0 ¼ ; Q¼
RC 3 K2
Since Q ¼ 1 here, K2 ¼ 2
Rf 2 Rf 2
K2 ¼ 2 ¼ 1 þ ! ¼1 ! Rf 2 ¼ R
R R
K1 1
H1 ðsÞ ¼ s ; xc ¼ ¼ 628 rad=s
þ1 RC
xc
Rf 1 Rf 1
1:58 ¼ 1 þ ! ¼ 0:58 ! Rf 1 ¼ 0:58R ¼ 5:8 kX
R R
Finally, third-order Butterworth LP filter circuit and its SPICE generated mag-
nitude vs frequency response are shown in Figs. 10.91 and 10.92.
SPICE netlist (LPF3.cir) is also given below.
SPICE Netlist (LPF3.cir): Butterworth third- order LPF
754 10 Operational Amplifiers
10 -1
10 -2
10 -3
10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
frequency [Hz]
vi 1 0 1 AC
R1 1 2 10 k
R2 2 3 10 k
R3 4 0 10 k
RF1 4 5 10 K
R5 5 6 10 k
R6 7 0 10 k
RF2 7 8 5.8 K
C1 2 5 160 N
C2 3 0 160 N
C3 6 0 160 N
XOA1 3 4 5 OA1
XOA2 6 7 8 OA1
10.2 Filters and Other Op-amp Circuits 755
.SUBCKT OA1 1 2 6
*XOA NI I Vo OA1
RIN 1 2 1000MEG
EGAIN 3 0 1 2 100000
RP1 3 4 10 K
CP1 4 0 1.6UF
EBUFF 5 0 4 0 1
ROUT 5 6 1
.ENDS
*.ac dec 20 1 1000
Problem 10.2.22
(a) Design an active band-pass filter (BPF) for an ECG monitoring unit front-end
application with input resistance of 0.1 MX, to pass frequencies between 0.1–
100 Hz by combining a LPF and HPF (both with unity gain and single time
constant) and an inverting op-amp circuit with some gain, so that overall gain is
10 at the center frequency.
(b) Determine the pass-band gain of cascaded LPF-HPF-inverter topology of
Fig. 10.93, and express the gain function in standard form in terms of critical
frequencies and pass-band gain.
Solution
(a) Fig. 10.93. displays the circuit.
Upper corner frequency is set by the LPF while lower corner frequency is set by
the HPF.
1 1
f1 ¼ ! C2 ¼
2pRC2 2pRf1
1 1
f2 ¼ ! C1 ¼
2pRC1 2pRf2
Let R ¼ 100 kX (this value will satisfy input resistance requirement), then,
1
C2 ¼ ¼ 15:9 lF
2p 105 101
1
C1 ¼ ¼ 15:9 nF
2p 105 102
-0.0
-10.0
-20.0
-30.0
10 -3 10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4
frequency [Hz]
10.2 Filters and Other Op-amp Circuits 757
R4 5 6 100 K
Ri 6 7 100 k
Rf 7 8 1000 k
C1 2 3 15.9 N
C2 4 5 15.9u
XOA1 0 2 3 OA1
XOA2 0 5 6 OA1
XOA3 0 7 8 OA1
*OPAMP MACRO MODEL
.SUBCKT OA1 1 2 6
RIN 1 2 1000MEG
EGAIN 30 12 100000
RP1 3 4 10 K
CP1 4 0 1.6UF
EBUFF 50 40 1
ROUT 5 6 1
.ENDS
(b) With xL [ xH ,
1 x0
x0 ¼ ðxL xH Þ2 ; BW ¼ xL xH ; Q¼
BW
Rf jxxH
H ðx Þ ¼
Ri jx jx
ð1 þ Þð1 þ Þ
xH xL
1 1
here; xL ¼ ; xH ¼
RC1 RC2
Rf jx0 xL
H ðx0 Þ ¼
Ri ðxH þ jx0 ÞðxL þ jx0 Þ
Rf xL
jH ðx0 Þj ¼ ¼k
Ri xL þ xH
k ðxL þ xH Þ 1 jxC2 R
H ðxÞ ¼ : :
xL 1 þ jx þ C1 R 1 þ jxC2 R
jx
xL þ xH xH
H ðxÞ ¼ k x x
xL ð1 þ j Þð1 þ j Þ
xH xL
758 10 Operational Amplifiers
Since
xL þ xH
¼ 1 þ xH xL , if xL
xH , then
xL
Rf
k ¼ j H ðx 0 Þj ¼
Ri
Rf kðxL þ xH Þ kðfL þ fH Þ
¼ ¼
Ri xL fL
kðfL þ fH Þ 10ð100 þ 0:1Þ
Rf ¼ Ri ¼ 100 ¼ 1001 kX ¼ 1:001 MX
fL 100
Problem 10.2.23
(a) Determine the gain function of the circuit shown in Fig. 10.95.
(b) Evaluate the value of gain at x ¼ 30 rad=s if R ¼ R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R3 ¼ R4 ¼ 1 kX
and C2 ¼ 1000 C 1 ; C ¼ C1 ¼ 1 lF.
(c) Determine the gain function of (b) in s-domain.
(d) Determine the phase shift at the center frequency.
(e) A front-end of an diagnostic electrocardiography unit includes a BPF with
corner frequencies at f 1 ¼ 0:159 Hz and f 2 ¼ 159 Hz, and mid-band gain of
20 dB. Adapt the circuit of Fig. 10.95 with minimal modifications to these
requirements. (complex 3.m), (BPF2.cir).
Solution
(a) For HPF,
jx
HH ðxÞ kx x ; kH ¼ R4 C2 ¼ 100RC
1þj
PH
1 1
pH ¼ ¼
R3 C2 1000RC
For LPF,
1 R2 1 1
HL ðxÞ ¼ kL x; kL ¼ ; pL ¼ ¼
1þj R1 R2 C1 RC
pL
jx
HðxÞ ¼ 1000RC
ð1 þ j1000RCxÞð1 þ jRCxÞ
(b) RC ¼ 103 106 ¼ 103 s
jx
HðxÞ ¼ ; Hð30Þ ¼ 0:999 þ j0:0033
ð1 þ jxÞð1 þ j103 xÞ
jHð30Þj ¼ 0:999
(c) s ¼ jx
s 1000s
HðsÞ ¼ ¼
ð1 þ sÞð1 þ 10 sÞ ðs þ 1Þðs þ 1000Þ
3
(d) Bode phase plot shows that at the center frequency (= geometric mean of corner
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
frequencies), f0 ¼ 1000 ¼ 31:62 rad=s phase shift is 0 (Fig. 10.96).
pH ¼ xH ¼ 2pfH ¼ 2p 0:159 ¼ 1 rad=s ðf1 ¼ fH Þ
(e)
pL ¼ xL ¼ 2pfL ¼ 2p 159 ¼ 1000 rad=s ðf2 ¼ fL Þ
Bode Diagram
0
-10
Magnitude (dB)
-20
-30
-40
-50
90
45
Phase (deg)
-45
-90
10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105
Frequency (rad/sec)
1 1 1
p0H ¼ ¼ ¼ ¼ pH
R03 C20 ð0:1RÞð10;000CÞ 1000RC
Summarizing; C20 ¼ 10C2 and R03 ¼ R3 =10 will introduce a mid-band gain of
20 dB while keeping corner frequencies the same as before (see, Fig. 10.97).
MATLAB script (complex3.m) is given below.
w=30; h=(1i*w)./((1+1i*w).*(1+1i*w*0.001))
H=abs(h)
a=[1 1]; b=[1 1000]; c=conv(a,b); G=tf([1000 0],c)
bode(G); grid on;
; BPF2
vi 1 0 1 AC
R1 1 2 1 k
R2 2 3 1 k
R3 3 4 .1 k
R4 5 6 1 k
C1 2 3 1u
19.0
18.0
17.0
10 -1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
frequency [Hz]
10.2 Filters and Other Op-amp Circuits 761
C2 4 5 10000u
XOA1 0 2 3 OA1
XOA2 0 5 6 OA1
XOA3 0 7 8 OA1
.SUBCKT OA1 1 2 6
RIN 1 2 1000MEG
EGAIN 3 0 1 2 1000000
RP1 3 4 10 K
CP1 4 0 1.6UF
EBUFF 5 0 40 1
ROUT 5 6 1
.ENDS
Problem 10.2.24 Design a BPF using Sallen–Key topology to filter out b waves
from an EEG device. (BPFSK.cir).
Solution
b waves are in a range of 16–31 Hz. Transfer function of BPF is
x0
k s
H ðsÞ ¼ Q
x0
s2 þ s þ x20
Q
or
k
H ðxÞ ¼
x x0
1 þ jQ
x0 x
1 1
R¼ ¼ ¼ 7:15 kX
x0 C ð44:54pÞ106
k ¼ AQ ¼ ð2:326Þð1:485Þ ¼ 3:454
Rf ¼ ðA 1ÞR ¼ ð2:326 1Þx7:15 ¼ 9:48 kX
R30 ¼ 2R ¼ 2 7:15 ¼ 14:3 kX
3.0
Vo/Vi [V/V]
2.0
1.0
0.0
10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
frequency [Hz]
10.2 Filters and Other Op-amp Circuits 763
; BPF Sallen-Key
vi 1 0 1 AC
R1 1 2 7.15 k
R2 2 5 7.15 k
R3 3 0 14.3 k
R4 4 0 7.15 k
Rf 4 5 9.48 k
C1 2 0 1u
C2 2 3 1u
XOA1 3 4 5 OA1
*OPAMP MACRO MODEL
.SUBCKT OA1 1 2 6
RIN 1 2 1000MEG
EGAIN 3 0 1 2 1000000
RP1 3 4 10 K
CP1 4 0 1.6UF
EBUFF 5 0 4 0 1
ROUT 5 6 1
.ENDS
764 10 Operational Amplifiers
Solution
For a general second-order HPF function,
VHP Ks2
¼ ð10:85Þ
Vi x0
s2 þ s þ x20
Q
1 x0 x2
VHP ¼ KVi VHP 20 VHP ð10:86Þ
Q s s
Let C1 ¼ C2 ¼ C; R4 ¼ R5 ¼ R
For a Miller integrator, CR ¼ 1=x0
The signal at the output of the first integrator is a BPF,
x0
VHP Kx0 s VBP
HBP ðsÞ ¼ s ¼ ¼ ð10:87Þ
Vi x 0 Vi
s2 þ s þ x20
Q
3
This type of filters appealed much interest in technical literature, with designs including other
active components besides opamps [18–24]. They are also commercially available in 14-pin plastic
DIP and SOIC-16 surface-mount packages, specified for the −25 to +85 °C temperature range
[25].
10.2 Filters and Other Op-amp Circuits 765
Kx s
H ðsÞ ¼ 0
x0
s2 þ s þ x20
Q
Kx0 ðjx0 Þ Kx2
H ðjx0 Þ ¼ x ¼ 20 ¼ KQ
x20 þ
0
jx þ x20 x0
Q Q
it is shown that
Rf ¼ R1 ð10:91Þ
R3
¼ 2Q 1 ð10:92Þ
R2
1
K ¼2 ð10:93Þ
Q
(b) A symmetric notch response can be obtained if RBP is eliminated (opened), and
RHP ¼ RLP ,
V0 RF s2 þ x 2
¼ K 0 ð10:96Þ
Vi RLP x0
s2 þ s þ x20
Q
x0
s2 s þ x20
Q
H ðsÞ ¼ A x0
s2 þ s þ x20
Q
where A is the flat gain, and circuit provides a phase shift of −180° at x0 (0° at dc to
−360° at very high frequencies). Therefore, an APF is realized if
RLP ¼ RHP ¼ RBP =Q
The value of flat gain becomes
RF
A¼K
RLP
BW ¼ 31 16 ¼ 15 Hz;
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
f0 ¼ fH fL ¼ 16 31 ¼ 22:3 Hz
x0 x0 22:3
BW ¼ ! Q¼ ¼ ¼ 1:487
Q BW 15
1 1 1
x0 ¼ ! R¼ ¼ ¼ 7:13 kX
RC x0 C 2p 22:3 106
Let Rf ¼ R1 ¼ 1 kX,
R3
¼ 2Q 1 ¼ 2 1:487 1 ¼ 1:974
R2
Select R2 ¼ 1 kX,
R3 ¼ 1:974 1 ¼ 1:974 kX
10.2 Filters and Other Op-amp Circuits 767
Vx/Vi [V/V]
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3
frequency [Hz]
Summarizing;
1 1
K ¼2 ¼2 ¼ 1:328
Q 1:487
jH ðjx0 Þj ¼ A ¼ KQ ¼ 1:328 1:487 ¼ 1:974
;KHN1 AC Analysis
vi 1 0 1 AC
R1 6 7 1 k
R2 1 2 1 k
R3 2 3 1.974 k
R4 5 4 7.13 k
R5 8 3 7.13 k
Rf 5 6 1 k
C1 4 3 1u
C2 8 7 1u
RLP 9 7 1 k
RHP 9 5 1 k
RBP 9 3 1G
RFF 9 10 1 k
XOA1 6 2 5 OA1
XOA2 0 4 3 OA1
XOA3 0 8 7 OA1
768 10 Operational Amplifiers
XOA4 0 9 10 OA1
.SUBCKT OA1 1 2 6
RIN 1 2 1000MEG
EGAIN 3 0 1 2 1000000
RP1 3 4 10 K
CP1 4 0 1.6UF
EBUFF 5 0 40 1
ROUT 5 6 1
.ENDS
Problem 10.2.26
(a) What is Barkhausen criterion?
(b) How many “poles” are required to design an oscillator using single time
constant (passive) circuits?
(c) Why LC oscillators using op-amps are not common in practice?
(d) What determines the frequency stability of an oscillator? What is the maximum
phase shift of a cascade of buffered RC sections?
(e) For the quadrature oscillator4 circuit shown in Fig. 10.102, determine the loop
gain ðbAÞ when R ¼ R1 ¼ R2 ¼ R3 and C ¼ C1 ¼ C 2 ¼ C 3 : What is the
oscillation frequency of this circuit?
(f) Design and simulate a sinusoidal quadrature oscillator which will produce
10 Hz and 1 V (peak-to-peak) oscillations (QO1.cir).
Solution
(a) The performance of a feedback system is described by
V0 ðsÞ AðsÞ
¼
Vi ðsÞ 1 þ bAðsÞ
4
Applications of quadrature oscillators are abundant in biomedical and telecommunication
industries. They are also designed for different mode of operations, see references [26–28].
10.2 Filters and Other Op-amp Circuits 769
bAðjxÞ ¼ 1\ 180 ;
where the phase shift is introduced by the components. Amplifiers should not
contribute phase shift at the oscillation frequency.
(b) A single time constant passive circuit contributes maximum of 90° phase shift,
but 180° is required for oscillation. Therefore, at least two poles must be used.
(c) In spite of the fact that an LC circuit has two poles, they are designed for high
frequency applications usually above the unity gain frequency of operational
amplifiers.
(d) For buffered RC sections, the phase shift multiplies by the number of sections,
therefore
umax ¼ n 90 , where n is the number of sections.
The phase changing rate as a function of frequency, du=dt, determines the
frequency stability.
(e) In this circuit, due to integrator action,
1
VY ¼ VZ ð10:97Þ
sR2 C2
By voltage division,
1 1 VZ
VX ¼ VY ¼ ð10:98Þ
1 þ sR3 C3 1 þ sR3 C3 sR2 C2
By voltage division,
R1 sR1 C1
VX ¼ VZ ¼ VZ ð10:99Þ
1 1 þ sC1 R1
R1 þ
sC1
VZ VZ sR1 C1
¼ ð10:100Þ
sR2 C2 ð1 þ sR3 C3 Þ 1 þ sR1 C1
1 þ sR1 C1
Ab ¼ 1 ¼ ð10:101Þ
sR1 C1 :sR2 C2 ð1 þ sR3 C3 Þ
When equal valued resistors and capacitors are used, loop gain is
770 10 Operational Amplifiers
0.8
0.4
0.2
0.0
0m 50m 100m 150m 200m
time [sec]
1
Ab ¼ 1 ¼ ð10:102Þ
ðsRCÞ2
1 1
¼ 1 ! x¼ ð10:103Þ
ðjxÞ2 R2 C2 RC
1
fo ¼ 10 ¼
2pRC
1
C¼ ¼ 10 lF
2p 1590 10
R1 1 6 1.59 k
R2 2 4 1.59 k
R3 3 5 1.59 k
C1 1 2 .01 m
C2 4 5 .01 m
C3 3 0 .01 m
XOA1 3 1 2 OA1
XOA2 6 4 5 OA1
v1 6 0 0.5 dc
.SUBCKT OA1 1 2 6
10.2 Filters and Other Op-amp Circuits 771
RIN 1 2 1000MEG
EGAIN 3 0 1 2 100000
RP1 3 4 10 K
CP1 4 0 1.6UF
EBUFF 5 0 4 0 1
ROUT 5 6 1
.ENDS
References
1. Palmer R (2001) DC parameters: input offset voltage (VIO). Texas instruments application
report, SLOA059
2. Analog Devices Inc. Norwood, MA, USA. http://www.analog.com/
3. Linear Technology, USA. http://www.linear.com/product/LT1001. Last accessed on 27 Dec
2016
4. TDK-EPCOS https://en.tdk.eu/sensors. Last accessed on 27 Dec 2016
5. http://www.analog.com/media/en/technical-documentation/data-sheets/AD620.pdf. Last acces-
sed on 27 Dec 2016
6. Rehman M, Ahmed MT, Arif M (1990) Critical study and applications of a self-balancing
bridge. In: IEE proceedings, (137 Part A 1):25
7. Madhu Mohan N, Geetha T, Sankaran P, Jagadeesh Kumar V (2008) Linearization of the
output of a wheatstone bridge for single active sensor. In: Proceedings of 16th IMEKO TC4
Symposium 09/2008
8. Lin PM (1985) Simple design procedure for a general summer. Electron Eng 57:37–38
9. Stotts LJ (1989) Introduction to implantable biomedical IC design. IEEE Circ Dev Mag:12–18
10. Kafe F, Psychalinos C (2014) Realization of companding filters with large time-constants for
biomedical applications. Analog Integr Circ Signal Process: 217–231
11. Li Y, Wong AKY, Zhang YT (2010) Fully-integrated transimpedance amplifier for photo-
plethysmographic signal processing with two-stage Miller capacitance multiplier. Electron
Lett 46(11):745–746
12. Bustos SS, Silva H, Sanches E (2000) A 60-dB dynamic-range CMOS sixth-order 2.4-Hz
low-pass filter for medical applications. IEEE Trans Circ Syst Analog Dig Sig Process
47:1391–1398
13. Martinez JS, Alejandro Vázquez A (1998) Impedance scalers for IC active filters. In: IEEE
international symposium on circuits and systems: 51–154
14. Kulej T (2009) Regulated capacitance multiplier in CMOS technology. In: International
conference on mixed design of integrated circuits and systems, pp 316–319
15. Darweesh HY, Farag FA, Khalaf YA (2007) New active capacitance multiplier for low cutoff
frequency filter design. In: Proceedings of 19th International Conference on Microelectronics
(ICM’07), pp 381–384
16. Karki J (2002) Analysis of the Sallen-Key architecture. Texas Instruments Inc., Application
Report SLOAO24B: p 5
17. Kerwin W, Huelsman L, Newcomb R (1967) State variable synthesis for insensitive
integrated circuit transfer functions. IEEE J Solid-State Circ SC-2:87–92
18. Soliman AM (2008) History and progress of the Kerwin–Huelsman–Newcomb filter
generation and Op Amp realizations. J Circ Syst Comput 17(4):637
19. Soliman AM (2011) Generation of Kerwin-Huelsman-Newcomb biquad filter circuits using
nodal admittance matrix expansion. Int J Circuit Theory Appl 39(7):697–717
772 10 Operational Amplifiers
20. Senani R, Singh VK (1995) KHN-equivalent biquad using current conveyors. Electron Lett
31:626–628
21. Salama KN, Soliman AM (2000) Voltage mode Kerwin-Huelsman-Newcomb circuit using
CDBAs. Frequenz 54:90–93
22. Toker A, Ozoguz S, Acar C (1999) Current-mode KHN-equivalent biquad using CDBAs.
Electron Lett 35:1682–1683
23. Keskin AU, Cam U (2007) Insensitive high-output impedance minimum configuration
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Inc.:33–37
27. Keskin AU, Biolek D (2006) Current mode quadrature oscillator using current differencing
transconductance amplifiers (CDTA). IEE Proc Circ Devices Syst 153(3):214–218
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differencing buffered amplifiers. Frequent (J RF-Eng Telecommun) 60(3–4):57–59
Appendix
International System of units (SI) prefixes used to form decimal multiples and
submultiples of SI units are given below:
“E” series specify the preferred resistance values for various tolerances. The
number following the “E” specifies the number of logarithmic steps per decade.
E48, E96 series values are needed for higher accuracy and close tolerance
m1
requirements. Derivation is based on M ¼ 10 E , where M is the nominal resistance
value at m position, E is a coefficient related to tolerance.
31 1
Example The third multiplier in E24 series is M ¼ 10 24 ¼ 1012 ¼ 1:21 ! 1:2
i2 ¼ 1
Trigonometric Identities
sinðA þ BÞ ¼ sin A cos B þ cos A sin B; sinðA BÞ ¼ sin A cos B cos A sin B
cosðA þ BÞ ¼ cos A cos B sin A sin B; cosðA BÞ ¼ cos A cos B þ sin A sin B
tan A þ tan B
tanðA þ BÞ ¼
1 tan A tan B
tan A tan B
tanðA BÞ ¼
1 þ tan A tan B
1
sin A cos B ¼ ðsinðA þ BÞ þ sinðA BÞÞ
2
1
cos A cos B ¼ ðcosðA þ BÞ þ cosðA BÞÞ
2
1
cos A sin B ¼ ðsinðA þ BÞ sinðA BÞÞ
2
1
sin A sin B ¼ ðcosðA þ BÞ cosðA BÞÞ
2
AþB AB
sin A þ sin B ¼ 2 sin cos
2 2
AþB AB
cos A þ cos B ¼ 2 cos cos
2 2
AþB A B
sin A sin B ¼ 2 cos sin
2 2
AþB A B
cos A cos B ¼ 2 sin sin
2 2
Following table (Table A.1) lists values of some angles.
sin2 A þ cos2 A ¼ 1
1 þ cos 2A
cos2 A ¼
2
1 cos 2A
sin2 A ¼
2
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
A 1 cos A
sin ¼
2 2
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
A 1 þ cos A
cos ¼
2 2
x2 x3 x4
ex ¼ 1 þ x þ þ þ þ
2! 3! 4!
x2 x4 x6
cos x ¼ 1 þ þ
2! 4! 6!
x3 x5 x7
sin x ¼ x þ þ
3! 5! 7!
" #
x1 1 x1 3 1 x1 5
ln x ¼ 2 þ þ þ
xþ1 3 xþ1 5 xþ1
f ð xÞ ¼ xn ; f 0 ð xÞ ¼ nxn1
f ð xÞ ¼ ex ¼ f 0 ð xÞ
f ð x Þ ¼ ax ; f 0 ð xÞ ¼ ax ln a ða [ 0Þ
f ð xÞ ¼ sin x; f 0 ð xÞ ¼ cosðxÞ
f ð xÞ ¼ cos x; f 0 ð xÞ ¼ sinðxÞ
Appendix 777
1
f ð xÞ ¼ sin1 x; f 0 ð xÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð1\x\1Þ
1 x2
1
f ð xÞ ¼ cos1 x; f 0 ð xÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð1\x\1Þ
1 x2
1
f ð xÞ ¼ tan1 x; f 0 ð xÞ ¼
1 þ x2
L’Hopital’s Rule
If lim f ð xÞ ¼ lim hð xÞ ¼ 0;
x!A x!A
f ðxÞ f 0 ðxÞ
lim ¼ lim 0
x!A hðxÞ x!A h ðxÞ
If lim f ð xÞ ¼ lim hð xÞ ¼ 1;
x!1 x!1
f ðxÞ f 0 ðxÞ
lim ¼ lim 0
x!1 hðxÞ x!1 h ðxÞ
eas
f ðtÞ ¼ uðt aÞ; F ðsÞ ¼
s
1
f ðtÞ ¼ uðtÞ; F ðsÞ ¼
s
n!
f ðt Þ ¼ t n ; F ðsÞ ¼
sn þ 1
1
f ðtÞ ¼ eat ; F ðsÞ ¼
sa
n!
f ðtÞ ¼ tn eat ; F ðsÞ ¼
ð s þ aÞ n þ 1
x
f ðtÞ ¼ sin xt; F ðsÞ ¼
s2 þ x 2
s
f ðtÞ ¼ cos xt; F ðsÞ ¼
s2 þ x2
Appendix 779
x2
f ðtÞ ¼ eat sin xt; F ðsÞ ¼
ðs þ aÞ2 þ x2
sþa
f ðtÞ ¼ eat cos xt; F ðsÞ ¼
ð s þ aÞ 2 þ x 2
2xs
f ðtÞ ¼ t sin xt; F ðsÞ ¼
ðs2 þ x 2 Þ2
Rt
1
f ðuÞdu F ðsÞ ðintegralÞ
0 s
1 ZT
f ðt þ T Þ ¼ f ðtÞ sT
est f ðtÞdt ðPeriodic FunctionÞ
1e 0
dF ðsÞ
tf ðtÞ ðFrequency differentiationÞ
ds
f ðt Þ 1
Z
FðrÞdr ðFrequency integrationÞ
t 0
Rt
f ðt sÞgðsÞds F ðsÞGðsÞ ðConvolutionÞ
0
780 Appendix
Cramer’s Rule for Solving Equations of the Form [A] . [X] = [Y]
If [A] is a symmetric matrix having a nonzero determinant, and the vector
is the column vector of unknowns, then the system has a unique solution, whose
individual values for the unknowns are
detðAj Þ
xj ¼ j ¼ 1; 2; . . .; n
detðAÞ
Aj is the matrix formed by replacing the jth column of [A] by the column vector [Y].
Example
a b x1 e detðA1 Þ ed bf detðA2 Þ af ec
¼ ; x1 ¼ ¼ ; x2 ¼ ¼
c d x2 f detðAÞ ad bc detðAÞ ad bc
%A=(5*5) example
A=[1 2 -1 3 1;0 2 -2 1 2;3 1 -2 1 -1;1 1 0 -1 1;1 0 2 3 -2]
Y=[1;-1;0;2;1];
X=A\Y;
Y=Y'
X=X'
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
The print out of the resulting solution for 5x5 linear equations:
(Y and X vectors are transposed for space saving reason)
A =
1 2 -1 3 1
0 2 -2 1 2
3 1 -2 1 -1
1 1 0 -1 1
1 0 2 3 -2
Y = 1 -1 0 2 1
Such a function can be represented by two vectors, one of them specifying the
coefficients of the numerator polynomial, and the other vector specifying the
coefficients of the denominator polynomial. For example, assuming that both of
these polynomials are fourth-order polynomials, then numerator polynomial coef-
ficients vector is
b = [b1b2b3b4b5]
and denominator polynomial coefficients vector is
a = [a1a2a3a4a5]
bðsÞ R1 R2 R3 R4
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ þ þ þ þ kðsÞ
aðsÞ s p1 s p2 s p3 s p4
R1, R2, R3 and R4 are the residues, and p1, p2, p3 and p4 are the poles. The term k
(s) is a polynomial in s. MATLAB representation of these vectors are
[r, p, k] = residue(b, a)
This command calculates the poles and residues from H(s). On the other hand,
the command
[b2, a2] = residue(r, p, k)
calculates the coefficients of polynomials if the poles and residues are given, and
the result is normalized for the leading coefficient in the denominator.
782 Appendix
Example
b = [1 10 40 75 50]
a = [1 10 35 50 24]
[r, p, k] = residue(b, a)
r = [-1 -2 2 1]
p = [-4 -3 -2 -1]
k=1
This means,
1 2 2 1
H ðsÞ ¼ þ þ þ þ1
sþ4 sþ3 sþ2 sþ1
bðsÞ 3
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼ 3
aðsÞ s þ s2
b = [3]
a = [1 1 0 0]
[r, p, k] = residue(b, a)
r = [3 -3 3]
p = [-1 0 0]
k = []
This means,
3 3 3
H ðsÞ ¼ þ
s þ 1 s s2
Note that if a transfer function has multiple poles, then small changes in the data
or round-off errors can cause large variations in the resulting poles and residues.
Appendix 783
Voc
RTh ¼
Isc
(c) When the circuit has resistors and dependent sources (no independent sources)
(1) Find Voc = VTh
(2) Connect a 1 A current source flowing from terminal b to terminal a;
Voc Voc
(3) RTh ¼ ¼
I 1A
The equivalent circuit consists of only RTh (there is neither a current nor a
voltage source).
Voltage Dividers
A voltage Vi is applied to two series connected impedances, Z1 ; Z2 . Let Z2 has a
connection to reference (ground) and Z1 has a connection to the ungrounded ter-
minal of the voltage source, Vi . The output voltage Vo is obtained at the junction of
Z1 ; Z2 (Laplace operator s is omitted) (Table A.2).
X
n X
m
20 log10 jH ðjxÞj ¼ 20 log10 jK j þ 20 log10 jjx zi j 20 log10 jjx pi j
i¼1 i¼1
Im½H ðjxÞ X n
Imðjx zi Þ Xn
Imðjx pi Þ
u ¼ tan1 ¼ tan1 tan1
Re½H ðjxÞ i¼1
Reðjx zi Þ i¼1 Reðjx pi Þ
Bode Plots
Exact manual calculation of magnitude and phase is a laborious process.
Approximate sketches of these functions can be easily performed using so called
Bode plots, noting that numerator and denominator of a transfer function (in fac-
tored form) are made up of the following terms:
(i) Constant term (K)
(ii) A root of the origin (s)
(iii) A real root (s + p)
(iv) Complex conjugete (s2 þ as þ b)
Following Fig. A.2 displays drawing rules for magnitude and phase graphs for
constant term, s, 1/s, s + z and 1/(s + p).
The number of decades between two frequencies is given as
f2
Df10 ¼ log10 ; f2 [ f1
f1
Fig.A.2 Rules for magnitude and phase graphs for constant term
f2
Df2 ¼ log2 ; f2 [ f1
f1
Duality
Dual circuits are the ones which are described by the same characteristic equations
with dual quantities interchanged. A dual of a relationship can be written by
786 Appendix
N1 and N2 are the positive and negative terminals of the dependent source,
respectively.
+C1 and −C2 are the positive and negative terminals of the controlling voltage
source, respectively.
Vcontrol is the zero value voltage source used to measure the controlling current
(the positive current flows into the positive terminal of the controlling voltage
source).
Operational Amplifier
Operational amplifier (op-amp) is a versatile active element that behaves like a
voltage-controlled voltage source. It is used to perform many mathematical oper-
ations, filtering and signal processing.
Key Assumption: The op-amp operates in the linear range (away from satura-
tion) (Fig. A.3).
Ideal op-amp:
Vo ¼ A Vd ¼ A Vp Vn
in ¼ ip ¼ 0; Vp ¼ Vn
Ro ¼ 0 X; Ri ¼ 1 X
Fig.A.5 Instrumentation
amplifier
a2 s2 þ a1 s þ a0
HðsÞ ¼
x0
s þ
2 s þ x20
Q
Note that there are other parameter sets to characterize two-port networks other
than the three parameter types presented here. However, they are not used in this
book.
Historical Profiles
…in the belief that remembrance adds more human values of respect, appreciation,
and progress.
John G. Webster
J.G. Webster is a pioneer in biomedical engineering.
(1953 BSEE, Cornell University, 1965 MSEE,
University of Rochester, 1967 Ph.D., Elec. Eng.
University of Rochester). He first proposed the idea of
electrical impedance tomography in 1978, and pub-
lished many books on biomedical engineering. Prof.
Webster was a professor emeritus in the College of
Engineering at the University of Wisconsin–Madison
(2015).
Selected Bibliography
Biomedical Engineering
Aston R (1991) Principles of biomedical instrumentation and measurement.
Merrill Publishing Company (Macmillan)
Barsoukov E, Macdonald JR (2005) Impedance spectroscopy, theory, experi-
ment and applications. Wiley Interscience
Bruce EN (2001) Biomedical signal processing and signal modelling. Wiley
Carr JJ, Brown JM (2001) Introduction to biomedical equipment technology,
4th edn. Prentice Hall
David Y, Maltzahn WW, Neuman MR, Bronzino JD (2003) Clinical engi-
neering. CRC Press
Enderle J, Blanchard S, Bronzino J (2005) Introduction to biomedical engi-
neering, 2nd edn. Elsevier Academic Press
Saltzman WM (2015) Biomedical engineering: bridging medicine and tech-
nology. Cambridge University Press
Semmlow JL (2011) Signals and systems for bioengineers. 2nd edn.
A MATLAB-Based Introduction (Biomedical Engineering) Academic Press.
Street LJ (2011) Introduction to biomedical engineering technology, 2nd edn.
CRC Press
Weiss TF (1996) Cellular biophysics, electrical properties, vol. 2. The MIT
Press
Webster JG (ed) (1998) Medical instrumentation: application and design, 3rd
edn. Wiley, New York
Webster JG (ed) (2004) Bioinstrumentation. Wiley
SPICE, MATLAB and Others
Banzhaf W (1989) Computer-aided circuit analysis using SPICE. Prentice Hall
Butt R (2009) Introduction to numerical analysis using MATLAB. Jones &
Bartlett Learning
Hahn BD (2002) Essential MATLAB for scientists and engineers, 2nd edn.
Butterworth-Heinemann
Rashid MH, Rashid HM (2006) SPICE for power electronics and electric power,
2nd edn. Taylor and Francis
Sedra AS, Roberts GW, Smith KC (1992) SPICE for microelectronic circuits.
Saunders College Pub.
Smythe WR (1989) Static and dynamic electricity, 3rd edn. Taylor and Francis
Thorpe TW (1992) Computerized circuit analysis with SPICE: a complete guide
to SPICE, with applications. Wiley
Yang X-S (2006) An introduction to computational engineering with
MATLAB. Cambridge Int. Science Publishing
Index
F Hounsfield, 793
Factor inhibitor, 241 Hurwitz, 535, 536, 538
Faraday’s law, 11, 786 H-parameters, 647, 663–666
Faraday, Michael, 11, 250
Fat, 514 I
Filters Ideal op-amp, 674, 683, 724, 730, 736, 788
active, 723, 724 Ideal transformers, 417–419, 421, 422, 426,
allpass, 724, 766 647, 663
high-pass, 724 Imaginary part, 374, 378, 384, 391, 396, 501,
KHN, 764 509, 511, 512, 610, 611, 619, 640–642
low-pass, 724 Immittance parameters, 616
notch (bandstop), 724 Impedance
passive, 469, 723, 724 characteristic, 633
Final-value theorem, 273, 446 driving point, 509, 514, 545, 550, 563–565,
First-order circuits, 531, 534 567, 568, 574, 576, 578, 582, 583, 585,
First-order differential equation, 60 588, 590, 593, 598, 600, 603–605, 613,
First-order high-pass filter, 718 634–636, 639, 640
First-order low-pass filter, 752 input, 58, 394, 397, 423, 427, 428, 472,
Flat, 42, 316, 423, 479, 751, 764, 766 520, 521, 537, 546, 557–560, 578, 581,
Flyback topology, 249 584, 587, 592, 655–657, 661, 664, 706,
Foster synthesis, 564, 567, 568, 576, 598, 601, 728, 730, 731
603, 606, 634 load, 389, 396, 397, 414, 652, 724
Four points in-line probe, 643 lossless, 550
Frequency domain, 361–363, 426, 446, 643 matching, 394, 419, 420
Frequency-inverse duals, 549 open circuit impedance, 646
Frequency response, 461, 482, 643, 753 output, 394, 424, 664
Frequency scaling, 747, 752 parameters, 634
Fricke Model, 632 scaling, 524
source, 165, 394, 423, 427, 560, 647, 724,
G 783
Gain, 86, 91, 111, 113, 117, 154, 472, spectroscopy, 374, 614, 629, 630, 633, 642
476–479, 525, 532, 580, 596, 664, 676, synthesis from real part, 374
680, 684, 687, 692, 694, 697, 708–710, synthesis from two-port parameters, 647
722, 724–727, 738, 745, 746, 751, 755, Thévenin, 427, 457
756, 758, 760, 762, 765, 768, 788 Impulse function, 253
Gastro-Esophageal, 633 Indefinite integrals, 610
Geiger tube, 262 Independent current source, 161
Gewertz’ method, 616 Inductance, 280, 282, 285, 286, 290, 295, 296,
Glycerol, 208 299, 301, 302, 316–318, 335, 386, 387,
Ground, 99, 119, 169, 173, 291, 335, 337, 455, 389, 396, 397, 409, 411
490, 733, 744, 783, 786 Inductance, mutual, 316, 416–418, 427, 428,
Guillemin, 798 430, 786
Gyrator, 794 Inductance simulator, 728
Inductive, 384, 411, 416, 429, 431, 784
H Inductors, 277, 282–292, 294, 301, 317, 320,
Half-power frequencies, 389 321, 323, 325, 326, 329, 334, 348, 361,
Healthcare, 337 363, 368, 369, 373, 386, 387, 394, 426,
Hematology, 275 537, 559, 562, 724, 728, 786
Henry, Joseph, 417 Infinite network, 187
High-pass filter, 724, 755, 758, 764 Initial-value theorem, 446
Hilbert transform, 610614, 616, 642 Instantaneous power, 4, 311, 314, 353
Hodgin/Huxley, 259, 260 Instrumentation amplifier, 687, 707–710, 716,
Homogeneity property, 142 717, 719, 732, 788
Hospital, 10, 399, 409 Integrator, 252, 414, 728, 764, 765, 769
808 Index
Nodal analysis, 85, 96, 469, 486, 678 Passive filters, 723, 724
Node, 15, 22, 23, 33, 59, 67, 85–87, 89, 90, 92, Passive sign convention, 426
94, 97–112, 114–116, 118–123, 125, 127, Perfectly coupled, 419, 423, 430
135, 137–139, 141, 143, 148, 153, Period, 3, 11, 208, 226, 228, 230
155–158, 160, 162, 164, 169, 170, 178, Periodic function, 8, 212, 240, 255, 257, 285,
181–184, 188, 242, 253, 260, 261, 294, 296, 305, 307, 309, 311, 448, 460
273–275, 300, 301, 333, 338, 342, 343, Permeability, 36, 277, 316, 419, 786
379, 458, 459, 470, 486, 490, 520, 672, Permittivity, 185, 188, 190, 193, 197–201, 203,
677, 678, 710, 715, 729, 731, 734, 736, 206, 207, 209, 630, 786
737, 739, 740, 742, 786 Phasors, 355, 367, 415
Node voltage method, 100, 101, 111, 116 Phosoholipids, 240
Noise, 687, 694, 788 Piecewise linear, 691
Non inverting amplifier, 678, 680, 684, 688, Piecewise linear function, 691
711, 740 Pi network, 649
Norton equivalent circuits, 165 Polar form, 355
Norton’s theorem, 786 Pole, 74, 444, 447–450, 459–462, 466–468,
Notch filter, 479, 482, 486, 490, 492, 495–499, 472, 476, 478, 479, 481, 482, 484, 485,
501– 500, 501, 508, 515, 524, 525, 527–530,
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), 303 532–536, 540, 544, 550, 559, 565–567,
Numerical, 23, 24, 39, 50, 64, 91, 99, 110, 165, 593, 595, 615, 616, 622–624, 628, 629,
182, 214, 274, 280, 287, 309, 402, 420, 639, 641, 725, 744, 745, 768, 769, 781,
458, 496, 500, 519, 585, 591, 609, 610, 782, 789
730, 739, 750 Polycrystalline solids, 630
Numerical analysis tools, 214, 309 Polyester capacitor, 189
Numerical integration, 309 Polynomial, 444, 450, 451, 460, 472, 481, 484,
Nyquist plot, 374, 578, 580, 596, 638 485, 488, 494, 496, 498, 508, 509, 535,
542, 553, 558, 565, 624, 636, 659, 652, 781
O Polynomial approximation, 257, 475, 476, 601,
Objective function, 627 696, 698, 708, 710
Ohm, Georg Simon, 793 Porous carbon-based electrodes, 224
Ohm’s law, 14, 18, 19, 21, 85, 100, 110, 190, Port, 174, 423, 537, 656, 657, 733, 783, 789,
192, 322, 360, 362, 421, 422 790
Open circuit, 150, 151, 165, 166, 169, 170, Positive definite, 535, 537, 539, 547, 567
173, 174, 176, 223, 242, 323, 397, 419, Positive Real Function (PRF), 535, 539, 547,
783, 786 656
Operational amplifier, 693, 694, 738, 766, 787 Potential difference, 13, 33, 40, 57, 63, 193,
OP room, 5, 34, 399, 401 194
Optimization, 626, 628, 629 Potentiometer, 70
Oscillator, 768, 770 Power, 3, 5, 7–10, 12, 15, 18, 19, 22, 25, 33,
Oscilloscope, 258, 335, 431, 432 43, 54, 56, 60, 167, 173, 175, 176, 183,
Oxygen, 34–36 184, 247, 249, 335, 348, 350, 389,
399–401, 403, 404, 408–411, 413, 415,
P 419, 422, 429, 431, 451, 487, 491, 493,
Parallel capacitors, 189, 196, 198, 199, 209, 652, 691, 700, 724, 730, 732, 733, 735,
394, 405, 406 751, 781
Parallel layer model, 631 Power factor, 409, 411, 412
Parallel resistors, 14, 26, 28, 39, 160, 161, 516 Power factor correction, 409
Parallel resonance, 387 Power measurement, 335
Parallel RLC circuits, 318 Power triangle, 410
Partial fraction expansion, 43, 445, 456, 461, Precancerous, 633
616, 781, 782 Pressure, 34, 36, 59, 71, 75, 76, 198, 294, 337,
Passive element, 428, 543, 545 377, 706, 716
810 Index
Primary winding, 419, 422, 430, 432 Resonant frequency, 378, 379, 383, 384, 429,
Principle of current division, 44, 56, 85, 145, 430
149, 152, 293, 321, 322 Resonator, 378
Principle of voltage division, 44, 46, 57, 58, 64, Response, 76, 306, 307, 330–332, 335, 400,
150–153, 168, 175, 221, 234, 364, 369, 401, 423, 446, 464, 467, 478, 490, 498,
406, 457, 464, 471, 473, 523, 614, 676, 501, 523, 525–529, 554, 559–562, 574,
707, 731, 733, 738, 769 593, 603, 604, 623, 625–628, 643, 647,
Probe, 37, 48, 166, 392, 431, 432, 633, 634 738, 741, 745, 749–752, 764, 766
Proper rational functions, 443, 447–450 Reuss model, 27, 29, 201
Prothrombin time, 240 Rise time, 688, 689
RLC circuits, 305, 318
Q RL circuits, 288
Quadratic, 527, 529, 752 Root Mean Square (RMS) value, 347, 348,
Quadrature, 614, 768, 770 349, 400
Quality factor, 378, 386, 388, 390, 393, 764 Roots, 306, 443, 450, 451, 460, 481, 484, 485,
535–537, 540, 624, 738, 744
R
Radiation detector, 262 S
Rational function, 443, 447–450, 537, 545, Sallen and Key high-pass circuit, 751
550, 553, 564, 582, 639, 781 Sallen and Key low-pass circuit, 748, 749
Rational transfer function, 467, 535 Scaling, 257, 420, 521, 522, 524, 656, 723, 747
RC circuits, 394 Schwartz inequality, 180
Reactance, 366 Secondary winding, 249, 417, 419, 420,
Reactive load, 409 422–424, 426, 427, 430–432
Reactive power, 408, 409, 419 Second-order circuits, 305, 469, 546, 764
Realizability, 549, 571 Self-inductance, 416, 792
Realizable, 543, 549, 676 Sensitivity, 63, 74, 76, 205, 207, 634, 698, 700,
Reciprocal network, 663 708
Reciprocity, 154, 155 Series, 14, 24, 25, 28, 29, 43, 44, 56, 137, 185,
Rectangular form, 28, 39, 189, 351 201, 224, 249, 305–307, 309, 315, 317,
Reference node, 786 318, 334, 340–343, 345, 356, 360, 367,
Reflected, 420, 703 368, 371, 377, 384, 385, 394, 409, 413,
Reflected impedance, 426 429, 479, 480, 533, 537, 546, 588, 630,
Relay, 296, 298, 299 632, 692, 698, 702, 703, 731, 747, 773,
Relay circuits, 296, 299 783, 786
Relay delay time, 299 Series capacitors, 334, 589
Residues, 550, 566, 567, 781, 782 Series inductors, 334
Resistance, 6, 25, 28–30, 39–43, 46, 50, 52, 53, Series layer model, 627, 628
55, 57, 60, 62, 63, 65, 69–71, 73–81, 85, Series resonance, 386
97, 132, 154, 726, 731–733, 735, 738, 755, Series RLC circuits, 305, 306, 309–311, 313,
756, 773, 788 318, 331, 332, 383, 385, 386, 388, 393,
Resistance bridge, 17, 22, 62, 69, 73, 75 461, 462, 502, 503
Resistance matrix, 154 Sheet resistivity, 48, 50, 644
Resistance measurement, 169 Short circuit, 149, 151, 159, 165, 168, 170,
Resistive load, 173, 427 171, 174, 177, 182, 221, 242, 293, 329,
Resistivity, 6, 39–42, 47, 48, 50–53, 55, 56, 74, 397, 414, 457, 516, 555, 783, 786
194, 302, 404, 515, 519, 630, 631, 633, Siemens, W.V., 793
643, 644 Signal, 57, 75, 142, 165, 256, 257, 259, 263,
Resistors, 14, 23, 24, 26, 28, 29, 44, 56, 75, 76, 284, 287, 303, 329, 347–350, 352–354,
79, 93, 110, 114, 160, 176, 224, 230, 320, 414, 419, 430, 431, 435, 468, 486, 498,
335, 336, 387, 658, 672, 674, 676, 684, 531, 534, 614, 664, 665, 669, 671, 672,
687, 692, 709, 710, 728, 743, 769, 783 676, 679, 683, 686–691, 707, 708, 722,
Resonance, 278, 302, 303, 317, 371, 378, 379, 727, 729, 736, 737, 751, 764, 788
383, 384, 386, 387, 395, 398, 429, 522 Signal-to-noise ratio, 683
Index 811
Voltage, 4, 8, 9, 13, 15, 18, 19, 21–23, 30, 34, Voltage follower, 265, 272
44, 56, 57, 72, 75, 85, 89, 90, 93, 98, 99, Voltmeter, 13, 154, 385, 411
105, 115, 117, 118, 121, 125, 141, 149,
150, 154, 157, 160, 162, 165, 169, 170, W
172, 173, 183, 185, 195, 211, 212, 214, Warfarin, 240
217, 220, 221, 223, 225, 227, 230, 232, Wattmeter, 409
238–240, 242–246, 253–255, 264, 265, Wheatstone bridge, 22, 39, 60–63, 67–70, 75,
270, 273, 274, 278, 284, 288, 290, 291, 76, 706, 709, 710, 717
301, 305, 307, 329, 334, 336, 345, 368, Winding capacitance, 249
379, 384, 385, 397, 400, 407, 411, 413, Wye to delta transformations, 15, 490
416, 419, 423, 427, 430, 455, 461, 465,
520, 573, 604, 653, 666, 673, 678–680, X
684, 685, 687, 688, 691, 692, 697, 698, X-ray, 329, 797
706, 707, 709, 710, 712, 715–717, 719,
720, 724, 732, 734, 738, 740, 783 Y
Voltage divider, 21, 46, 59, 60, 142, 479, 483, Y-parameters, 663
717, 783, 784
Voltage division, 44, 58, 64, 150–153, 175, Z
221, 234, 364, 369, 406, 457, 464, 471, Zero, 715, 744, 787, 788
473, 523, 614, 676, 707, 731, 733, 738, Z-parameters, 648, 649, 653, 663
740, 769