MEC0125MasterSlides Plasticity

Classroom Slides on Plasticity
Prof. Rodrigo Rossi1
1 Departamento de Engenharia Mecânica (DEMEC), Grupo de Mecânica Aplicada (GMAp),
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Mecânica (PROMEC), Universidade Federal do

Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)
Draft version - - - Under development
Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 1

Before we start
Notation:
Throughout this classroom Notes/Slides:

I (i) Lightface Italic Latin and Greek letters generally denote scalars.
F Ex. a, b, α, β , Temperature: θ, Internal energy U , Vector position
component: x, x1 , etc.
I (ii) Boldface Italic lower and uppercase Latin and Greek letters generally denote
vectors
F Ex. a, b, α, β, Heat flux: q, Position vectors: x, X , force: F , etc.
I (iii) Boldface lower and uppercase Latin and Greek letters generally denote
second-order tensors
F Ex. Tensors: A, B, α, β, Stress tensor: σ, Deformation gradient: F, Strain
tensor: ε, etc.
I (iv) High order tensors:
F Third-order tensors: A, B...
F Fourth-order tensors: A, B...
I (v) Sets and spaces are denoted by the Formal Script or by Regular font
F Ex.: “General” linear vector space: V , Real space: R, etc.
F Ex.: Linear vector space of functions: Space of the continuous functions C m ,
p-integrable space Lp , etc.

Before we start
Operations & Notations
Table: Some examples of operations used in this text.

Operation/Notation Compact Index Index Einstein summation convention Matrix
Internal product P3
α=u·v α= ui vi α = ui vi , i = 1, 2, 3 α = [u]T [v]
beetwen two vectors u and v i=1
Product of the tensor P3
v = Au vi = Aij uj , i = 1, 2, 3 vi = Aij uj , i, j = 1, 2, 3 [v] = [A] [u]
A over vector u j=1
Product of two tensors P3
C = AB Cij = A B , i, j = 1, 2, 3
k=1 ik kj
Cij = Aik Bkj , i, j, k = 1, 2, 3 [C] = [A] [B]
A and B
Diadic or tensorial product
T=u⊗v Tij = ui vj , i, j = 1, 2, 3 Tij = ui vj , i, j = 1, 2, 3 [T] = [u] [v]T
beetwen two vectors u and v

Before we start
Coordinate System
Curvilinear Coordinate System: Cartesian coordinate system:
Let u ∈ R 3 . Cartesian components:
u = u1 e1 + u2 e2 + u3 e3 = ui ei (1.1)
Examples (cases): ui are the components of the vector u
I Cartesian coordinate system: with relation to the orthonormal basis ei :
F Special coordinate system where the
covariant and contravariant bases are
exactly the same!
I Cylindrical coordinate system;
I Spherical coordinate system;
I etc...

Outline
The elastic predictor/plastic corrector algorithm for J2

1 Before we start: elastoplastic constitutive formulation
2 Motivation: One-dimensional Elastic, Perfectly Plastic Kinematic hardening
Material Mixed hardening
A first model
9 From the Momentum Equation to the Infinitesimal Tangent
3 Review of Continuum Mechanics Modulus
Kinematics of deformation Formulation of the classical BVP in terms of equilibrium
Conservation of Mass and under small deformations
Equilibrium and Stresses Linear and nonlinear problem due to the material
Thermodynamic laws constitutive relation
4 Constitutive theory 10 Material tangent operator derivation
5 Revisiting one-dimensional models Continuum tangent operator - Cict
Elastic, perfectly plastic model i
Example - CJct for J2 plasticity model
One-dimensional elasto-plastic model with isotropic 2
hardening Consistent tangent operator - Cics
Kinematic hardening model - The Bauschinger effect i
Example - CJcs for J2 plasticity model
Mixed isotropic and kinematic hardening model 2
6 Numerical integration algorithm of the one-dimensional 11 Supplementary Material

elastoplastic constitutive formulation Orthogonal tensors
7 Change of basis
Maximum dissipation postulate
Convex sets and convex functions
8 J2 Plasticity model Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) conditions in optimality
J2 + isotropic hardening Legendre-Fenchel transform

Introduction
Introduction
We start our discussion into the plasticity field describing, phenomenologically and
mathematically, one of the most simple inelastic material that is the Elastic,
Perfectly Plastic material.
Although very simple, the particular mathematical ingredients of this special one
dimensional will help us to understand more complex models, even under
multiaxial effects.
An elastic perfectly plastic materials presents two distinct mechanical responses
that are: a linear elastic reversible phase and plastic phase where permanent
irreversible effects take place.
No viscous effects are considered: It is a rate independent model!
No relations to the energy potentials will be presented in this moment. Further in
this course we revisit this model inside the thermodynamic framework.

Mathematical description of the rheological model
Elastic, perfectly plastic rheological model, stress-strain response, and the admissible
stress set Kσ :
The model:
Assume that the total deformation ε may be additively decomposed into an elastic
deformation εe , associated with the linear elastic reversible phase, and a plastic
(permanent or inelastic) deformation εp one writes
ε = εe + εp . (2.1)
Assuming a linear elastic isotropic material
σ = Eεe = E (ε − εp ) . (2.2)
stress set Kσ :
The model: This condition motivates the definition of the

so-called yield function such that
f (σ) = |σ| − σo ≤ 0, (2.4)
f :R→ Ro− ,and the following admissible stress

set can be defined
Kσ = {σ ∈ R | f (σ) = |σ| − σo ≤ 0} . (2.5)
Kσ is a closed convex set. The set Kσ can be

interpreted as
Kσ = int (Kσ ) ∪ ∂Kσ (2.6)

1 The stress σ cannot be greater than being int (Kσ ) the interior of the set Kσ and ∂Kσ
σo in absolute value, so the boundary of Kσ , ie
σ ∈ [−σo , σo ] or |σ| ≤ σo . (2.3) int (Kσ ) = {σ ∈ R | f (σ) = |σ| − σo < 0} (2.7)
and
∂Kσ = {−σo , σo } . (2.8)
stress set Kσ :
2 If σ < σo there is no change in εp . That

is ε̇p = 0. Therefore
ε̇p = 0 ↔ f (σ) < 0. (2.9)
Now from Eq. (2.2) one has the following

rate, assuming that E does not change
with time,

0
p
σ̇ = E ε̇ −
ε̇>
→ σ̇ = E ε̇ (2.10)
but from Eq. (2.1)

In terms of the set defined in 2.7 this
0 condition can be stated as
e p
ε̇ = ε̇ +
ε̇>
→ ε̇ = ε̇e → σ̇ = E ε̇e .
(2.11) σ ∈ int (Kσ ) → ε̇p = 0 → σ̇ = E ε̇e .
(2.12)

stress set Kσ :
3 The third consequence comes from the So, a change in εp takes place when
interpretations of the preceding two: f (σ) = |σ| − σo = 0 or
a From 1: @σ such that ε̇p 6= 0 ↔ f (σ) = 0 → σ ∈ ∂Kσ .
f (σ) = |σ| − σo > 0 that is, (2.13)
σ ∈ Kσ ; Meaning that for the rheological model in
b From 2: σ ∈ int (Kσ ) → ε̇p = 0; analysis a change/slip takes place when
σ ∈ ∂Kσ . The slip will be in the direction
(sense) of the applied stress.
The condition for the evolution of the
plastic deformation was established.
However, it is still not possible to
determine an explicit evolution for ε̇p .
We need to introduce another variable to
do that.

The absolute slip rate - Who is ε̇p ?
The absolute slip rate
Notice that: Now, let us define the absolute slip rate γ̇

as
γ̇ ≥ 0. (2.14)
The absolute slip rate is related with the
plastic strain by

γ̇ if σ = σo
ε̇p = (2.15)
−γ̇ if σ = −σo
or
ε̇p = γ̇ sign (σ) (2.16)
where

1 if x ≥ 0
This is a loading case where the final plastic sign (x) = (2.17)
deformation is zero but the material experience −1 if x < 0
changes in the microstructure.
is the so-called signal function. The
absolute slip rate γ̇ is still an incognito to
be determined.

The absolute slip rate - γ̇ ≥ 0
Determination of γ̇ - loading and unloading conditions
To determine γ̇ it is necessary to enforce the conditions 1 to 3 and some unilateral conditions.
They are:
From 1:
σ ∈ Kσ → f (σ) = |σ| − σo ≤ 0
and from 2-3:
ε̇p = 0 → γ̇ = 0
ε̇p 6= 0 → γ̇ > 0
Therefore we have to enforce
γ̇ ≥ 0 and f (σ) ≤ 0 (2.18)
Now, from 2
ε̇p = 0 → γ̇ = 0 ↔ f (σ) < 0 → σ ∈ int (Kσ )
and 3:
ε̇p 6= 0 → γ̇ > 0 ↔ f (σ) = 0 → σ ∈ ∂Kσ .
Therefore we have to enforce
γ̇ = 0 → f (σ) < 0
γ̇ > 0 → f (σ) = 0
that can be summarized in only one condition, that is
γ̇f (σ) = 0. (2.19)
Loading and unloading conditions
Some important conditions
Now, suppose that ε (t) and εp (t) are known for a given t ∈ (0, tf ]. As a
consequence, the stress σ (t) is also known since σ (t) = E [ε (t) − εp (t)], Eq.
(2.2). Also, let us assume that
σ (t) ∈ ∂Kσ ↔ f (σ (t)) = 0. (2.20)
Keeping this condition in mind, let us investigate what are the possibilities for the
existence of f˙ when σ (t) ∈ ∂Kσ . At a first glance, there are three possibilities,
f˙ > 0, f˙ = 0, and f˙ < 0. Let us investigate each one of them.

Condition f˙ (σ (t)) > 0
i Suppose that f˙ (σ (t)) > 0: As a first movement towards analysis we write

f (σ (t + 4t)) − f (σ (t))
f˙ (σ (t)) = lim >0
4t→0 4t
given 4t > 0 the condition for a positive rate becomes
f (σ (t + 4t)) − f (σ (t)) > 0. But notice that, if σ (t) ∈ ∂Kσ then f (σ (t)) = 0.
Therefore to guarantee f˙ (σ (t)) > 0 one has to enforce f (σ (t + 4t)) > 0 but
from condition 1, on page 8, there is no σ such that f (σ) = |σ| − σo > 0. One
concludes, therefore, that
@f˙ (σ (t)) > 0.

Condition f˙ (σ (t)) = 0
ii Suppose that f˙ (σ (t)) = 0: Using the same arguments as in (a) we write
f (σ (t + 4t)) − f (σ (t))
f˙ (σ (t)) = lim =0
4t→0 4t
given 4t > 0. Therefore, to enforce to f˙ (σ (t)) = 0 one has to enforce that

f (σ (t + 4t)) = 0. Despite the signal of σ (t + 4t) the stress state must lie on
the yield surface, σ (t + 4t) ∈ ∂Kσ . This condition says that σ (t + 4t) is also a
loading state, so one concludes
f˙ (σ (t)) = 0 → loading condition.

Condition f˙ (σ (t)) < 0
iii Finally, assume that f˙ (σ (t)) < 0: Also given 4t > 0 this situation implies that
f (σ (t + 4t)) < 0. As the point moved from f (σ (t)) = 0 to f (σ (t + 4t)) < 0,
or from the yielding surface to the elastic region, this condition is interpreted as an
unloading stress state, meaning that
f˙ (σ (t)) < 0 → unloading condition.

Condition f˙ (σ (t)) < 0
As summary
f˙ (σ (t)) = 0 →

loading condition
f˙ (σ (t)) ≤ 0 with . (2.21)
f˙ (σ (t)) < 0 → unloading condition
Also, relating the loading and unloading conditions on f˙ (σ (t)) with those derived
for the absolute slip rate, on page 11, motivate us to write
γ̇ = 0 → f˙ (σ (t)) < 0 (2.22)

γ̇ > 0 → f˙ (σ (t)) = 0 (2.23)
that can be encapsulated in only one condition, that is
γ̇ f˙ (σ) = 0. (2.24)
This last condition is known as the consistency condition or persistence condition.

It means that the stress must persist on the yield surface for an increase of the
absolute slip rate.

Determination of the absolute slip rate γ̇
Absolute slip rate γ̇ determination
The determination of γ̇, of course for The second term in Eq. (2.25) is
loading purposes, comes from the analysis determined recalling that
of f˙ (σ) = 0. Using the chain rule the σ (t) = E [ε (t) − εp (t)], Eq. (2.2), and
rate of the yield function can be written Eq. (2.16). Thus
as
df df dσ σ̇ = E (ε̇ − ε̇p )
= = 0. (2.25)
dt dσ dt = E ε̇ − E γ̇sign (σ) . (2.28)
df
Let us analyze the first term dσ
. Based
on Eq. (2.4) it yields Now substituting Eq. (2.27) and Eq.
(2.28) into Eq. (2.25)

df d |σ| 1 if σ ≥ 0
= = (2.26) df df dσ
dσ dσ −1 if σ < 0 =
dt dσ dt
what is exactly the signal function, Eq. = sign (σ) [E ε̇ − E γ̇sign (σ)]
(2.17), ie = E [ε̇sign (σ) − γ̇] = 0
df what leads to
= sign (σ) . (2.27)
dσ
γ̇ = ε̇sign (σ) . (2.29)

Some considerations
Some notes...
Notice that the formulation presented here appears in terms of deformation

variables {ε, εp }. The deformation is, in fact, the independent variable in this
model. This formulation is called Strain Driven Formulation.
Concluding this section, let us present some mathematical consequences of the
model presented so far. Substituting Eq. (2.29) in Eq. (2.16) we have
ε̇p = γ̇sign (σ)

= ε̇ [sign (σ)]2
= ε̇ (2.30)
p
showing that for the elastic perfectly plastic material the plastic flux ε̇ is exactly
the same to the total rate of deformation ε̇. Also, as ε = εe + εp then
ε̇e = ε̇ − ε̇p = 0 (2.31)
so for a perfectly plastic material there is no evolution of the elastic strain (as
expected!).

Accumulated plastic strain
Accumulated plastic strain
Let us introduce now an auxiliary variable Substituting Eq. (2.16) in Eq. (2.32) it is
that accounts for the total or possible to write
accumulated plastic strain experienced by Z tf
a point of the body from time
ε̄p = |γ̇sign (σ)| dt
t ∈ to , tf . The accumulated plastic
to
strain is an integral over time history Z tf
defined by
= |γ̇| |sign (σ)| dt
Z tf to
ε̄p := |ε̇p | dt (2.32) tf
Z
to = γ̇dt (2.33)
to
the module operator is to account for
tensile and compression strain states. because |sign (σ)| = 1 and γ̇ ≥ 0.
Moreover, we can show that
The accumulated plastic strain plays a
very important role in the description of ε̄˙p = |ε̇p |
hardening in materials. Moreover, it is a
very important variable to understand the = γ̇ (2.34)
nature of degradation while modeling the
degradation variable (damage) in metals.



Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis

Body as a continuum
Body an material particles
A body Ω ⊂ R 3 can be viewed as set of particles,

material particles or material points, that has
continuous distribution in space. The body Ω
may change its configuration, i.e., it may occupies
different geometric regions along with time.
Figure shows a configuration of a body Ω, with
sufficiently regular (smooth) boundary ∂Ω,
occupying a region of the Euclidean space at a
given time t. R (Ω) ⊂ Ω is a region of the body For sake of a representation, an orthogonal
with sufficiently regular boundary ∂R (Ω). Cartesian system is presented in this figure.
Most part of the figures in this slides make
reference to Cartesian systems to define
some quantities, however the reader must
realize that other coordinate systems may
also be used.

Body as a continuum
Preliminaries on motion description
Suppose that a body occupies a certain

region in the space at time to . In order to
fully describe the movement of each
particle of this body let us introduce an
orthogonal Cartesian system defined by
the orthonormal basis l1 , l2 , and l3 such
that each material point can be written
using
X = Xi li = X1 l1 + X2 l2 + X3 l3 . (3.1)
The body at the configuration to will be

called Ωo or
Ω (X, to ) = Ωo (X) , Ωo (X) ⊂ R 3 .

Assume a movement ϕ is imposed over Ωo
(3.2) transforming the body Ωo into Ωt , the current
configuration. In order to describe the movement let us
introduce a material point labeled p (to ) in body Ωo ,
so that p (to ) is referenced by the material position
vector X, see Figure. Under the imposed movement
p (to ) → p (t). Let us reference the point p (t) by
the spatial position vector x. In further developments
we use the notation po ≡ p (to ), pt ≡ p (t) in order
to simplify the reading.
Kinematics
Preliminaries on motion description
Let us define the mapping ϕ : Ωo → Ωt .

ϕ (X, t) is the motion function which
maps the reference configuration onto the
current configuration. In other words,
ϕ (X, t) maps each material point X and
time t to the spatial point x, i.e.,
x = ϕ (X, t) . (3.3)
So, the spatial point x is the position of

the material point X at a time t, see
figure. The spatial point x can be
decomposed with relation to its
orthonormal basis such that x = xi ei . A very important required property of the
motion function is the one-to-one e onto
mapping (or bijective function). In other
words, the inverse of the mapping,
ϕ−1 : Ωt → Ωo , exists. Therefore one
writes
X = ϕ−1 (x, t) . (3.4)

Kinematics
Material and Spatial descriptions
When a body, a continuum, is under motion the quantities associated with it may change
with time. Such quantities can be scalars fields φ, as the temperature for instance, vector
fields, as the velocity v and tensors fields T, as the stress tensor. There are two possible
approaches to accompany such changes along time, they are:
Material description (Lagrange description, Reference description):
Following the particles, i.e., expressing φ, v, and T as functions of the particles, i.e.,
material coordinates, and time:
φ = φ (X1 , X2 , X3 , t) = φ (X, t) (3.5a)

v = v (X1 , X2 , X3 , t) = v (X, t) (3.5b)
T = T (X1 , X2 , X3 , t) = T (X, t) (3.5c)
Material coordinates {X} = (X1 , X2 , X3 ) are independent variables in a material

description.
Spatial description (Eulerian description): Fixing at a location, i.e., expressing φ,
v, and T as functions of a fixed position in space. That is
φ = φ (x1 , x2 , x3 , t) = φ (x, t) (3.6a)

v = v (x1 , x2 , x3 , t) = v (x, t) (3.6b)
T = T (x1 , x2 , x3 , t) = T (x, t) (3.6c)

Kinematics
Material description of a spatial field
Let • (x, t) represent a spatial quantity. The material description of the spatial quantity is
recoverable by changing the position arguments of such function by evoking Eq. (3.3).
So, the material description of the spatial quantity is defined by
φm (X, t) = φ (ϕ (X, t) , t) (3.7a)

v m (X, t) = v (ϕ (X, t) , t) (3.7b)
Tm (X, t) = T (ϕ (X, t) , t) (3.7c)
in which the subscript m stands for material quantities whereas s for spatial quantities.
By writing in this form we desire to call the attention of the reader that we are interested
in accompany the material particle p along its movement.

Kinematics
Spatial description of the material quantity
On the other hand, let • (X, t) represent a material quantity. Employing Eq. (3.4) one
may write the spatial description of the material quantity, that is:

φs (x, t) = φ ϕ−1 (x, t) , t (3.8a)
−1

v s (x, t) = v ϕ (x, t) , t . (3.8b)
−1

Ts (x, t) = T ϕ (x, t) , t (3.8c)
The use of subscript m or s will be employed in this text only when strictly necessary to
not overstress the notation. The reader can go to the example on on page 32 given in the
following section to account for the transformations needed to evaluate the fields in the
reference and spatial configurations.

Kinematics
Material and spatial derivatives
Let φ be a scalar field associated with a certain quantity (density, temperature etc.) of a
body. Assume that such field be expressed in terms of the referenced X, that is the
material description of φ = φ (X, t). The material derivative of φ is

dφ (X, t) ∂φ (X, t)
= φ̇ (X, t) = (3.9)
dt ∂t

X fixed
since Ẋ = 0.
Assume now that the same quantity is written in terms of the current, spatial, description,
that is φ = φ (x, t). Notice that the derivative with relation to time now yields

dφ (x, t) ∂φ (x, t) ∂φ (x, t) dx
= φ̇ (x, t) = + ·
dt ∂t ∂x dt

xfixed

∂φ (x, t)
= + ∇x φ (x, t) · ẋ (3.10)
∂t

xfixed
dx
notice that in Eq. (3.10) x = x (X, t), see also Eq. (3.16). The term ẋ = dt
is the
velocity.
Notice that, in general we have

∂φ (X, t) ∂φ (x, t) dφ (x, t) dφ (X, t)
6= but = (3.11)
.
∂t ∂t dt dt

X fixed xfixed x=ϕ(X,t)
Kinematics
Physical/Graphical interpretation of material derivatives of fields φ written in terms of
referential and spatial descriptions. (a) Referential description; (b) Spatial description;
and (c) Convective term interpretation of the material derivative of φ (x, t).

Kinematics
Material derivative of a vector field
The material derivative of vector field follows Eq. (3.9) and (3.10). Let u be a vector field
written in terms of the reference configuration u = u (X, t). The material derivative is

du (X, t) ∂u (X, t)
= u̇ (X, t) = . (3.12)
dt ∂t

X fixed
Now if u = u (x, t), then

du (x, t) ∂u (x, t) dx
= u̇ (x, t) = + ∇x u (x, t) (3.13)
dt ∂t dt

xfixed
∂ui (x,t)
∂ui (x,t) dx
what in components is u̇i (x, t) = ∂t
+ ∂xj
ẋj . The term dt
is the
xfixed
velocity and will be discussed latter.
∂φ(X,t)

Some authors, as [Gurtin 1981, Gurtin et al. 2010], refer to ∂t
as the material derivative and
X fixed
∂φ(x,t)
0
∂t
as the spatial derivative denoting then by φ̇ and φ , respectively. Other authors employ the notation
xfixed
D to account for the material derivative. The term substantive derivative for the material derivative is employed by
Dt
[Coimbra 1981].

Example
First ideas...
Example 1
Assume that the motion of a continuum body can be described by the following
mapping (see [Reddy 2008] for a similar example)
x = ϕ (X, t) = (X1 + AtX2 ) e1 + (X2 − AtX1 ) e2 + X3 e3 (3.14)
and the temperature in the continuum is given in spatial description, θ = θ (x, t),
by
θ (x, t) = x1 + tx2 . (3.15)
Determine:
1 the inverse of the mapping: ϕ−1 ;
2 the velocity components;
3 the material material time derivatives in both descriptions (material and
spatial).

Kinematics
Displacement vector function and displacement gradient
Let us define the displacement vector function
u (X, t) establishing the correspondence between
p (to ) and p (t). So, the current position x can be
related to the reference position X using
x (X, t) = X + u (X, t) . (3.16)
or by means of Eq. (3.3)
ϕ (X, t) = X + u (X, t) . (3.17)
Let q (to ) be a point in the vicinity of p (to ). This ∇X u is the gradient of a vector
point moves to the vicinity of p (t) resulting in field called displacement gradient.
q (t). q (to ) is referenced by X + dX and q (t) by The Cartesian components are:
x + dx. By Eq. (3.16): " ∂u1 ∂u1 ∂u1 #
∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
x (X, t) + dx (X, t) = X + dX + u (X + dX, t) . [∇X u] =
∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u2
,
∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
(3.18) ∂u3 ∂u3 ∂u3
∂X1 ∂X2 ∂X3
Now subtracting Eq. (3.18) of Eq. (3.16) leads to (3.20)
or in index notation
dx (X, t) = dX + u (X + dX, t) − u (X, t)
= dX + ∇X udX (3.19) ∂ui
[∇X u]ij = . (3.21)
∂Xj
Kinematics
Deformation gradient
Now, from Eq. (3.19) it is possible write

the relation between dX and dx
dx = dX + ∇X udX
= (I + ∇X u) dX
= FdX (3.22)
in which
It is important to call the attention of the
F (X, t) = I + ∇X u (X, t) (3.23) reader that elements belonging to
reference configuration are written in
is called deformation gradient. terms of basis li and elements of the
The deformation gradient F maps dX current configuration in terms of ei . As a
onto dx. Such movement may implies result, the deformation gradient has a
changes at positions, orientations and mixed written, i.e,
sizes between dX and dx. dxi
ei ⊗ lj = Fij ei ⊗ lj . (3.24)
The deformation gradient F is a second dXj
order tensor quantity that holds the whole
deformation information of the vicinity of Alternatively one can write
each point that belongs to the body!
F = ∇X x (X, t) . (3.25)

Kinematics
Reference and current configuration gradient relations.
Before proceed, let us consider now the relation between the gradients taken at the
reference configuration to gradients at current configuration for scalar and vector fields.
Recalling Eq. (3.7a) on can write for scalar fields
∇X φ (X, t) = FT ∇x φ (x, t) (3.26)
for scalar fields and Eq. (3.7b)
∇X u (X, t) = ∇x u (x, t) F (3.27)
for vector fields.

Exercise: Show Eq. (3.26) and Eq. (3.27).

Kinematics
Inverse of the Motion Function - Jacobian of the mapping
We demand that the motion function in Eq. (3.3) be a one to one function in order to
compute its inverse. The mathematical condition that guarantees the existence of such an
inverse function is the non-vanishing of the Jacobian determinant J. The determinant of
the Jacobian of the motion mapping function is
dx dϕ

J = det = det
dX dX
= det (F)
dv
= >0 (3.28)
dV
in which dV is the volume of an element in initial configuration and and dv is the volume
of the deformed volume element. The geometric interpretation of the Jacobian will be
given latter in this chapter when we go trough the changes of volumes and areas due to
deformation.

Kinematics
Relation between the lengths of dX and dx
Let us define the lengths of dX and dx The second order tensor C is called right
by Cauchy-Green deformation tensor. Based
on Eq. (3.23) C can be expressed as
1
dS = kdXk = (dX · dX) 2(3.29)
1 C = FT F = I+∇X u+(∇X u)T +(∇X u)T
ds = kdxk = (dx · dx) 2 . (3.30) (3.34)
Therefore using Eq. (3.22) one can write
dx · dx = FdX · FdX
Remark
= dX · FT FdX. (3.31)
Notice that if F is orthogonal then
Let us define
FT F = I
T
C=F F (3.32)
and we have a rigid movement of the body
and and the lengths remains the same, that is
dx · dx = dX · CdX. (3.33) dx · dx = dX · FT FdX = dX · dX.

Kinematics
Relation between the lengths of dX and dx
Also, Eq. (3.31) can be written as Let us write the vectors dX and dx with
help of the lengths dS and ds and the
−1 −1
dX · dX = F dx · F dx unitary vectors N and n by
−T −1
= dx · F F dx. (3.35)
dX = dSN (3.37)
and dx = dsn. (3.38)
B−1 = F−T F−1 −→ B = FFT The graphical interpretation is given in

Figure bellow:
where B is called left Cauchy-Green
deformation tensor, or Finger tensor.
Thus
B−1 = F−T F−1 −→ B = FFT (3.36)

Infinitesimal strain tensor
Infinitesimal strain tensor
Assuming that the displacements and the displacements gradients are small, in fact
infinitesimals, it is possible to set
(∇X u)T ∇X u ≈ 0 (3.39)
and Eq.(3.34) reduces to
FT F = I + ∇X u + (∇X u)T
= I + 2ε (3.40)
where
1
∇X u + (∇X u)T
ε= (3.41)
2
is known as Infinitesimal strain tensor. The Cartesian components of ε are

1 ∂ui ∂uj
εij = + (3.42)
2 ∂Xj ∂Xi
or still as
 ∂u1 1 ∂u1 ∂u2
1 ∂u1 ∂u3

∂X1 2 ∂X2
+ ∂X1 2 ∂X3
+ ∂X1
ε11 ε12 ε13
1 ∂u2 ∂u1 ∂u2 1 ∂u2 ∂u3
[ε] = ε21 ε22 ε23 =  2 ∂X1
+ ∂X2 ∂X2 2 ∂X3
+ ∂X2

ε31 ε32 ε33 1 ∂u3 ∂u1 1 ∂u3 ∂u2
∂u3
2 ∂X1
+ ∂X3 2 ∂X2
+ ∂X3 ∂X3
(3.43)
that is, the Infinitesimal strain tensor is symmetric.
Kinematics
Geometric interpretation of the rectangular/Cartesian components of the Infinitesimal
strain tensor
Consider two material elements named dX a and dX b that emanate from the same point
(at the reference configuration), but in different directions. After a movement they
become
dxa = FdX a
b
dx = FdX b .
The dot product between dxa and dxb is meaningful. Keeping in mind Eq.(3.40) it reads
dxa · dxb = dX a · FT FdX b

= dX a · dX b + 2dX a · εdX b . (3.44)
Based on Eq.(3.44) we are going to derive the physical and mathematical interpretation of
the Cartesian components of the infinitesimal strain tensor.

Kinematics
Diagonal elements of the infinitesimal strain tensor in Cartesian basis
Consider a material element where Notice that Eq. (3.47) says that
dX a = dX b = dX. Imposing a deformation
the diagonal components of the
gradient F we have dxa = dxb = dx. Now, one
can write Eq. (3.44), with aid of Eq. Infinitesimal Strain Tensor
(3.37)-(3.38), as represent the variation of length
per unity of original length. In
dx · dx = dX · dX + 2dX · εdX
particular when N = ei then
dsn · dsn = dSN · dSN + 2dSN · εdSN
ei · εei = εii what leads to the
ds2 = dS 2 + 2dS 2 N · εN . (3.45)
particular interpretation:
Under the “Infinitesimal strain” assumption one I ε11 is the variation of
writes length per unity of original
length in the e1 ;
ds2 − dS 2 = (ds + dS) (ds − dS) I ε22 is the variation of
≈ 2dS (ds − dS) . (3.46) length per unity of original
length in the e2 ;
Then Eq.(3.45) I ε33 is the variation of
length per unity of original
ds − dS length in the e3 ;
N · εN = εN N = (3.47)
dS
with no sum in N .

Kinematics
Off-diagonal elements of the Cartesian tensor
Let dX a = dS a M and dX b = dS b N be Using the trigonometric identity:

two material orthogonal elements defined
π π π

in Ωo , so M ⊥ N with cos −γ = cos cos γ + sin sin γ
kM k = kN k = 1, emanating from the 2 2 2
same material point. = sin γ. (3.49)
After a movement, deformation gradient
F, one has dxa = dsa m and Invoking the infinitesimal strains
dxb = dsb n, being m and n also unitary assumption
vectors. From Eq. (3.44) one reads
dsa dsb
dx
a b
· dx = dX
a b
· dX + 2dX
a
· εdX
b sin γ ≈ γ ≈1 ≈ 1. (3.50)
dS a dS b
a b a b a b
ds ds m · n = dS dS M · N + 2dS dS M · εN
a b a b
Returning to Eq. (3.48) we simply write
ds ds cos θ = 2dS dS M · εN (3.48)
1
here, θ is the angle between m and n. 2M · εN = γ → εM N =γM N
2
Now, writing (3.51)
π and inside the infinitesimal strain
θ= −γ framework γ is known as shear strain.
2
in which γ the complement of θ to the
original orthogonal angle

Kinematics
First ideas...
Therefore, the double value of the off-diagonal
components of the Infinitesimal Strain Tensor
represent the angle variation of two elements
originally perpendiculars in Ωo . More specifically,
when when M = ei and N = ej (i 6= j), then
ei · εej = εij , one concludes that:
I ε12 is one-half of the angle change of two
material elements originally collinear to e1
and e2 ;
and e3 ;
and e3 ;
This last Figure depicts the geometric

interpretations of the infinitesimal
deformations under a plane state
assumption. All deformations presented in
this figure are considered positive.
Kinematics
Volumetric deformation.
Consider the element of volume with Clearly, the new elementary volume is
sides given by dx1 , dx2 , and dx3 . dv = (1 + ε11 ) dx1 (1 + ε22 ) dx2 (1 + ε33 ) dx3
= (1 + ε11 + ε22 + ε33 + ε11 ε22 + ε11 ε33 +
+ε22 ε33 + ε11 ε22 ε33 ) dx1 dx2 dx3
≈ (1 + ε11 + ε22 + ε33 ) dx1 dx2 dx3
= dV + δV
in which δV is the variation of volume

δV = dv − dV . Dividing the variation by
the initial volume one arises at the
volumetric deformation definition
δV
εv = = ε11 + ε22 + ε33 . (3.53)
The initial volume is dV
dV = dx1 dx2 dx3 . (3.52) The volumetric deformation εv is the sum

of the diagonal components of the
After the deformation, the sides of this infinitesimal strain tensor. Therefore,
volume element changed to using the trace operator it can be written
dx1 + dx1 ε11 , dx2 + dx2 ε22 and as
dx3 + dx3 ε33 . εv = tr (ε) . (3.54)

Kinematics
Finite Deformation Tensors
Why the infinitesimal strain tensor fails to represent Finite (Large) Deformations?
I Why the term (∇X u)T ∇X u in Eq. 3.34 (or ∇X u (∇X u)T in Eq. 3.36) can not be disregarded!
Before go further into the definitions of finite deformation tensors let us introduce some
important theorems regarding second order tensors. They are the Spectral Decomposition
and the Polar Decomposition Theorems.

Spectral decomposition theorem
Very important theorem in solid mechanics
Theorem 2
Spectral decomposition theorem:[Gurtin 1981] Let V denote the space of all symmetric second order
tensors. Let S ∈ V . Then there is an orthonormal basis for consisting entirely of eigenvectors of S.
Moreover, for any such basis m1 , m2 , and m3 the corresponding eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , and λ3 , when
ordered, form the entire spectrum of S and
S = λi mi ⊗ mi . (3.55)
Conversely, if S has the form of Eq. (3.55) with {mi } orthonormal, them λ1 , λ2 , and λ3 are the
eigenvalues of S and m1 , m2 , and m3 are the corresponding eigenvectors. Further,
1 S has exactly three distinct eigenvalues if and only if the characteristic spaces of S are three
mutually perpendicular lines through 0;
2 S has exactly two distinct eigenvalues if and only if S admits the representation
S = λ1 m ⊗ m + λ2 (I − m ⊗ m) . (3.56)
In this case λ1 and λ2 are the two distinct eigenvalues and the corresponding characteristic spaces
are m and m⊥ , respectively. Alternatively, on can write, for λ1 = λ2 ,
S = λ1 (m1 ⊗ m1 + m2 ⊗ m2 ) + λ3 (m3 ⊗ m3 ) .
3 S has exactly one eigenvalue (λ = λ1 = λ2 = λ3 ) if and only if
S = λmi ⊗ mi = λI. (3.57)

Polar decomposition theorem
Another important theorem.
Theorem 3
Polar decomposition theorem:[Gurtin 1981] Let T be an invertible tensor
with det (T) > 0. Then there are symmetric, positive-definite tensors U and V
and a rotation R (orthogonal tensor with det (R) = +1) such that
T = RU = VR. (3.58)
Moreover, U, V, and R are unique.
Proof.
Left as an exercise.
It follows immediately from this theorem that
U = RT VR or V = RURT . (3.59)
I RU is the right polar decomposition of T;

I VR is the left polar decomposition of T;
I U is known as the right stretch tensor whereas;
I V is left stretch tensor.

Geometric Interpretation
A geometric interpretation using as example the deformation gradient tensor
Let us investigate the use of the polar decomposition theorem applied to the deformation
gradient, that is T = F. The mapping from a reference configuration to a deformed
configuration is
dx = FdX
= RUdX (3.60)
= VRdX (3.61)
Note that R does not change the length (magnitude) of the vector, but only its
orientation. The figure bellow shows the geometric interpretation of the polar
decomposition for F.

Cauchy-Green deformation tensors
C is the right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor while B is the left Cauchy-Green
deformation tensor.
Now, let us now establish an relation between U and V to C and B, respectively.

1 First U and C:
C = FT F = (RU)T RU
= FT F = URT RU
= UU = U2 . (3.62)
2 Now V and B:
B = FFT = VR (VR)T
= VRRT V
= VV = V2 . (3.63)

Kinematics
Unified definitions of finite strain tensors
The mathematical representation of deformation is not unique. As pointed out before it

can be presented in a material basis (Lagrangian version) or in a spatial basis (Eulerian
version). Moreover, it is possible to write families of material or spatial strain tensors by:
I Material Strain Tensor Family
1 3 1
(Um − I) m 6= 0 X [(λi )m − 1] m 6= 0
E(m) = m = m N i ⊗ N i;
ln (U) m=0 ln (λi ) m=0
i=1
(3.64)
I Spatial Strain Tensor Family:
1 3 1
(Vm − I) m 6= 0 X [(λi )m − 1] m 6= 0
ε(m) = m = m ni ⊗ ni . (3.65)
ln (V) m=0 ln (λi ) m=0
i=1
where λi (i = 1, 2, 3) are the eigenvalues of U (or V (they are the same)) and N i
and ni are the principal directions (eigenvectors) of U and V respectively.

Kinematics
Some finite strain tensors can be now classified according a given exponent and name.
Some important, most employed, finite strain tensors are:
Material strain tensors: Spatial strain tensors:

Green-Lagrange strain tensor - m = 2 Almansi strain tensor - m = −2:
1 1 1
E(2) =E= U2 − I = (C − I) ε(−2) = I − V−2 (3.69)
2 2 2
(3.66)
spatial Biot strain tensor - m = −1:
Biot strain tensor - m = 1:
ε(−1) = h = I − V−1 (3.70)
E(1) = H = U − I (3.67)
spatial Hencky strain tensor - m = 0:
Hencky strain tensor - m = 0:
ε(0) = ln (V) (3.71)
E(0) = ln (U) (3.68)

Kinematics
Geometric interpretation of the rectangular components of Finite Deformation Tensors
Green-Lagrange strain tensor

Almansi strain tensor
Find the interpretations for each finite strain tensor (including C and B!)

Kinematics
A note on compatibility
The discussion that follows assumes a infinitesimal strain state, but it can be conveniently
extended to finite deformations tensors. When the displacement functions for u1 , u2 , and
u3 are known (given) the six deformation components can be computed. For infinitesimal
strains one can directly employ Eq. (3.41), which requires only that the field ui be
∂ui
smooth in order to guaranty the existence of the partial derivatives ∂X , i.e ui ∈ C 1 .
j
However a problem arises when one tries to determine the displacement field from a given
strain field. This problem is due the existence of six deformation components for only
three displacements. As a result we need to introduce more equations, restrictions over
the displacement and deformation field will be necessary. Such restriction are the known
as the equations of compatibility.

Kinematics
First ideas...
Theorem 4
Compatibility theorem: If εij ∈ C 2 , εij has continuous second partial
derivatives, in a simply connected region, then the necessary and sufficient
conditions for the existence of single-valued continuous functions
u1 , u2 , and u3
1 ∂ui ∂uj
satisfying the six equations in the εij = 2 ∂Xj
+ ∂Xi
are:
∂ 2 ε11 ∂ 2 ε22 2
∂ 2 ε11
∂ ε12

∂X22
+ ∂X12
= 2 ∂X = ∂
− ∂ε23
+ ∂ε31
+ ∂ε12
1 ∂X2 ∂X2 ∂X3 ∂X1 ∂X 1 ∂X2 ∂X3
∂ 2 ε22 ∂ 2 ε33 2
∂ 2 ε22
∂ ε23 ∂ ∂ε23 ∂ε31 ∂ε12

∂X32
+ ∂X22
=2 ∂X2 ∂X3 ∂X1 ∂X3
= ∂X2 ∂X1
− ∂X2
+ ∂X3
∂ 2 ε33 ∂ 2 ε11 ∂ 2 ε31 ∂ 2 ε33 ∂ ∂ε23 ∂ε31 ∂ε12

∂X12
+ ∂X32
=2 ∂X3 ∂X1 ∂X1 ∂X2
= ∂X3 ∂X1
+ ∂X2
− ∂X3
(3.72)
For more details see [Lai et al., 2010] page 102 and Appendix 3.1. The compatibility
equations can be written in compact form as
∇X × ∇X × ε = 0. (3.73)

Kinematics
Velocity vector, velocity gradient tensor, spin, and the rate of deformation tensor
Let us define the vector field v as the spatial description of the velocity. It means the
velocity of a material particle that, at time t, occupies the spatial point x. It reads
v = v (x, t) . (3.74)
being
dx
v≡ or v ≡ ẋ.
dt
Note that, by using Eq. 3.16 an alternative definition of the velocity may be stated by
using the displacement vector, that is
dx d (X + u) du
v≡ = = ≡ u̇.
dt dt dt
Following the description presented in [Malvern 1969], the relative velocity components
dv of a particle q relative to the particle p are given by
∂v ∂vi
dv = dx or dvi = dxj . (3.75)
∂x ∂xj
∂v
The tensor ∂x
is called as the velocity gradient tensor and denoted by L, i.e.
∂v
L= = ∇x v → dv = Ldx. (3.76)
∂x
Kinematics
Velocity vector, velocity gradient tensor, spin, and the rate of deformation tensor
The velocity gradient tensor can be additively decomposed into its symmetric and
anti-symmetric (or skew) tensors by
1 1
L= ∇x v + (∇x v)T + ∇x v − (∇x v)T (3.77)
|2 {z } |2 {z }
D W
in which the symmetric part is denoted by D and known as the rate of deformation tensor
and the anti-symmetric part is denoted by W and named as the spin tensor or vorticity
tensor (or still rate of rotation tensor).

Kinematics
An example
Example 5
Interpretation of the rate of deformation tensor: Let us investigate further the rate of deformation and
rate of rotation tensors. Rate of deformation meaning: Let us take the rate of the length of a current ds, that is,
the length of dX at time t. We know from Eq. (3.30) that
2
(ds) = dx · dx.
The rate of this equation yields

d 2
d
(ds) = 2dx · (dx) . (3.78)
dt dt
d (dx). Invoking Eqs. (3.22) and (3.25) one writes
Let us investigate further the term dt
d d d d
(dx) = (∇X x (X, t) dX) = (∇X x (X, t)) dX + ∇X x (X, t) (dX)
dt dt dt dt
and as dX does not vary with time and the second vanishes. Therefore

d d dx (X, t)
(dx) = (∇X x (X, t)) dX = ∇X dX → dv = ∇X v (X, t) dX (3.79)
dt dt dt
Note that
∇X v 6= ∇x v = L. (3.80)

Kinematics
Example 6
But from Eq. (3.76) we have dv = ∇x vdx and from Eq. (3.79) dv = ∇X v (X, t) dX, therefore one
identifies
d
∇x vdx = ∇X vdX → (dx) = Ldx. (3.81)
dt
Now returning to Eq. (3.78) one writes
d 2

(ds) = 2dx · Ldx. (3.82)
dt
Using the decomposition in Eq. (3.77)
d 2

(ds) = 2dx · Ddx + 2dx · Wdx (3.83)
dt
but dx · Wdx = 0 since dx ⊥ Wdx resulting in
d 2

(ds) = 2dx · Ddx. (3.84)
dt
Again by Eq. (3.78)

d d
2dx · (dx) = 2dx · Ddx → (dx) = Ddx. (3.85)
dt dt
Based on last result one concludes that the rate of a deformed element, increment of velocity, emanating from a
particle p at the current configuration is given by the application of the rate of deformation tensor on current
increment dx.

Summary
Review your course of continuum mechanics and make sure you understand each
and every slide presented here...



Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis

Body as a continuum
The Conservation of Mass law or principle (originally stated by Antoine Lavoisier) implies
that mass can neither be created nor destroyed, although it may be rearranged in space,
or the entities associated with it may be changed in form.
A body Ω ⊂ R 3 can be viewed as set of particles,

material particles or material points, that has
continuous distribution in space. The body Ω
may change its configuration, i.e., it may occupies
different geometric regions along with time.
Figure shows a configuration of a body Ω, with
sufficiently regular (smooth) boundary ∂Ω,
occupying a region of the Euclidean space at a
given time t. R (Ω) ⊂ Ω is a region of the body For sake of a representation, an orthogonal
with sufficiently regular boundary ∂R (Ω). Cartesian system is presented in this figure.
Most part of the figures in this slides make
reference to Cartesian systems to define
some quantities, however the reader must
realize that other coordinate systems may
also be used.

Mass balance equation
Mass and mass density
From the continuum point of view the existence of the quantity called mass implies in the
existence of a scalar field called mass density, denoted by ρ. The mass of a certain region
R of the body Ω, denoted by mR(Ω) , is
Z
mR(Ω) = ρ (x, t) dv. (3.86)
R(Ω)
This result is equivalent to express

mR(Ω)
ρ (x, t) = lim (3.87)
R(Ω)→x VR(Ω)
in which x is a arbitrary
point such that x ∈ R (Ω). Moreover, ρ (x, t) is assumed to be
smooth ρ ∈ C 1 . The principle of mass conservation states that the rate of change of
mass does not vary. It reads
Z
d d
mR(Ω) = ρ (x, t) dv = 0. (3.88)
dt dt R(Ω)
It is possible define a mass element dm. As a result of Eq. 3.87 one may write
dm = ρ (x, t) dv. (3.89)

Continuity equation at current configuration
The conservation of mass, Eq. 3.88, can be written using the transport formula (see
[Gurtin 1981, page78]), as
Z Z
d
ρ (x, t) dv = 0 → (ρ̇ + ρ∇x · ẋ) dv = 0. (3.90)
dt R(Ω) R(Ω)
and having an arbitrary region (arbitrary integration limits) one writes
ρ̇ + ρ∇x · ẋ = 0. (3.91)
Equation 3.91 is one of the forms of the continuity equation and expresses the local
conservation of mass at any point of a continuum medium.
Let φ = ρ in Eq. 3.10 that combining with Eq. 3.91 yields

∂ρ (x, t)
+ ∇x · (ρẋ) = 0. (3.92)
∂t

x const
Equation 3.92 is another the form of the continuity equation.

Incompressibility
Incompressibility condition:
I If the density of the vicinity of each material point remains constant
during a movement, the continuity equation Eq. (3.91), assumes the
simply form
∇x · ẋ = 0. (3.93)
I The continuity equations just stated must be imposed at the current
configuration. It is also possible state a mass conservation law at
reference configuration.

Material form of the continuity equation
Material form of the continuity equation
The material form of the continuity equation Therefore,

can be derived easily if ones defines ρo as the Z
mass density at reference configuration Ωo , i.e.
[ρ (ϕ (X, t) , t) J − ρo (X)] dV = 0
ρo = ρo (X). By the conservation of mass one
R(Ωo )
states that (3.95)
Z Z and using Eq. (3.28)
ρ (x, t) dv = ρo (X) dV (3.94)
ρo ρo
R(Ω) R(Ωo ) ρJ = ρo → J = → det (F) = (3.96)
ρ ρ
Here the region R (Ω) is the region occupied at
time t which occupied R (Ωo ) at time to . By Another local form of conservation of mass can
using Eq. (3.28) and recalling the discussion be derived combining Eq. (3.88) and Eq. (3.95)
about material and spatial quantities, slide on yielding
d
page 29, it is possible to change variables and (ρJ) = 0. (3.97)
write dt
Z Z Departing from Eq. (3.94) or Eq. (3.95) and
ρ (x, t) dv = ρ (x, t)|x=ϕ(X,t) J dV. keeping in mind Eq. (3.28) one writes
R(Ω) R(Ωo )
d
(ρdv) = 0. (3.98)
dt

Reynolds transport theorem
Now we want to investigate further the material time derivative of a volume integral with
a rather more general integrand of that presented in Eq. 3.88. Let
Z
d
ρ (x, t) A (x, t) dv
dt R(Ω)
where A is a specific property of the material, as for instance the specific energy, and may
be a scalar, vector or tensor field. Notice that the integrand is expressed in spatial
coordinates so it is the region R (Ω) and its boundary ∂R (Ω). This last material time
derivative of a volume integral can be interpreted as the rate of change of the amount of
A possessed by the material instantaneously inside the region R (Ω).
Theorem 7
Reynolds transport theorem: It states that the rate of change of the
amount of A possessed by the material instantaneously inside the region R (Ω) is
given by the rate of change of the total amount of of A in region R (Ω) plus the
rate of outward flux of A carried by mass transport through the control surface
∂R (Ω). Mathematically it reads
Z Z Z
d ∂
ρA dv = (ρA ) dv + ρA ẋ · n da. (3.99)
dt R(Ω) R(Ω)
∂t ∂R(Ω)

Another form of this theorem, and more useful in this course, comes transforming the
surface integral to a volume integral. Using divergence theorem
Z Z
ρA ẋ · n da = ∇x · (ρA ẋ) da.
∂R(Ω) R(Ω)
Substituting back in Eq. 3.99 yields

Z Z
d ∂
h i
ρA dv = (ρA ) + ∇x · (ρA ẋ) dv
dt R(Ω) R(Ω)
∂t
Z Z
∂ ∂
h i h i
= A (ρ) + ∇x · (ρẋ) dv + ρ A + ∇x · (A ẋ) dv.
R(Ω)
∂t R(Ω)
∂t
The first term of the LHS vanishes according to Eq. 3.92 while the second can be
d
simplified using dt A = ∂t
∂
A + ∇x · (A ẋ), replacing ρ by A in Eq. 3.92. Therefore the
Reynolds transport theorem can be written as
Z Z Z
d d
ρA dv = ρ A dv = ρA˙ dv. (3.100)
dt R(Ω) R(Ω)
dt R(Ω)
See [Malvern 1969], pages 210-212, for more details.

Summary
Review your course of continuum mechanics and make sure you understand each and
every slide presented here...



Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis

Stress state - equilibrium of a point in terms of stresses
Equilibrium
Our discussion begins assuming a body Let us separate the body through an
under equilibrium where forces are imaginary and arbitrary cutting section,
prescribed on its surface and submitted to separating it (initially) into two parts. By
a field forces, as gravitational field, called passing this section, a set of forces per
body forces. unit area, a distribution of density of
Ω is the current region occupied by this forces, must arise in both sections to keep
body and let us state that the body is the body in equilibrium.
under equilibrium conditions.
This distribution of forces per unit area

acting over each cross section may vary
from point to point, but it is not arbitrary.
External forces:

Cauchy traction vector
Traction vector
To the force field per unit area we define the so-called traction vector t which will be
associated with a unitary normal vector n to the section plane.
To define the so-called Cauchy traction vector (or true traction vector), defined at the
current (deformed) configuration, one must allow that the cutting section plane be
divided into small current area elements (or regions) ∆a. Let us analyze one of this
elements, let us say in the vicinity of point o;
The traction vector tn , also known as Cauchy traction vector is defined as
∆F
tn = lim . (3.101)
∆a→0 ∆a
Considering now a Cartesian system x1 , x2 , and x3 generated by orthogonal vectors e1 ,

e2 and e3 . It is possible to decompose the traction vector tn on such directions as
tn = tnx1 e1 + tnx2 e2 + tnx3 e3 . (3.102)

Traction vector and stress
Traction vector and stress
Let us particularize a little bit more the traction vector components. Let the normal vector
n be given by each of orthogonal vectors. Let us define three traction vectors named te1 ,
te2 and te3 which act on section planes x2 x3 , x1 x3 , and x1 x2 , respectively. Each one of
this traction vectors has three components on the directions of e1 , e2 and e3 . They are:
te1 = t11 e1 + t12 e2 + t13 e3 = σ11 e1 + σ12 e2 + σ13 e3

te2 = t21 e1 + t22 e2 + t23 e3 = σ21 e1 + σ22 e2 + σ23 e3 (3.103)
te3 = t31 e1 + t32 e2 + t33 e3 = σ31 e1 + σ32 e2 + σ33 e3
That is, the rectangular Cartesian stress components are the components of the vector
traction te1 , te2 , and te3 at the point pt in terms of x1 , x2 , and x3 . Projecting each one
of the stress components on their respective section planes one have the representation:

Stress tensor
Stress tensor
The Cauchy stress tensor is
σ = σij ei ⊗ ej . (3.104)
The Cartesian components of the stress tensor σ, represented here by [σ], are
" #
σ11 σ12 σ13
[σ] = [σij ] = σ21 σ22 σ23 . (3.105)
σ31 σ32 σ33
The stress tensor in Eq. 3.105 is known as the Cauchy stress tensor or Cauchy true stress
tensor. It acts on the actual (deformed) configuration of the body.
When the coordinate system is named as x, y, and z (instead of x1 , x2 , and x3 ) the
orthonormal vectors become ex , ey , and ez and the components of the stress tensor
representation are given in the following way
" #
σxx σxy σxy
[σ] = σyx σyy σyz . (3.106)
σzx σzy σzz
The components representation of the stress tensor may change accordingly with the
literature. Some authors would rather use the so-called von Karman notation to describe
the Cartesian components of stress tensor. It is
" #
σx τxy τxz
[σ] = τyx σy τyz . (3.107)
τzx τzy σz
Traction vector and Cauchy stress tensor relations
Traction vector and Cauchy stress
An important relation between the traction vector and the Cauchy stress tensor
exists. Given a Cauchy stress acting on a point the traction vector related to it, for
a given normal vector n, is
t = σT n (3.108)
ti = σji nj .

Linear and angular momentum conservation
Linear momentum and the Cauchy law of motion
Linear momentum:
Cauchy law of motion is the continual analog of the Newton’s 2nd law applied to
particles. The linear momentum conservation law for a particle of mass m states that the
rate of change of its linear momentum is equal to the resulting force applied to that mass.
Mathematically it is
d
(mẋ) = f . (3.109)
dt
Now let us state the continuum form. Let Ω be a body with boundary ∂Ω where acts
surface forces (density of forces) t = t (x, t) and body forces b = b (x, t)(per unity of
mass). Let ẍ (x, t) be the acceleration, so that ρẍdv is the inertial force. So it is stated:
The rate of change of linear momentum of the particles which instantaneously lie within a
fixed region Ω is proportional to the resultant force applied to the material occupying Ω.
This resultant force consists of the resultant of the body forces in Ω together with the
resultant of the surface traction t = t (x, t) acting on ∂Ω.
Z Z Z
d
t da + ρb dv = ρẋ dv (3.110)
∂Ω Ω
dt Ω

Now using Eq. 3.108 one writes
Z Z
t da = σT n da (3.111)
∂Ω ∂Ω
and using the Gauss divergence theorem

Z Z

σT n da = div σT dv. (3.112)
∂Ω Ω
Moreover, the integral in RHS may be written as

Z Z Z
d Eq. (3.100) d
ρẋ dv = ρ ẋ dv = ρẍ dv
dt Ω Ω
dt Ω
Substituting this last result into Eq. 3.110 yields

Z

div σT + ρb − ρẍ dv = 0 (3.113)
Ω
and letting Ω being an arbitrary region leads that the integrand must be zero. Hence the
Cauchy law of motion is expressed as

div σT + ρb = ρẍ. (3.114)
Cauchy law of motion
Cauchy law of motion
The Cauchy law of motion

div σT + ρb = ρẍ. (3.115)
is expressed in index as
∂σji
+ ρbi = ρẍi or σji,j + ρbi = ρẍi . (3.116)
∂xj
When the inertial forces are neglected, we have ρẍ = 0 and Eq. 3.114 is reduced to
div σT + ρb = 0 which is known as the Cauchy equilibrium equation in terms of
stresses. Expanding the equilibrium equation in Cartesian components one reads
∂σxx ∂σyx ∂σzx

+ + + ρbx = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂σyx ∂σyy ∂σzy
+ + + ρby = 0. (3.117)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂σzx ∂σzy ∂σzz
+ + + ρbz = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z

Conservation of the Angular momentum
Angular momentum
The angular momentum conservation law for a particle is
d
(mx × ẋ) = x × f (3.118)
dt
where x is the position vector from an arbitrary origin. The continual generalization
comes directly from Eq. 3.110
Z Z Z
d
x × t da + x × ρb dv = x × ρẋ dv. (3.119)
∂Ω Ω
dt Ω
Again, making use of Eq. 3.108 together with Eq. 3.110 yields
Z Z Z
x × σT n da + x × ρb dv = x × ρẍ dv (3.120)
∂Ω Ω
Z Z ZΩ
ijk xj σlk nl da + ijk xj ρbk dv = ijk xj ρẍk dv
∂Ω Ω Ω
where ijk is the permutation symbol (Levi-Civita symbol). It is

1 (ijk) = (123) , (231) , (312)
ijk = −1 (ijk) = (132) , (321) , (213) .
0 else

Conservation of the Angular momentum
Symmetry of the Cauchy stress tensor
To show such a very important results of continuum mechanics consider Eq. (3.120).
Using the divergence theorem it is possible transform the surface integral to a volume
integral and write
Z
∂σlk
h i
ijk xj + ρbk − ρv̇k + δjl σlk dv = 0 (3.121)
Ω
∂xl
what reduces to Z
ijk σjk dv = 0 (3.122)
Ω
and as dv is arbitrary
ijk σjk = 0 (3.123)
which expanded will leads to
σij = σji . (3.124)

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a tensor
Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a second-order tensor
Given a second-order tensor T, an vector n is said an eigenvector with associated

eigenvalue λ if, and only if, the following equation is satisfied
Tn = λn. (3.125)
As λn = λIn it is possible to write
(T − λI) n = 0 or in components (Tij − λδij ) nj = 0. (3.126)
To fulfill Eq. (3.126) the eigenvalues must satisfy the following scalar equation
det (T − λI) = 0 (3.127)
that is:
T11 − λ

T12 T13
det (T − λI) = 0 → T21 T22 − λ T23 = 0. (3.128)

T
31 T32 T33 − λ

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a tensor
The determinant generates a polynomial of third degree which is known as

characteristic polynomial or characteristic equation of the tensor T. After
some algebraic mathematical manipulation the following cubic equation
det (T − λI) = λ3 − IT λ2 + IIT λ − IIIT = 0 (3.129)
whose coefficients of this equation are those shown in Eq. (3.130), Eq.
(3.134), and Eq. (3.136) unveiling why they are named invariants of a
tensor in detriment of other operations.
The cubic polynomial in Eq. (3.129) has three roots, named λ1 , λ2 , and λ3
(that are the eigenvalues). The eigenvalues of this characteristic polynomial
may have the following values:
I all real and distinct;
I all real, being some repeated (or even all repeated);
I some real (distinct and/or repeated) and some complex (imaginary);
I all complex.

Invariants of a second-order tensors
The use of invariants is very important in continuum mechanics and in particular in solid
mechanics, especially in the constitutive equations for writing various types of materials.
First invariant: Trace of a tensor
I The first invariant of a tensor T, IT or I1 , is its trace of the tensor, tr (T), i.e.
3
X
IT = tr (T) = Tii = Tii (3.130)
i=1
To check the invariance of the tensor trace one has to show that

tr [T]ei = tr [T]e0 . (3.131)
i
By the use of Eq. (11.5) and the orthogonality of Q given by Eq. (11.1) one can
show that

0
tr [T]e0 = Tii = Qki Tkl Qli
i
= Tkl Qki Qli

= Tkl δkl
= Tkk = tr (T) (3.132)
Invariants of second-order tensors
Second invariant:
I Although the inner product of a tensor by itself, T · T, is invariant it is not known
as the second invariant by large part of the literature. Instead, the second invariant
of a second-order tensor, denoted by IIT or I2 , is given by

IIT = 1
2
(tr (T))2 − T · T (3.133)
or
2
IIT = 1
2
IT − tr T2 . (3.134)
I It can be written also as the sum of the diagonal co-factors of the tensor T, that is,
2

IIT = 1
2
IT − tr T2

T11 T12 T11 T13 T22 T23
= + T31 + T32

T21 T22 T33 T33
= T11 T22 + T22 T33 + T11 T33 − T12 T21 − T13 T31 − T23 T32 . (3.135)

Invariants of second-order tensors
Third invariant - the determinant

I The third invariant of a second-order tensor is the determinant which is defined as
the determinant of the matrix of the Cartesian components of that tensor. Therefore
IIIT = I3 = det T = det [T] . (3.136)
or

T11 T12 T13
IIIT = T21 T22 T23

T31 T32 T33
= T11 T22 T33 + T12 T23 T31 + T13 T21 T32 +
− T13 T22 T31 − T12 T21 T33 − T11 T23 T32
Some examples of stress states in principal directions

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a Symmetric tensor
The eigenvalues (λ1 , λ2 , and λ3 ) of a Symmetric tensors, S = ST , are reals and the
corresponding eigenvector n1 , n2 and n3 are mutually orthogonal, that is
Sni = λi ni i = 1, 2, 3 (no sum) (3.137a)

ni · nj = δij i, j = 1, 2, 3. (3.137b)
This result allows us to say that the unitary eigenvectors n1 , n2 , and n3 can be used as
an alternative base.
By Eq. (3.137b) the off-diagonal terms are zero for this representation, and the terms
that appear in the diagonal are the eigenvalues λi , i.e.,
" #
λ1 0 0
[S]ni = 0 λ2 0 . (3.138)
0 0 λ3
Thus, the representation of an symmetric tensor S is given by
3
X
S= λi ni ⊗ ni (3.139)
i=1
which is known as spectral decomposition.

Examples
Examples
Example 8
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the following tensor
" #
7 −2 0
[S] = −2 6 −2
0 −2 5
then sketch the basis ni in terms of the original basis and represent the
eigenvalues.
Example 9
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the following tensor
" #
0 1 1
[S] = 1 0 1 .
1 1 0

Cubic polynomial - root solution
This solution is provided by Murray R. Spiegel, Seymour Lipschutz and John Liu, Manual
de Fórmulas e Tabelas Matemáticas, Coleção Schaum, terceira edição, Bookman, 2012.
(page 23)

Spherical and Deviatoric Tensors
Additive decomposition of a tensor into Spherical and Deviatoric Tensors
Given any second order tensor T, it can be additively decomposed into a spherical, Tsph ,
and a deviatoric part, Tdev , such that:
T = Tsph + Tdev (3.140)
The spherical part is defined as
1
Tsph = tr (T) I = αI (3.141)
3
whereas the so-called deviatoric part of T, or deviator tensor, is given by
1
Tdev = T − tr (T) I. (3.142)
3
It easy to note that

tr Tdev = 0. (3.143)

Spherical and Deviatoric Tensors
Additive decomposition of a tensor into Spherical and Deviatoric Tensors
Case T is symmetric, say T = S, the deviator tensor can be transformed, by orthogonal

transformations, into a tensor where the diagonal components are all null.
An example of the application of such decomposition is given for the stress in continuous
mechanics, see the figure bellow.

External, Internal Power and Kinetic Energy
Energy and power
When considering a particle in motion with velocity ẋ, or v, in classical mechanics the
power expended by a force F acting on such a particle is
Pexpended = F · ẋ (3.144)
and F is power conjugate with ẋ, [Gurtin et al. 2010]. As previously done for linear and
angular momentum in this slides (see on page 77 and 80), let us extend this concept to
continuum mechanics.

External power
External power
The power expended by external forces (agents) on a body Ω is the sum of the power due
forces (density of forces) t acting on the surface of ∂Ω and the power due forces exerted
at a distance by systems (sources) external to Ω, supposed to be defined as density of
forces acting in the volume of Ω, such as the body forces ρb (b is per unity of mass), see
figure on page 72. Both forces are power conjugate with the velocity of the material
particle ẋ, so that we define
Z Z
Pext := t · ẋ da + ρb · ẋ dv (3.145)
∂Ω Ω
or in view of Eq. (3.108)

Z Z
Pext = σn · ẋ da + ρb · ẋ dv (3.146)
∂Ω Ω
and Pext is the external power. More details in [Gurtin et al. 2010].

Internal power and Kinetic energy
The surface integral in Eq. (3.146) may be transformed to the volume integral using an
divergence theorem, yielding
Z Z
σn · ẋ da = (div (σ) · ẋ + σ · ∇x ẋ) dv
∂Ω
ZΩ
= (div (σ) · ẋ + σ · L) dv
Ω
Z
= (div (σ) · ẋ + σ · D) dv. (3.147)
Ω
Returning to the analysis of Eq. (3.146),

Z
Pext = [(div (σ) + ρb) · ẋ + σ · D] dv (3.148)
Ω
and the first term on RHS may be identified as the LHS of Eq. (3.114), thus
Z Z
Pext = ρẍ · ẋ dv + σ · D dv. (3.149)
Ω Ω

Let us analyze further the terms on RHS of Eq. (3.149). The first term on RHS can be
identified as the material derivative of the kinetic energy. That is, being the kinetic energy
defined as Z
1
K := ρẋ · ẋ dv (3.150)
2 Ω
its material rate yields

Z
d 1 d
K := ρẋ · ẋ dv
dt 2 dt Ω
Z Z
d
= ρẋ · ẋ dv = ρẍ · ẋ dv (3.151)
Ω
dt Ω
that is the first term on the RHS.

The second term on the RHS is known as the internal power and will be denoted by Pint .
Thus, Z
Pint := σ · D dv. (3.152)
Ω

The integrand of Eq. (3.152) brings us some particular important interpretations.

They are:
1 σ · D represents the power expended within Ω, measured per unit
volume, and it is referred to as the stress power;
2 it establishes the rate of deformation tensor D as the appropriate
power conjugate variable for the Cauchy stress σ, and we say that σ is
power conjugate to D.

Power balance
After the identifications in Eq. (3.151) and Eq. (3.152) one may write Eq. (3.149) as
d
Pext = Pint + K (3.153)
dt
or Z Z Z Z
1 d
σn · ẋ da + ρb · ẋ dv = σ · D dv + ρẋ · ẋ dv (3.154)
2 dt
| ∂Ω {z Ω
} | Ω
{z } | Ω
{z }
external power internal power kinetic-energy rate
having the following interpretation, see [Gurtin et al. 2010]:

the external power expended on Ω is balanced by the sum of the internal power expended
within Ω and the temporal change in kinetic energy of Ω.
Neglecting the inertial terms, so that ẍ = 0, one writes
Pext = Pint . (3.155)

Other stress measures
Relation among Cauchy, First Piola Kirchoff, Second Piola Kirchoff, Kirchoff, etc.
Stress-Strain conjugate measures
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Review your course of continuum mechanics and make sure you understand each and
every slide presented here...



Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Conservation of energy - First law of thermodynamics
One of the most important laws in physics is the conservation of energy. It states that
energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but can change its form.
This law states that the rate of external work Wext (external power Pext ) done on the
system plus the rate of heat Q received by it is equal to the rate of kinetic energy K plus
the rate of internal energy E, i.e.,
d
(E + K) = Pext + Q. (3.156)
dt
First, let us define the LHS terms in Eq. (3.156). The rate of internal energy is
Z Z
d d
E= ρe dv = ρė dv (3.157)
dt dt Ω Ω
in which e is the specific internal energy and the rate of kinetic energy assumes the form
of Eq. (3.151), i.e.
Z Z Z
d 1 d d
K= ρẋ · ẋ dv = ρẋ · ẋ dv = ρẍ · ẋ dv (3.158)
dt 2 dt Ω Ω
dt Ω
First law of thermodynamics
Now, the RHS of Eq. (3.156). The heat received by the body is the sum of two terms,
one due the heat generated in its interior and other due the heat supplied by its
surroundings. Therefore this term is written as
Z Z
Q= r dv − q · n da (3.159a)
∂Ω
ZΩ
= (r − ∇x · q) dv (3.159b)
Ω
in which r is the volumetric density of the internal heat production, and q is the heat flux
vector.
The volumetric density of the internal heat production can be a process due a chemical
reaction, or a nuclear reaction, acting on Ω or even the passage of electrical current.
Local form
Using of Eq. (3.157), (3.158), (3.159) and (3.154) it is possible to re-write the first law of
thermodynamics, Eq. (3.156), in the following convenient local form, that is
Z Z Z
ρė dv − σ · D dv − (r − ∇x · q) dv = 0
Ω Ω Ω
or
ρė = σ · D + r − ∇x · q. (3.160)
Notice that in the local form of the first law of thermodynamics, Eq. (3.160), one has the
writing of the stress power σ · D what will be important to establish a link among the
conservation of energy and deformation of solid bodies and thus help one to propose well
founded constitutive formulations. The second law of thermodynamics complement this
idea.
Under the the small deformation hypothesis D ≈ ε̇ yielding
ρė = σ · ε̇ + r − ∇x · q. (3.161)
Entropy production - Second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics tell us about the production of entropy. Let us
introduce a new variable S as the entropy. The entropy is assumed to be the summation
of an irreversible Si part plus a reversible one Sr .
dSi
The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy production rate dt
(irreversible part), must be non-negative, that is
d d d
Si = S− Sr ≥ 0. (3.162)
dt dt dt
But, what is the role of the inequality (3.162)?
I The answer is that it plays a very important role in physics because through the imposition of this inequality it is
possible to eliminate non feasible physical process, that is, such process in which the rate of entropy is negative.
Introducing the specific entropy s and si , as the total and irreversible parts, respectively as
Z Z
d d
S= ρs dv = ρṡ dv (3.163)
dt dt Ω Ω
Z Z
d d
Si = ρsi dv = ρṡi dv (3.164)
dt dt Ω Ω
and assuming that the rate of the reversible part is heat received by the body Ω divided by
the absolute temperature, see Eq. (3.159a), i.e.
Z Z
d r 1
Sr = dv − q · n da. (3.165)
dt Ω
θ ∂Ω
θ
Second law of thermodynamics
Entropy production
One may write inequality (3.162), with aid of the divergence theorem in Eq. (3.165), as
Z h
q r
i
ρṡ + ∇x · − dv ≥ 0 (3.166)
Ω
θ θ
or in its local form

q r

ρṡ + ∇x · − ≥ 0. (3.167)
θ θ
Now we can return to the First Law, Eq. (3.160), and isolate the volumetric density of the
internal heat production, r, and then substitute it in inequality (3.167) and after a
straightforward algebraic manipulation re-write the Second Law of thermodynamics as
1
σ · D − ρ (ė − θṡ) − q · g ≥ 0. (3.168)
θ
where g ≡ ∇x θ.
Specific free energy - Helmholtz free energy
Helmholtz free energy
Now, defining the specific free energy (Helmholtz free energy) as
ψ = e − θs (3.169)
and inserting its rate into the last expression, yields the following dissipation inequality
1
Φ = σ · D − ρ ψ̇ + sθ̇ − q · g ≥ 0. (3.170)
θ
The inequality (3.170) is known as the Clausius-Duhem inequality.
The specific free energy (Helmholtz free energy) has a particular interest in formulations
derived in this course. The Helmholtz free energy is a thermodynamic potential that
measures the “useful” work obtainable from a closed thermodynamic system at a constant
temperature.
A closed thermodynamic system can exchange energy (as heat or work) but not matter
with its surroundings.
Assuming the small strain hypothesis the inequality (3.170) may be written as
1
Φ = σ · ε̇ − ρ ψ̇ + sθ̇ − q · g ≥ 0. (3.171)
θ
Constitutive theory
An introduction to the ideas of the constitutive theory
So far, we have presented the main laws that governs a body subjected to displacements
and forces, and the consequences in terms of deformations and stresses... The link
between stresses and strains is trough the Constitutive Theory!
Constitutive Theory - Two main approaches:
I The functional approach
F In a general way, a constitutive law must allow us to calculate the actual
values of stress, free energy, entropy, and heat flux as a function of the whole
history of the deformation and thermal process (known as thermodynamic
determinism). It states that the such response must be material frame
indifference (or material objectivity) and respect of material symmetries.
I Thermodynamics with internal variables (TIV)
F Also in a general form, it says that the thermodynamic state depends only on
the instantaneous value of the state variables and not on their past history.
F That is, at any instant of a thermodynamic process the thermodynamic state,
given by σ (t), ψ (t), s (t), and q (t), at a point of the material can be
completely determined by the knowledge of a finite number of state variables.
The functional approach
The 3 axioms commented...
1 Thermodynamically compatible Such change implies in some restrictions

determinism: Implies the existence of on the functionals, requiring the
constitutive functionals F ,G ,H , and I satisfaction of:
of the whole histories of F, θ, and g of a
point of Ω such that the quantities σ∗ (t) = F (F∗ , θ, g ∗ )
ψ (t) = G (F∗ , θ, g ∗ )
σ (t) = F (F, θ, g) , ψ (t) = G (F, θ, g)
s (t) = H (F∗ , θ, g ∗ )
s (t) = H (F, θ, g) , q (t) = I (F, θ, g) q (t) = I (F∗ , θ, g ∗ )
∗
are determined.
3 Respect of material symmetries: If a
2 Principle of material objectivity (Frame continuum presents a symmetry group,
indifference): It states that the material represented by QS , then
response is independent of the observer.
In short, given a change in the observer, σ (t) = F (F, θ, g) = F (QS F, θ, g)
F∗ = QF, then the vector and tensor ψ (t) = G (F, θ, g) = G (QS F, θ, g)
variables change as
s (t) = H (F, θ, g) = H (QS F, θ, g)
σ∗ = QσQT , g ∗ = Qg, q ∗ = Qq q (t) = I (F, θ, g) = I (QS F, θ, g)
and the scalar quantities ψ (t) and s (t) hold for any QS . A solid is said isotropic
do not change. if QS is any proper orthogonal group.
The thermodynamics with Internal Variables (TIV)
Sometimes called: The method of local state, the local state method, ...
It assumes that the thermodynamical state of the continuum at a given point and
a given time is completely given by the definition of a set of state variables. This
relax the first axiom of the functional approach...
State variables are quantities that characterize the state of the system
I For instance, a gas in a confined region is characterized by the pressure p, the
volume V and the temperature θ. This are the state variables for this simple system.
A state function is a function that only depends on the state of the system and
not on the manner in which the system is achieved. A state function is a function
of state variables.
While the Internal Energy and the Entropy are state functions the Mechanical
Work and the Heat are not! See the discussion in [Ottosen & Ristinmaa, 2005,
chapter 20 and 21].
As the specific free energy (Helmholtz free energy), Eq. 3.169, is function of the
specific internal energy and the specific entropy then it is an state function!
TIV’s framework
Considering the problems and applications involving elasticity, plasticity (inelasticity) that
will be addressed in this course, the chosen state variables, which define the
thermodynamic state at any time t, are given by the following set:
{F, θ, g, αk } (4.1)
where we introduce the dependence on a set of internal variables, named now of αk ,

k = 1, 2, . . . where k is kth internal variable introduced into the model. αk is a general
name for somewhat quite general process that takes place under the assumptions of
continuous mechanics.
From the mathematical point of view, the components of αk may be scalars, vectors or
tensors.
In this course the state equations are derived from a free energy potential, the Helmholtz
free energy. Now, let us assume that the Helmholtz free energy as a function of a set of
variables such that
ψ = ψ (F, θ, αk ) . (4.2)
note that the dependence of ψ on the temperature gradient g is disregarded because it
contradicts the second principle of thermodynamics, see the discussion in
[Neto et al, 2008, chapter 3] and the references therein..
Let us focus in the infinitesimal strain assumption
Now, let us assume that the Helmholtz free energy as a function of a set of state
variables such that
ψ = ψ (ε − εp , θ, αk ) = ψ (εe , θ, αk ) (4.3)
where we assume also the infinitesimal strain hypothesis.

Based on such state variables one can derive:
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ
= =− p (4.4)
∂ε ∂εe ∂ε
The imposition of the small strains hypothesis is more related to the scope of this
course than an limitation of the thermodynamic potential ψ. One can find the free
energy written in terms of large deformation in several books and articles.
Thermo-elastic materials
Thermo-elastic materials: Let us consider the most simple material model for a first
analysis...
Assume a reversible process, then Φ = 0, and for initial argumentation that there
is no variation of the gradient of temperature, that is g = 0. Then Eq. 3.171
reduces to:
1
ψ̇ = σ · ε̇ − sθ̇ (4.5)
ρ
As the free energy is a state function this last equation suggests
ψ = ψ (ε, θ) .
Notice that we can write

∂ψ ∂ψ
· ε̇ +
ψ̇ = θ̇.
∂ε ∂θ
By substituting this last result in Eq. 4.5 yields

∂ψ 1 ∂ψ

− σ · ε̇ + + s θ̇ = 0. (4.6)
∂ε ρ ∂θ
Thermo-elastic materials
analysis...
As it is possible to control the spatially uniform temperature and the strains in an

independently way this last expression implies:
∂ψ ∂ψ
σ=ρ and s = .
∂ε ∂θ
This are the state equations for stress and entropy!
Note that:
I In Eq. 4.6 ε̇ and θ̇ are arbitrary factible process;
I As s and σ are obtained from ψ by differentiation the specific free energy works as
a potentioal function for both entropy and stress;
I The variables θ and ε are observable state variables, in the sense we can measure...
We will find later in this course state variables that are not observable (hidden state
variables...)]
More details in [Ottosen & Ristinmaa, 2005, chapter 21].
Potentials doctrine
The power of choice and its consequences...
An important note before we go any further:

I In this course the constitutive theory will be presented within the
thermodynamics of irreversible processes approach, using state variables as a
tool to describe the thermodynamic state of a point on the body.
I Within this approach we will postulate the existence of "potentials" from
which equations of state and also the evolution of the variables will be
determined.
I The reader should be aware that this form of presentation is one of the
possible ways to approach the subject. There are several bibliographies that
present the subject in a different way, see [Chen & Han, 2007]. However the
main results (and their consequences) are the same.
State variables and state functions
Remarks on State variables and state functions
Some important remarks before we go further into the analysis:
I State variables: are quantities (assumed) that fully describe the state of a
thermodynamic system (in our case the solid the body - deformable or not!).
I State functions: are functions of state variables and depends (only) on the
state of the system and not on the manner in which this system is achieved.
I Another point we need explore further (in the future) is the idea of
thermodynamic equilibrium and the determination of the values of the state
variables and thermodynamic forces at equilibrium.
F The reader should seek for the idea of thermodynamic equilibrium and
non-equilibrium thermodynamics...
State Variables and Thermodynamic Forces
More about state variables...
Let us depart from the free energy as in Eq. Inside the context of this course, examples
4.3, so of internal variables are the isotropic
hardening α, and the kinematic hardening
ψ = ψ (ε − εp , θ, αk ) = ψ (εe , θ, αk ) β (a second order tensor). Also, one will
find in the literature the damage D (scalar
where θ is the absolute temperature and quantity) as an internal variable...
αk , k = 1, 2, . . ., is a set of internal
variables, where k is kth internal variable Inside the framework of TIV each State
introduced into the model. Variable is associate to its dual variable,
called Associate Variables or
Here, αk is a general name for somewhat Thermodynamic Forces. The table bellow,
quite general process that takes place under see [Lemaitre, 1992], presents an idea of
the assumptions of continuous mechanics. such variables.
From the mathematical point of view, the
State Variables Associate Variables or
components of αk may be scalars, vectors
Observable Internal Thermodynamic Forces β k
or tensors.
ε σ
θ s
εe σ
εp −σ
αk βk
Free energy - general case
analysis...
Departing from Eq. 4.3 (repeated here)
ψ = ψ (ε − εp , θ, αk ) = ψ (εe , θ, αk ) (4.7)
Based on this definition one writes

∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ
ψ̇ = · ε̇e + ? α̇k + θ̇. (4.8)
∂εe ∂αk ∂θ
Now, considering ε = εe + εp then
ε̇ = ε̇e + ε̇p (4.9)
and substituting Eq.(4.9) into Eq.(4.8) yields

∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ 1

σ−ρ · ε̇e + σ · ε̇p − ρ + s θ̇ − ρ ? α̇k − q · ∇θ ≥ 0. (4.10)
∂εe ∂θ ∂αk θ
Feasible processes and arbitrariness
Feasible processes
The inequality in Eq.(3.171) must hold for any feasible process. Therefore, suppose the
following processes:
I Suppose that elastic deformations take place with no evolution of internal variables
(ε̇p = 0, α̇k = 0), and under isothermal θ̇ = 0 and homogeneous temperature
distribution (∇θ = 0), thas is a reversible process. Eq.(4.10) gives the following
state equation for stresses
∂ψ ∂ψ
σ−ρ e =0→σ=ρ e (4.11)
∂ε ∂ε
I Also, suppose a process where thermal deformation takes place in which ε̇p = 0,
α̇k = 0, g = 0. Thus, Eq.(3.171) produces (it is also a reversible process)
∂ψ ∂ψ
s− =0→s= . (4.12)
∂θ ∂θ
I We can now introduce the concept of thermodynamic forces β k . The
thermodynamics forces are defined as
∂ψ
βk = ρ . (4.13)
∂αk
They are the pairs (or dual variables) associated to the rate of α̇k in Eq.(4.10) that
Nm W
produces power densities [ m 3 s = m3 ].
Internal variables evolution
The pseudo-potential of dissipation ϕ and ϕ?
In this course we are interested in modeling the mechanical intrinsic dissipation Φmech ,
therefore assuming that g = 0 the dissipation is
Φmech = σ · ε̇p − β k ? α̇k (4.14)
The question that arises is: How can we always satisfy the intrinsic mechanical dissipation
Φmech ? (Could this inequality be violated?)
To answer this question we do need to employ some important results from convex
analysis.
I First we postulate the existence of a pseudo-dissipation potential ϕ which has as
arguments the evolution terms (ε̇p , α̇k ) and may has as parameters (εe , αk ) terms,
i.e.,
ϕ = ϕ (ε̇p , α̇k ; εe , αk ) (4.15)
I We postulate as well that ϕ is constructed as a convex function with relation to
(ε̇p , α̇k ), moreover it is non-negative, and zero valued function at origin, i.e.,
ϕ (0, 0k ) = 0. The complementary laws are derived using the normal dissipation
hypothesis
∂ϕ
σ= (4.16)
∂ ε̇p
∂ϕ
βk = − . (4.17)
∂ α̇k
Legendre-Fenchel transform
The normality condition can be represented by the gradient condition, in case of

differentiable ϕ functions, or sub-gradients for non-differentiable ϕ function, that is:
∂ϕ
Non-differentible h i
∂ ε̇p ∂ε̇p ϕ
∇ϕ = −→ ∂ϕ = . (4.18)
− ∂∂ϕ ∂α̇k ϕ
α̇k function
In this format the pseudo-potential seems to not help much to assure the satisfaction of
inequality (4.14). Therefore we invoke the Legendre-Fenchel transformation. The
Legendre-Fenchel transform of ϕ (ε̇p , α̇k ; εe , αk ) is
ϕ? (σ, β k ; εe , αk ) = sup {(σ · ε̇p − β k ? α̇k ) − ϕ (ε̇p , α̇k ; εe , αk )} . (4.19)

(ε̇p ,α̇k ;εe ,αk )
for constant values of σ and β k .

Assuming ϕ ∈ C 1 , then via the transformation in Eq.(4.19) we assure the normality
correspondence
∂ϕ?
∂ϕ

∂ ε̇p Eq.(4.19)
∇ϕ = ∂ϕ ↔ ∇ϕ? = ∂σ
∂ϕ? . (4.20)
∂ α̇k ∂β k
Remark
Important property of the Legendre-Fenchel transformation: As by construction ϕ
is a convex function with respect to (ε̇p , α̇k ), and more, it is non-negative, and
zero valued function at origin, i.e., ϕ (0, 0k ) = 0 then so does ϕ? in terms of
(σ, β k ) via Eq.(4.19).
Obviously, this result holds outside the context of the thermodynamic framework
presented here.
Via the Legendre-Fenchel transform in Eq.(4.19) we have the one to one correspondence
∂ϕ Eq.(4.19) ∂ϕ?
σ= ↔ ε̇p =
∂ ε̇p ∂σ
∂ϕ Eq.(4.19) ∂ϕ?
βk = − ↔ α̇k = − .
∂ α̇k ∂β k
Notice that, assuming the existence of ϕ? (σ, β k ) the internal variable evolution is now
given by
∂ϕ?
ε̇p = (4.21)
∂σ
∂ϕ?
α̇k = − . (4.22)
∂β k
Substituting Eq.(4.21) and Eq.(4.22) into Eq.(4.14) yields
∂ϕ? ∂ϕ?
Φmech = σ · + βk ? ≥ 0. (4.23)
∂σ ∂β k
and due the properties of ϕ? (σ, β k ) aforementioned we have this last inequality always
verified.
Another important consideration
Too many assumptions?
This section ends citing literally a paragraph from reference [Lemaitre & Chaboche, 1990,
page 63]:
The whole problem of modeling a phenomenon lies in the determination of the

analytical expressions for the thermodynamic potential ψ and for the dissipation
potential ϕ or ϕ? , and their identification in characteristic experiments. In fact the
values of ϕ or ϕ? are almost impossible to measure as they represent an energy
usually dissipated as heat.

Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Revisiting the Elastic, perfectly plastic model
Let us revisit the Elastic, perfectly plastic rheological model
The model: Regarding the thermodynamic

aspects, εp is the internal variable
associated with irreversibility,
therefore one may write the
Helmholtz free energy as
1
ρψ = ρψ (ε − εp ) = E (ε − εp )2 .
2
(5.2)
Assuming an isothermal process, one
writes
∂ψ
σ=ρ = E (ε − εp ) . (5.3)
∂ε
But notice that, based on Eq. (5.2)
∂ψ
1 The stress σ cannot be greater than σo in ρ = −E (ε − εp )
∂εp
absolute value, so
= −σ (5.4)
σ ∈ [−σo , σo ] or |σ| ≤ σo . (5.1)
yielding
Φmech = σ ε̇p ≥ 0 (5.5)
Summary of the model
The Elastic, perfectly plastic rheological model:
Elastic-plastic strain decomposition
ε = εe + εp
Elastic law
∂ψ ∂ψ
σ=ρ = ρ e = E (ε − εp ) = Eεe
∂ε ∂ε
Yield criterion
f (σ) = |σ| − σo

(Karush-Kuhn-Tucker conditions)
γ̇ ≥ 0 f ≤0 γ̇f = 0
Flow rule
∂f
ε̇p = γ̇ = γ̇ sign (σ)
∂σ
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
1D elasto-plastic model with isotropic hardening
The isotropic hardening is responsible for the “size of yielding surface”. It is a variable
that evolves with plastic deformation and updates the yielding value.
Therefore, the free energy, Eq. (3.169), is

now additively decomposed into a elastic
ψ e and inelastic ψ i contributions as
ρψ (ε − εp , α) = ρψ e (ε − εp ) + ρψ i (α) .
(5.6)
with
1
ρψ e (ε, εp ) = E (ε − εp )2 (5.7)
2
Again, we write
Under the TIV framework we introduce ∂ψ ∂ψ e
the isotropic hardening effect by setting a σ=ρ =ρ = E (ε − εp ) (5.8)
∂ε ∂ε
new internal variable, named α, that
stands for the isotropic hardening effect but now
in strains. Its counterpart in ∂ψ i
κ=ρ , (5.9)
“thermodynamic force” space will be the ∂α
isotropic hardening effect κ in stress where κ is the “isotropic stress
space. hardening” variable. Equations (5.8) and
(5.9) are called State Equations.
Dissipation and flow rule
By now, the explicit form of ψ i (α) it is not required to be known. What we konow is that
whatever processes will be, it must yields
Φmech = σ ε̇p − κα̇ ≥ 0. (5.10)
or using Eq. (5.8) and (5.9)
∂ψ e p ∂ψ i
Φmech = −ρ p
ε̇ − ρ α̇ ≥ 0. (5.11)
| ∂ε
{z } ∂α}
| {z
σ κ
Therefore, the following question arises: Could one enforce the evolutions of ε̇p and α̇
such that the dissipation inequality be always satisfied? To answer this question we
introduce the dissipation potential, sometimes called pseudo-dissipation potential, ϕ?
being by construction a convex function with relation to variables (ϕ? = ϕ? (σ, κ)),
non-negative, and zero valued function at origin (ϕ? (0, 0) = 0).
Using such type of construction it is

possible satisfy the second law inequality
(5.10) employing
∂ϕ?
ε̇p = (5.12)
∂σ
∂ϕ?
α̇ = − . (5.13)
∂κ
It quite easy to verify that if a potential

function as ϕ? is selected then the second
law is verified. See the table bellow
This figure shows examples of ϕ? and the
interpretation of the ∇ϕ? . It turns out σ ε̇p κ α̇ σ ε̇p −κα̇ Φmech ≥ 0
√
+ + + - + +
that if a dissipation rule follows the √
+ + + - + +
hypothesis of normal dissipation. √
- - - + + +
√
- - - + + +
Associative and non-associative flow rules
Associative and non-associative flow rules
Many times the pseudo-potential of dissipation ϕ? is taken as the yield function f .

The formulations where ϕ? = f are called associative, associative flow rule,
whereas the others (ϕ? 6= f ) are non-associative. See the discussion on section
∂f
ε̇p = γ̇ (5.14)
∂σ
∂f
α̇ = −γ̇ . (5.15)
∂κ
where γ̇ is the plastic (inelastic) multiplier (recall that γ̇ ≥ 0).
By assuming the maximum dissipation postulate the evolution in Eqs. 5.17 and
5.18 are determined, see section ??. By now, let us assume such type of evolution.
Hardening material and yielding function
Hardening material and yielding function
Let us rewrite the yield function to account for isotropic hardening. Here it assumes the
following form
f (σ, κ) = |σ| − [σo + κ (α)] . (5.16)
Notice that:

κ (α) = 0 −→ Elastic-perfectly plastic material
κ (α) = linear −→ Elastic-linear hardening material .
−→ Elastic-nonlinear hardening material
κ (α) = nonlinear
Moreover, κ (α) > 0 represents hardening while κ (α) < 0 will indicates softening.
Assuming an associative plastic flow one finds
∂f
ε̇p = γ̇ = γ̇ sign (σ) (5.17)
∂σ
∂f
α̇ = −γ̇ = −γ̇ (−1) → α̇ = γ̇. (5.18)
∂κ
and note that
α̇ ≥ 0. (5.19)
Note that α̇ = γ̇ = ε̄˙p .
An example of isotropic hardening function
An example
As an example of nonlinear isotropic hardening function we present a Voce type of
hardening law
κ (α) = Hα + (σ∞ − σo ) 1 − e−δα . (5.20)
in which, H, σ∞ , σo , and δ are material constants. This kind of hardening law has been
used in several works to account for the isotropic hardening effects.
Isotropic hardening features given by

Eq.(5.20) with H = 150 MPa,
σ∞ = 750 MPa, σo = 450 MPa,
δ = 15. a) Unbounded. b) Bounded by
σ∞ − σo when H = 0.
Notice that, for a material that exhibits such kind of isotropic hardening the Helmholtz
free energy is
1 1 1

ρψ (ε − εp , α) = E (ε − εp )2 + Hα2 + (σ∞ − σo ) α + e−δα . (5.21)
2 2 δ
and
1 1

ρψ i (α) = Hα2 + (σ∞ − σo ) α + e−δα . (5.22)
2 δ
Other isotropic hardening rules
Other isotropic hardening rules found in the literature
Some hardening laws (C, n, δ, σsat , σ∞ are constants):

Power-law hardening (Hollomon Law)):
σ = C (ε̄p )n
in which n is known as the strain hardening exponent (also called the strain hardening
index).
Ludwik hardening:
σ = σo + C (ε̄p )n
Swift hardening:
σ = C (εo + ε̄p )n
Voce hardening:
σ = σo + σsat (1 − exp (−δ ε̄p ))n
in which σsat = (σ∞ − σo ).
Admissible stress set for isotropic hardening formulation
Admissible stress set
The admissible stress set can be now defined as

Kσ = (σ, κ) ∈ R × R + | f (σ, κ) = |σ| − [σo + κ (α)] ≤ 0 . (5.23)
The elastoplastic tangent modulus
(instantaneous/continuous)
Instantaneous/continuous elastoplastic tangent modulus
The so-called elastoplastic tangent modulus is the instantaneous value of C ep that
satisfies the stress-strain rate relation
σ̇ = C ep ε̇. (5.24)
Let us derive the the instantaneous elastoplastic tangent modulus for linear isotropic
plasticity. In such case Eq.(5.21) reduces to
1 1
E (ε − εp )2 + Hα2
ρψ (ε − εp , α) = (5.25)
2 2
and the state equations are Eq.(5.8) and Eq.(5.9) are
∂ψ ∂ψ e
σ=ρ =ρ = E (ε − εp ) (5.26)
∂ε ∂ε
∂ψ i
κ=ρ = Hα. (5.27)
∂α
Now assuming an associative plasticity model we have exactly the same evolution
equations as in Eq.(5.17) and Eq.(5.18), that is:
∂f
ε̇p = γ̇ = γ̇ sign (σ)
∂σ
∂f
α̇ = −γ̇ = −γ̇ (−1) → α̇ = γ̇.
∂κ
Identification of the tangent modulus
Instantaneous elastoplastic tangent modulus identification
Based on the consistency condition we Now, by multiplying both sides of

can derive expressions for the plastic Eq.(5.28) by sign (σ) yields
multiplier γ̇ and for C ep . Recall that
E
ε̇p = ε̇. (5.29)
γ̇ f˙ = 0 E+H
and if γ̇ > 0 then f˙ = 0 (also from the Substituting last equation into the rate of
KKT we have f = 0). The time Eq.(5.8) yields
derivative of Eq.(5.16) yields
EH
C ep = (5.30)
∂f ∂f ∂κ E+H
f˙ = σ̇ + α̇ = 0
∂σ ∂κ ∂α
and
∂κ
but ∂α
= H.
E ε̇ if γ̇ = 0
Now introducing the rate of Eq.(5.8) and σ̇ = EH (5.31)
E+H
ε̇ if γ̇ > 0
Eq.(5.18) into the last equation and
keeping in mind Eq.(5.17) one can find and the example is completed.
that the plastic multiplier is
E
γ̇ = sign (σ) ε̇. (5.28)
E+H
Tangent modulus: Graphical interpretation
Graphical interpretation of the tangent modulus
Graphical interpretation of the tangent modulus for linear and nonlinear isotropic
hardening.
Summary of the model
Summary of the one-dimensional isotropic model
Based on what has been presented so far Elastic-plastic strain decomposition

it is possible to realize that an ε=ε +ε
e p
elastoplastic formulation has the following

Elastic law
ingredients: ∂ψ ∂ψ e
p e
σ=ρ =ρ =E ε−ε = Eε
I an elastic-plastic strain ∂ε ∂ε
decomposition;
I an elastic law; Hardening law
I a yield criterion, stated by the use ∂ψ i −δα

κ=ρ = Hα + (σ∞ − σo ) 1 − e
of a yielding function; ∂α
I loading and unloading conditions;
I a hardening law characterizing the Yield criterion
evolution of the internal variables; f (σ, κ) = |σ| − [σo + κ (α)] = 0
I a flow rule, that is how the
evolution of the plastic and Loading and unloading conditions (KKT conditions)
hardening variables. γ̇ ≥ 0 f ≤0 γ̇f = 0
Flow rule
p ∂f ∂f
ε̇ = γ̇ = γ̇ sign (σ) and α̇ = −γ̇ = γ̇
∂σ ∂κ
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Kinematic hardening model - The Bauschinger effect
The Bauschinger effect
It is noticed that after being loaded and hardened in one sense many materials, specially
metals, presents a reduction in the yielding strength in the opposite sense. This
phenomenon is known as the Bauschinger effect and can be modeled by the introduction
of a kinematic hardening variable.
The kinematic hardening, χ, is responsible for a translation of the yield surface, but
without changing the yield surface. In other words, it is responsible for a rigid translation
of the original f in the stress space.
Quite often the kinematic variable, in the stress space, is called as Back Stress.
Based on the idea, the

yield criteria is
f (σ, χ) = |σ − χ| − σo .
(5.32)
Notice that the variable χ
plays the role of shifting
of the initial center
(origin) of the coordinate
axis σ.
Figure shows the geometric representation of the kinematic hardening effect in: (a)
Stress-strain diagram. (b) Admissible stress space evolution.
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Mixed isotropic and kinematic hardening model
Mixed formulation
Rather than purely isotropic or purely kinematic hardening a material usually experiments
both behaviors. In other words, the yield surface expands and translates simultaneously.
The example of one-dimensional elastoplastic model with mixed isotropic/kinematic
hardening presented here considers the nonlinear isotropic hardening law in Eq.(5.20)

κ (α) = Hα + (σ∞ − σo ) 1 − e−δα
and the kinematic hardening by the Armstrong-Frederic kinematic hardening law
χ (β) = aβ (5.33)
in which β is the Back Strain variable and a is a material parameter. Also, in the
Armstrong-Frederic kinematic hardening law the flow rule is derived from the following
pseudo-potential of dissipation
b 2
F =f+ χ (5.34)
2a
in which b is a material parameter. The yielding function is
f (σ, χ, κ) = |σ − χ (β)| − [σo + κ (α)] . (5.35)
Helmholtz free energy and the stress space
Free energy
The free energy potential for the mixed isotropic/kinematic hardening presented in this
section is
1 1 1 a 2

ρψ (ε − εp , α, β) = E (ε − εp )2 + Hα2 + (σ∞ − σo ) α + e−δα + β . (5.36)
2 2 δ 2
or noticing that εe = ε − εp
1 1 1 a 2

ρψ (εe , α, β) = E (εe )2 + Hα2 + (σ∞ − σo ) α + e−δα + β . (5.37)
2 2 δ 2
This simple change is very straightforward meaning. The energy stored (and after
removing the load then recovered) is always related with the elastic deformation.
The admissible stress space is given by the set

Kσ = (σ, χ, κ) ∈ R × R × R + | f (σ, χ, κ) = |σ − χ (β)| − [σo + κ (α)] ≤ 0 . (5.38)
Mided formulation: Hardening interpretation
Hardening interpretation in mixed formulation
In a real material we have the combination of both effect (at the same time) what leads
to the graphical interpretation given in figure bellow
Thermodynamics considerations
Free energy and state functions
Assuming that the potential in Eq.(5.37) exists we can derive the following state equations
∂ψ ∂ψ e
σ=ρ e
= ρ e = Eεe (5.39)
∂ε ∂ε
∂ψ i
κ=ρ = Hα + (σ∞ − σo ) 1 − e−δα
∂α
∂ψ i
χ=ρ = aβ (5.40)
∂β
in which we assume that the free energy potential in Eq.(5.37) can be split additively into
ψ (εe , κ, χ) = ψ e (εe ) + ψ i (κ, χ) (5.41)
Note that:
I ψ e (εe ) - Energy stored in the material by elastic deformations and that will be
released (recovered) during the unloading;
I ψ i (κ, χ) - Energy stored (blocked) inside the material by isotropic & kinematic
hardening.
Evolution, complementary equations
Evolution, complementary equations
Once the dissipation potential was defined the evolution equations are derived based on
the normality hypothesis as follows:
b 2
F =f+ χ with f (σ, χ, κ) = |σ − χ (β)| − [σo + κ (α)]
2a
Evolution:
∂z ∂f ∂
ε̇p = γ̇ = γ̇ = γ̇ |σ − χ| = γ̇ sign (σ − χ) (5.42)
∂σ ∂σ ∂σ
∂z ∂f
α̇ = −γ̇ = −γ̇ = γ̇ (5.43)
∂κ ∂κ
∂z ∂f b
β̇ = −γ̇ = −γ̇ − γ̇ χ
∂χ ∂χ a
b
h i
= γ̇ sign (σ − χ) − χ . (5.44)
a
Notice that as α̇ = γ̇ and γ̇ = ε̄˙p then α̇ give us the accumulated plastic strain during the
deformation process.
Numerical integration algorithm of the one dimensional
elastoplastic constitutive formulation
Numerical integration algorithm
See the file at moodle!

Let us introduce the linking between the plastic dissipation potential ϕ? (σ, β k ) and the
yield criteria f (σ, β k ). This is done by means of the Maximum Intrinsic Dissipation
postulate.
It is important to note that there is some discussion in the literature about whether
maximum dissipation is a principle of nature (law of nature) or a postulate stated in order
to satisfy dissipation inequality, see the discussion in [Ottosen & Ristinmaa, 2005].
Definition 10
Maximum dissipation postulate: The maximum dissipation postulate states
that among all pairs of σ̂, β̂ k that one which solves the problem (σ, β k )
maximizes the intrinsic mechanical dissipation in inequality (4.14) for a given
(fixed) (ε̇p , α̇k ). Mathematically, given a pair (ε̇p , α̇k ) we seek for (σ, β k ) ∈ Kσ
such that

Φmech (σ, β k ; ε̇p , α̇k ) ≥ Φmech σ̂, β̂ k ; ε̇p , α̇k ∀ σ̂, β̂ k ∈ Kσ (7.1)
or
(σ, β k ) = arg max Φmech σ̂, β̂ k ; ε̇p , α̇k . (7.2)
(σ̂,β̂k )∈Kσ
Constrained problem
Constrained problem
Note that, this optimization problem is not unconstrained, in other words it must
respect the admissibility of σ̂, β̂ k , that is, it is mandatory to enforce:

σ̂, β̂ k ∈ Kσ (7.3)
where the admissible stress set is now redefined as
Kσ = {(σ, β k ) | f (σ, β k ) ≤ 0} . (7.4)
in which
f (σ, β k ) (7.5)
assumes a quite general format for the yield function.
Constrained optimization problems
Writing the problem:
Problem 11
Assuming Φmech smooth find (σ, β k ) such that

(σ, β k ) = arg max Φmech σ̂, β̂ k ; ε̇p , α̇k (7.6)
(σ̂,β̂k )
subject to

σ̂, β̂ k ∈ Kσ (7.7)
This last problem is equivalent to the following one:
Problem 12

arg max Φmech σ̂, β̂ k ; ε̇p , α̇k (7.8)
(σ̂,β̂k )
subject to

f σ̂, β̂ k ≤ 0 (7.9)
Rewriting the problem as a minimization
Maximization to minimization problem
This maximization problem can now be written as a minimization just changing the sign
of the objective function, that is
Φmech = −Φmech
or using the mechanical dissipation defined in Eq. 4.14 one has

Φmech σ̂, β̂ k ; ε̇p , α̇k = −σ̂ · ε̇p + β̂ k ? α̇k (7.10)
and then the problem reduces to:
Problem 13

arg min Φmech σ̂, β̂ k ; ε̇p , α̇k (7.11)
(σ̂,β̂k )
subject to

f σ̂, β̂ k ≤ 0. (7.12)
Lagrangian function
From the theory of optimization:
By introducing the Lagrangian function (theory of optimization) we move from a
constrained optimization problem, Problem 13, to an unconstrained one. That is,

Lmech σ̂, β̂ k , γ̇; ε̇p , α̇k = Φmech σ̂, β̂ k ; ε̇p , α̇k + γ̇f σ̂, β̂ k (7.13)
submitted to the following conditions:

1 Stationarity of L (x, ·) - the gradient condition

∇Lmech σ̂, β̂ k , γ̇; ε̇p , α̇k = 0 (7.14)

what implies in ∇Φmech σ̂, β̂ k ; ε̇p , α̇k + ∇ γ̇f σ̂, β̂ k = 0.
2 Feasibility of the solution - respect the constrains;

f σ̂, β̂ k ≤ 0 (7.15)
3 Complementary - Slackness:
γ̇f σ̂, β̂ k = 0 (7.16)
4 Non-Negativity of the Lagrange multipliers for inequalities:

γ̇ ≥ 0. (7.17)
In this context the multiplier γ̇ receives the name of Lagrange Multiplier.

TIV problem
TIV problem
The pair (σ, β k ) that respects conditions 7.14 to 7.17 simultaneously is the
solution of the problem 13.
As a result:
Problem 14
For a given (ε̇p , α̇k ), the solution of the problem 13 is the pair (σ, β k )
such that
∇Lmech (σ, β k , γ̇; ε̇p , α̇k ) = 0 (7.18)
and respects the Karush-Kuhn-Tucker conditions
γ̇ ≥ 0, f ≤ 0, and γ̇f = 0
Stationarity of Lmech
Let us now compute the Stationarity of Lmech with relation to each variable (σ, β k , γ̇).
1 The first component of ∇Lmech is

∇Lmech = ∇Φmech + [∇ (γ̇f (σ, β k ))]1 = 0
1 1
∂Lmech ∂f (σ, β k )
= −ε̇p + γ̇ =0
∂σ ∂σ
or
∂f (σ, β k )
ε̇p = γ̇ . (7.19)
∂σ
2 The second component of ∇Li is

∇Lmech = ∇Φmech + [∇ (γ̇f (σ, β k ))]2 = 0
2 2
∂Lmech ∂f (σ, β k )
= α̇k + γ̇ =0
∂β k ∂β k
or
∂f (σ, β k )
α̇k = −γ̇ . (7.20)
∂β k
3 The third component of ∇Li is
: 0
∇Lmech = ∇Φ
mech + [∇ (γ̇f (σ, β k ))]3 = 0
3 3
∂Lmech
= f (σ, β k ) = 0. (7.21)
∂ γ̇
TIV problem: Evolution of the internal variables and KKT
conditions
Evolution of the internal variables and KKT conditions
Fact 15
The maximum dissipation implies the imposition of
∂f (σ, β k ) ∂f (σ, β k )
ε̇p = γ̇ ; α̇k = −γ̇ (7.22)
∂σ ∂β k
together with the Karush-Kuhn-Tucker conditions
γ̇ ≥ 0, f ≤ 0, and γ̇f = 0.
Very important consequences
Consequences of the maximum dissipation postulate. From inequality 7.1:
mech p
mech p

Φ σ, β k ; ε̇ , α̇k ≥Φ σ̂, β̂ k ; ε̇ , α̇k , (σ, β k ) ∈ ∂Kσ ; ∀ σ̂, β̂ k ∈ Kσ
and using Eq. 4.14

p p

σ · ε̇ − β k ? α̇k ≥ σ̂ · ε̇ − β̂ k ? α̇k , (σ, β k ) ∈ ∂Kσ ; ∀ σ̂, β̂ k ∈ Kσ
what results in p

(σ − σ̂) · ε̇ − β k − β̂ k ? α̇k ≥ 0, (σ, β k ) ∈ ∂Kσ ; ∀ σ̂, β̂ k ∈ Kσ .
Now, using Eq.(7.19) and Eq.(7.20)

∂f ∂f
(σ − σ̂) · γ̇ + β k − β̂ k ? γ̇ ≥ 0, (σ, β k ) ∈ ∂Kσ ; ∀ σ̂, β̂ k ∈ Kσ
∂σ ∂β k

(σ,βk ) (σ,βk )
or by multiplying −1

∂f ∂f
(σ̂ − σ) · γ̇ + β̂ k − β k ? γ̇ ≤ 0, (σ, β k ) ∈ ∂Kσ ; ∀ σ̂, β̂ k ∈ Kσ .
∂σ ∂β k

(σ,βk ) (σ,βk )

Realizing that 0 can be substituted by the KKT condition γ̇f σ̂, β̂ k

∂f ∂f
(σ̂ − σ) · γ̇ + β̂ k − β k ? γ̇ ≤ γ̇f σ̂, β̂ k , (σ, β k ) ∈ ∂Kσ ; ∀ σ̂, β̂ k ∈ Kσ
∂σ ∂β k

(σ,βk ) (σ,βk )
The case of γ̇ = 0 satisfies the above condition (trivially). However, when γ̇ > 0 one can write (f (σ, β k ) = 0)

∂f ∂f
(σ̂ − σ)· + β̂ k − β k ? ≤f σ̂, β̂ k −f (σ, β k ) , (σ, β k ) ∈ ∂Kσ ; ∀ σ̂, β̂ k ∈ Kσ
∂σ ∂β k

(σ,βk ) (σ,βk )
(7.23)
Consequences of the maximum dissipation postulate
Interpreting the inequation 7.23

∂f ∂f
f σ̂, β̂ k −f (σ, β k ) ≥ (σ̂ − σ)· + β̂ k − β k ? (σ, β k ) ∈ ∂Kσ ; ∀ σ̂, β̂ k ∈K
∂σ ∂β k

(σ,βk ) (σ,βk )
leads to the convexity of the yielding function f (according to theorem 26) f , see also in
[Simo & Hughes, 1998, p. 102].
Moreover, the maximum plastic dissipation also implies that the admissible stress set Kσ
be convex. To show such a important mathematical feature we make use of the key result
from the level set theorem, which is stated in a more complete form in 22. This result is a
direct consequence of inequality 7.23. Again, as (σ, β k ) ∈ ∂Kσ then f (σ, β k ) = 0
resulting in
f σ̂, β̂ k ≤ 0, ∀ σ̂, β̂ k ∈ Kσ
implying that Kσ is the convex level set given by the constant c = 0 in 22.
Convexity
Fact 16
Notice that the postulate of maximum dissipation (constrained by the yield
function) leads to associative plasticity which results into the convexity of the
yield function (by means of the theorem 26) that leads (by means of the theorem
22) to the convexity of the admissible stress set Kσ .
Maximum
Yield
dissi- Associa- Convexity
function
pation tive flow of Kσ
convexity
postulate


Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Main aspects of the formulation
Model description:
Additive decomposition of the infinitesimal strain tensor into an elastic a plastic
(permanent) parts
ε = εe + εp (8.1)
where now ε is the total strain tensor, εe is the elastic strain tensor, and εp plastic strain
tensor.
Linear elastic isotpropic phase, that is, the Hooke’s law is employed. It can be written in a
compact form as
σ = Cεe σij = Cijkl εekl (8.2)
where
2

C = 2µI + K − µ I ⊗ I.
3
Yielding criterion - von Mises yield criterion (to be defined later in this section)
f = f (J2 (σ) , κ) (8.3)
An associative flow rule

∂f
ε˙p = γ̇ (8.4)
∂σ
∂f
α̇ = −γ̇ (8.5)
∂κ
Loading and unloading conditions - KKT conditions (Eq. (2.18) and Eq. (2.19))
γ̇ ≥ 0 f ≤0 γ̇f = 0.
Deviatoric and volumetric decomposition
The name J2 model comes from the second invariant of the deviatoric part of σ. By
decomposing the stress tensor into its deviatoric and volumetric part as follows
1
σ = σd + I1 (σ) I. (8.6)
3
Analogously one can decompose the strain tensor as
1
ε = εd + I1 (ε) I. (8.7)
3
The terms σd and εd are the deviatoric parts of the stress and total strain, respectively,
whereas 13 I1 (σ) and 13 I1 (ε) are their respectively volumetric parts. The deviatoric part is
related to the distortion (shear) and no variation o volume associated with it.
Conversely, the volumetric part retains the whole volumetric information of σ or ε. The
volumetric part of the stress and strain tensor fields have especial names (notations) in
solid mechanics. Usually the decomposition shown in Eq.(8.6) and Eq.(8.7) are written as
σ = σd + pI. (8.8)
1
ε = εd + εv I. (8.9)
3
1
where p = I1 (σ) (8.10)
3
is known as Hydrostatic Stress and εv = I1 (ε) (8.11)
is the volumetric deformation.

Invariants of a deviatoric tensor
Under construction
The invariants of a deviatoric tensor •d are usually denominated by the letter J instead of
I. Their definition is presented here using the stress tensor σ but it can be extended to
any tensor.
1 First invariant - J1
J1 (σd ) ≡ I1 (σd ) (8.12)
but notice that
1

J1 (σd ) = tr (σd ) = tr σ − I1 (σ) I = 0. (8.13)
3
2 Second Invariant - J2
1
I2 (σd ) = [tr (σd )]2 − tr σ2d
2
1
=− tr σ2d
2
therefore the J2 is defined as
1 1 1
J2 (σd ) := −I2 (σd ) = tr σ2d = σdij σdij = σd · σd (8.14)
2 2 2
3 Third invariant - J3
J3 (σd ) ≡ I3 (σd ) . (8.15)

J2 in principal stresses
Under construction
Let us write the stress tensor σ in its principal directions and then take its deviatoric part.
σ1 − 13 I1
" # " #
σ1 0 0 0 0
[σ] = 0 σ2 0 ⇒ [σd ] = 0 σ2 − 13 I1 0 . (8.16)
0 0 σ3 0 0 σ3 − 13 I1
Now taking the second invariant J2 leads to

1
J2 (σd ) = σd σd
2 ij ij
2 2
1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2

= σ1 − σ2 − σ3 + − σ1 + σ2 − σ3 + − σ1 − σ2 + σ3
2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
(8.17)
and after a straightforward manipulation reduces to

1
J2 (σd ) = σ12 + σ22 + σ32 − σ1 σ2 − σ1 σ3 − σ2 σ3
3
1
= (σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ1 − σ3 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 (8.18)
6
Keep this last result, Eq.(8.18), in mind.

von Mises yielding criterion
von Mises
The von Mises yielding criterion, also known as maximum distortion strain energy
criterion, is now introduced. The strain energy density associated with a isotropic linear
elastic solid under deformation is
1 2
ρψ e = we = σ1 + σ22 + σ32 − 2ν (σ1 σ2 + σ1 σ3 + σ2 σ3 ) . (8.19)
2E
This energy can be additively decomposed into a volumetric wve and deviatoric wde parts
as follows
we = wve + wde (8.20)
where
1 − 2ν 1 − 2ν
wve = (σ1 + σ2 + σ3 )2 = I1 (σ)2 (8.21)
6E 6E
1
wde = (σ1 − σ2 )2 + (σ1 − σ3 )2 + (σ2 − σ3 )2 . (8.22)
12G
Notice that based on Eq.(8.18) we can write the deviatoric part of the strain energy
density, Eq.(8.22), as
1
wde = J2 (σd ) (8.23)
2G
von Mises criterion
von Mises criterion
von Mises criterion: The yielding of a material begins when the deviatoric
(distortional) strain energy density reaches a critical value.
The critical value is understood as that deviatoric strain energy density associated
with
yielding point under uni-axial conditions, or in other words, the energy wde from the
1D
mechanical traction test.
In such situation it is possible to write σ1 = σo and σ2 = σ3 = 0 and the critical value in
the von Mises criterion becomes
1 2
wde = σ . (8.24)
1D 6G o
Now, the von Mises criterion can be mathematically written as

wde = wde (8.25)
1D
what reduces to p
3J2 (σd ) = σo . (8.26)
√
The term 3J2 is many times called as the von Mises equivalent stress given by
p
q (σd ) = 3J2 (σd ). (8.27)
Graphical interpretation
von Mises cylinder
Assessment of the von Mises criterion in practice
von Mises criterion
von Mises yield function - J2 Plasticity model
J2 Plasticity model
We can now write the von Mises yield function as:

Plasticity with isotropic hardening
f (σd , κ) = q (σd ) − [σo + κ (α)] (8.28)

and notice that when κ (α) = 0 one recovers the perfect plasticity
model.P (σ1 , σ2 , σ3 )
Associative plastic flow - Prandtl-Reuss plasticity
Associative plastic flow
Employing the von Mises yield function and associative plasticity one writes
∂f
ε̇p = γ̇
. (8.29)
∂σ
In this case we recover the so-called Prandtl-Reuss plasticity. Consider the plasticity with
isotropic hardening case. In this case the plastic flow rule reduces to
r
p ∂f 3 σd
ε̇ = γ̇ = γ̇ (8.30)
∂σ 2 kσd k
or defining r r
3 σd 3 σdij
Nσ = Nσij = . (8.31)
2 kσd k 2 kσd k
the plastic flow is
ε̇p = γ̇Nσ (8.32)

Also,
∂f
α̇ = −γ̇ = γ̇ = ε̄˙p (8.33)
∂κ
for the evolution of the isotropic hardening variable.
Moving yield suface
Moving yield suface - isotropic hardening
Thermodynamic aspects
Thermodynamic aspects
There are no difference from the conceptual point of view from the one-dimensional
model to the multiaxial except those that come from the generalization from the scalar
quantities to the tensorial ones. Focusing in the energetic aspects the Helmholtz free
energy potential is again additively decomposed into a elastic ψ e and inelastic ψ i
contributions as, see Eq.(5.6),
ρψ (ε − εp , α) = ρψ e (ε − εp ) + ρψ i (α)
or
e
ρψ (εe , α) = ρψ (εe ) + ρψ i (α) .
Note that, for a material that exhibits isotropic hardening given by Eq.(5.20) the
Helmholtz free energy is
1 1 1

ρψ (ε − εp , α) = C (ε − εp ) · (ε − εp ) + Hα2 + (σ∞ − σo ) α + e−δα (8.34)
2
| {z } 2 δ
| {z }
ρψ e (ε,εp ) ρψ i (α)
or
1 e e 1 1

ρψ (εe , α) = Cε · ε + Hα2 + (σ∞ − σo ) α + e−δα . (8.35)
2
| {z } 2 δ
e
| {z }
ρψ (εe ) ρψ i (α)
The admissible stress set in multiaxial formulation
Kσ in multiaxial formulation for isotropic hardening
The admissible stress set can be now defined as
Kσ = {(σ, κ) ∈ (< × <) × < | f (σd , κ) = q (σd ) − [σo + κ (α)] ≤ 0} . (8.36)

and its geometrical interpretation can be established only for special stress states as for in
terms of the invariants of the stress tensor. Figure bellow shows the admissible stress set
considering the principal values stress space.
Model summary
Model summary
Elastic-plastic strain decomposition- Eq.(8.1)
e p
ε=ε +ε
Elastic law - Eq.(8.2)
e
∂ψ ∂ψ p
e e

σ=ρ =ρ =C ε−ε = Cε σij = Cijkl εkl
∂ε ∂εe
Hardening law- Eq.(5.20)
∂ψ i −δα

κ=ρ = Hα + (σ∞ − σo ) 1 − e
∂α
Yield criterion - Eq.(8.28)
f (σd , κ) = q (σd ) − [σo + κ (α)] = 0

Loading and unloading conditions (Karush-Kuhn-Tucker conditions) - Eq. (2.18) and Eq. (2.19)
γ̇ ≥ 0 f ≤0 γ̇f = 0
Flow rule - Eq. (2.18) and Eq. (8.32)
p
ε̇ = γ̇Nσ
∂f
α̇ = −γ̇ = γ̇
∂κ
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
The elastic predictor/plastic corrector for J2 plasticity
J2 plasticity
See the attached file for a detailed description of:

The statement of the J2 problem in continuum and discretized versions;
The algorithm considering multiple equations;
The reduction to one single equation return mapping algorithm;
Details on the geometric interpretation:
Geometric interpretation
Geometric interpretation of the return mapping algorithm for J2 + isotropic hardening
model. Elasto-perfectly plastic case:
Geometric interpretation
Geometric interpretation of the return mapping algorithm for J2 + isotropic hardening
model. Isotropic hardening case:
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Kinematic hardening effect in J2 formulation
Geometric interpretation for linear kinematic hardening
Kinematic hardening
Model description
Infinitesimal strains;
Additive decomposition of the infinitesimal strain tensor into an elastic a plastic parts
ε = εe + εp (8.37)
where ε is the total strain tensor, εe is the elastic strain tensor, and εp plastic strain
tensor.
Material that behaves in a linear and isotropic manner, that is, the Hooke’s law can be
employed. It can be written as

σ = Cεe σij = Cijkl εekl (8.38)
where
2

C = 2µI + K − µ I⊗I (8.39)
3
in which µ ≡ G is the shear modulus, K is bulk modulus, I is the fourth order identity
tensor, and I is the and second order identity tensor. In components we have
1
Iijkl = δik δjl + δil δjk (8.40)
2
(I ⊗ I)ijkl =
δij δkl . (8.41)
Internal variables
I αd and χ are the kinematic hardening variables. The first stand for the kinematic
d
back strain hardening and the second is the thermodynamic force kinematic back
stress hardening;
Kinematic hardening in J2 formulation
Model description
Yielding function - J2 (von Mises) yielding function
f = f (σd , χd )
= q (σd − χd ) − σo (8.42)
in which
p
q (σd − χd ) = 3J2 (σd − χd )
r
3
= (σd − χd ) · (σd − χd )
2
r
3
= kσd − χd k (8.43)
2
with p
kσd − χd k = (σd − χd ) · (σd − χd ) (8.44)
Kinematic hardening in J2 formulation
Model description
A non-associative flow rule (F 6= f ), meaning that
∂F
ε˙p = λ̇ (8.45)
∂σ
∂F
α̇d = −λ̇ (8.46)
∂χd
Loading and unloading conditions - KKT conditions (Eq. (2.18) and Eq. (2.19))
γ̇ ≥ 0 f ≤0 γ̇f = 0. (8.47)
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction

Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Classical BVP under small deformations
Model description:
Let Ω ⊂ <3 be a bounded domain with a Lipschitz boundary ∂Ω, subjected to a
prescribed body force b̄ defined on Ω, a prescribed surface traction t̄ defined on Γt and a
prescribed displacement ū defined on Γu . n is a unit outward normal defined on ∂Ω and
∂Ω = Γu ∪ Γt with Γu ∩ Γt = ∅.
At Γt the Cauchy relation is enforced
σn = t̄, at Γt
while in the boundary Γu the prescribed displacement must be satisfied
u = ū, at Γu .
BVP of a Body in Equilibrium in terms of Stress
BVP:
The classical Boundary Value Problem (BVP) associated with equilibrium in terms of
stresses may be stated as:
Problem 17
Boundary Value Problem of a Body in Equilibrium in terms of Stress:
Find u so that
div σ + ρb̄ = 0, ∀x ∈ Ω
σn = t̄, ∀x ∈ Γt . (9.1)
u = ū, ∀x ∈ Γu
Here, n is the outer normal to the Γ surface, σ is the Cauchy stress tensor and
1
ε (u) = ∇u + (∇u)T (9.2)
2
and notice that σ (ε (u)).
In the presentation of Problem 17 we have omitted the constitutive problem, but

remember that we need to find a stress state where

∂ψ
σ (ε (u (x, t))) = ρ (9.3)
∂εe t

p
together with a set of evolution equations for ε and for αk .
From BVP to VBVP
The Method of Weighted Residuals
Employing the weighted residuals method one writes
r = div σ (u) + ρb̄

where r has the interpretation of the residual of the differential equation. So, let’s define
an inner product between r and v, v ∈ H0 , and orthogonalize the residue with relation to
v, that is:
Z Z

(r, v)L2 = r · v dΩ = div σ (u) + ρb̄ · v dΩ = 0, ∀v ∈ H0 (9.4)
Ω Ω
with
H0 = u| ui ∈ H1 (Ω) , u = 0 at Γu . (9.5)
Let’s use the following results: First

div TT a = a · (div T) + T · ∇a (9.6)
and then the divergence theorem for vector fields
Z Z

div TT a dΩ = TT a · n dΓ. (9.7)
Ω Γ
From BVP to VBVP
The Method of Weighted Residuals
Thus, we have as intermediate result:

Z Z

div σ (u) · v dΩ = div σT v − σ (u) · ∇v dΩ
Ω
ZΩ Z
= t̄ · v dΓ − σ (u) · ∇v dΩ, ∀v ∈ H0 . (9.8)
Γt Ω
Replacing this result in Eq. 9.4 yields
Z Z Z Z

div σ (u) + ρb̄ · v dΩ = − σ (u) · ∇v dΩ + t̄ · v dΓ + ρb̄ · v dΩ, ∀v ∈ H0 .
Ω Ω Γt Ω
Recalling that
1 1 1
n o n o
σ·∇v = σ· ∇v + (∇v)T + ∇v − (∇v)T = σ· ∇v + (∇v)T = σ·ε (v)
2 2 2
we write Z Z Z
σ (u) · ε (v) dΩ = t̄ · v dΓ + ρb̄ dΩ, ∀v ∈ H0 . (9.9)
Ω Γt Ω
Which is known as the variation formulation of the problem.
Weak formulation, variational formulation
The Variational Boundary Value Problem (VBVP)
The weak formulation, variational formulation, related to Eq.(9.1) can be stated as:
Problem 18
Weak Form of the Boundary Value Problem of a Body in Equilibrium
in terms of Stress: Find u ∈ H , t ∈ to , tf , so that
Z Z Z
R (u, v) = σ (u) · ε (v) dΩ − ρb̄ · v dΩ − t̄ · v dΓ = 0, ∀v ∈ H0
Ω Ω Γt
(9.10)
where R (u, v) stands for the residue of the weak form.
Let
H= u| ui ∈ H1 (Ω) , u = ū at Γu (9.11)
denote the set of the kinematically admissible displacements and

H0 = u| ui ∈ H1 (Ω) , u = 0 at Γu (9.12)
the space of admissible variations.
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Linear constitutive relationship
Linear problem
For sake of initial argumentation let’s assume that the constitutive relationship between
σ × ε is linear and isotropic, therefore the Hooke’s law is employed. Its tensorial
representation is given by
σ = Cε (9.13)
in which
2
h i
C = 2µI + κ − µ I ⊗ I. (9.14)
3
where I, I, µ and κ are the fourth order identity tensor, the second order identity tensor,
the shear and bulk modulus, respectively.
Clearly Eq.(9.10) reduces to
Z Z Z
R (u, v) = Cε (u) · ε (v) dΩ − ρb̄ · v dΩ − t̄ · v dΓ = 0, ∀v ∈ H0 . (9.15)
Ω Ω Γt
Nonlinear Problem
Nonlinear Problem
When the constitutive relationship is nonlinear Eq.(9.10) will be nonlinear as well. Notice
that the non-linearity in Eq.(9.10) resides in the dependance σ (ε (u)). In order to solve
such problem we invoke the Directional (Gateaux) derivative.
Remark
Directional (Gateaux) derivative: Assuming R being sufficiently regular in
Eq.(9.10) and expanding it in a Taylor series around a known value uo , where
u = uo + ũ, (9.16)
and keeping only the first term we obtain a first order approximation for Eq.(9.10),
that is
R (u, v) = R (uo + ũ, v) = 0, ∀v ∈ H0

R (uo + ũ, v) ≈ R (uo , v) + DR (uo , v) [ũ] = 0, ∀v ∈ H0 . (9.17)
It yields
DR (uo , v) [ũ] = −R (uo , v) , ∀v ∈ H0 . (9.18)
in which
R (uo + ũ, v) − R (uo , v)

dR (uo + ũ, v)
DR (uo , v) [ũ] = lim

=
d
, ∀v ∈ H0 .
→0 =0
(9.19)
Directional (Gateaux) derivative
Linearized term
Now we are able to determine the linearized contribution given by DR (uo , v) [ũ]. Notice
that
Z
dR (uo + ũ, v) d
= σ (uo + ũ) · ε (v) dΩ , ∀v ∈ H0
d d

=0 Ω =0
Z
d
= σ (uo + ũ) · ε (v) dΩ, ∀v ∈ H0 . (9.20)

Ω
d =0
but
σ = σ (ε (u)) (9.21)
then

d dσ d
σ (uo + ũ) ε (uo + ũ)
=
, (9.22)
d dε uo d

=0 =0
and keeping in mind the infinitesimal strain tensor definition, Eq.(9.2), we write

d
ε (uo + ũ) = ε (ũ) (9.23)

d =0
due to the linearity of the operator ε.
Directional (Gateaux) derivative
Linearized term
Going backwards we write
Z
dR (uo + ũ, v) d
= σ (uo + ũ) · ε (v) dΩ , ∀v ∈ H0
d d

=0
Z Ω =0
dσ
=
dε
ε (ũ) · ε (v) dΩ, ∀v ∈ H0 . (9.24)
Ω uo
dσ

The term
dε uo
in Eq.(9.24) is known as the infinitesimal material tangent modulus and
must be identified for each material model. It is defined as

dσ
C
b= . (9.25)
dε uo
Tangent modulus and tangent operator
Tangent modulus and tangent operator
In the context of infinitesimal strains the material tangent modulus coincides to

the so-called tangent operator, which can be consistent or continuum;
In other words, such differences will be pronounced when finite strains are required;
Despite the terms are slightly different in name, its correct derivation plays a very
important role inside the solution framework once the convergence rate depends on
it.
Notice that in the case of an elastoplastic formulation we got two different values
for Eq.(9.25), i.e., when the state is elastic (f (σ, β k ) ≤ 0) then C
b = C, the linear
elastic isotropic fourth order tensor, see Eq.(9.14), but in case of violation of the
admissible stress set, (f (σ, β k ) > 0), we have Cb = Ci .
In summary:
C if f (σ, β k ) ≤ 0
C
b= . (9.26)
Ci if f (σ, β k ) > 0

Material tangent operator derivation
Material tangent operator derivation
As key points in modeling the mechanical response of materials, one may cite
the correct choice of the constitutive model, the assessment of experimental
data and the choice of a proper numerical solution method. In terms of
computational efficiency, CPU time consuming and convergence rates, it is
imperative to correctly derive the so-called material tangent modulus.
Based on we ha seen so far, two are the possibilities of derivation:
1 The so-called continuum (instantaneous) Cict or

2 The so-called consistent Cics tangent operator.
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Continuum tangent operator - Cict
The derivation of the so called continuum tangent operator follows the idea presented on
page 137. As demonstrated there, we begin by writing the following rate equation
σ̇ = Cε̇e (10.1)
or
∂f (σ, β k )

σ̇ = C (ε̇ − ε̇p ) = C ε̇ − γ̇ . (10.2)
∂σ
To the derivation of the continuum tangent operator we have to determine the plastic
multiplier. No problem, it is also derived based on the same idea presented on page 138.
That is, by enforcing the consistency condition
γ̇ f˙ = 0
that is, γ̇ > 0 then f˙ = 0.
The time derivative of Eq.(7.5) yields Using this last result together with
Eq.(10.2) and Eq.(7.20) we can write
d ∂f ∂f
f (σ, β k ) = f˙ = ·σ̇+ ?β˙k = 0.
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂ 2 ψ i ∂f

dt ∂σ ∂β k
·C ε̇ − γ̇ −γ̇ρ ? ? =
∂σ ∂σ ∂β k ∂α2k ∂β k
Furthermore based on Eq.(4.13) we write
∂f
and recalling that Nσ = ∂σ
and
d ∂ψ

β˙k = ρ (10.3) Nβ k = ∂f
then or
dt ∂αk ∂β k
but Nσ · Cε̇
γ̇ = .
∂f ∂ 2 ψi ∂f
Nσ · CNσ + ρ ∂β ? ∂α2
? ∂β k
ψ = ψ e (εe ) + ψ i (αk ) (10.4) k k
(10.6)
therefore assuming ρ = cte
d ∂ψ ∂ 2 ψi

β˙k = ρ =ρ ? α˙k .
dt ∂αk ∂α2k
(10.5)
Returning to Eq.(10.2) and substitute Eq.(10.6) and write

 
Nσ · Cε̇
σ̇ = C ε̇ − Nσ 
∂ 2 ψi
Nσ · CNσ + ρNβk ? ∂α2
? Nβk
k
Nσ · Cε̇
= Cε̇ − CNσ (10.7)
∂ 2 ψi
? Nβk
k
and let us keep a close look at the following product (Nσ · Cε̇) CNσ
(Nσ · Cε̇) CNσ = (Nσ · Cε̇) CNσ

= (ε̇ · CNσ ) CNσ
= (CNσ ⊗ CNσ ) ε̇ (10.8)
where we made use of the generalization to high order tensors of following results
Tu · v = u · TT v and (a ⊗ b) c = (b · c) a.
Now, by introducing Eq.(10.8) into Eq.(10.7) yields
(CNσ ⊗ CNσ ) ε̇
σ̇ = Cε̇ −
∂ 2 ψi
? Nβ k
k
 
CNσ ⊗ CNσ
= C −  ε̇ (10.9)
∂ 2 ψi
? Nβk
k
Finally, and by identification, based on Eq.(9.25) and Eq.(10.9) we write
CNσ ⊗ CNσ
Cict = C − . (10.10)
∂ 2 ψi
? Nβ k
k
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Example - J2 plasticity model - CiJct2
CiJct
2
for J2 plasticity model
The normal Nσ for J2 plasticity model with isotropic hardening is given by Eq.(8.31) that
is shown again bellow r
3 σd
Nσ =
2 kσd k
∂ 2 ψi
and considering the isotropic hardening shown in Eq.(5.22) the term ρNβk ? ∂α2
? Nβk
k
reduces to 2
2 ∂ 2 ψ i
∂f (σ, κ (α)) ∂ 2 ψi
ρ Nβ1 = (10.11)
∂α2k ∂κ ∂α2k
and as
∂f (σ, κ (α)) ∂ 2 ψi
= −1 and ρ = H + δ (σ∞ − σo ) e−δα (10.12)
∂κ ∂α2k
therefore the continuum tangent operator Eq.(10.10) for J2 plasticity model with isotropic
hardening is
3
2σd ·σd
Cσd ⊗ Cσd
CiJct = C − 3
(10.13)
2
2σ ·σ
σd · Cσd + H + δ (σ∞ − σo ) e−δα
d d
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Consistent tangent operator - Cics
The consistent derivation is somewhat different. The consistent term stands for consistent
with the integration algorithm. Therefore, the identification of Cics is performed based on
the non-linear system of equations of the return mapping algorithm.
Considering a some king of general material under associative
plasticity this non-linear
trial
system of equations is such that f σtrial
n+1 , β kn >0 .
 trial
 εen+1 − εen+1 + ∆λNσn+1
" #
0
αkn+1 − αkn − ∆λNβk = 0 (10.14)
n+1
0

f σn+1 , β kn+1

Now we perform a linearization of system of equations in Eq.(10.14). Such linearization

leads to the following set of equations:
 trial
 dεen+1 − dεen+1 + d (∆λ) Nσn+1 + ∆λdNσn+1
" #
0
dαkn+1 − d (∆λ) Nβk − ∆λdNβk = 0 . (10.15)
n+1 n+1
0

df σn+1 , β kn+1

Notice that in set of Eq.(10.15) we have:
∂Nσn+1 ∂Nσn+1
dNσn+1 = dσn+1 + dβ kn+1 (10.16a)
∂σn+1 ∂β kn+1
∂Nβk ∂Nβk
n+1 n+1
dNβk = dσn+1 + dβ kn+1 (10.16b)
n+1 ∂σn+1 ∂β kn+1
∂f
df σn+1 , β kn+1 = Nσn+1 · dσn+1 + ? dβ kn+1 . (10.16c)
∂β kn+1
Our identification begins realizing that the linearization of the elastic deformation can be
written in terms of
dεen+1 = C−1 dσn+1 . (10.17)
Substituting Eq.(10.17) and Eqs.(10.16) into Eqs.(10.15) allows the identification of Cics .
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Example - J2 plasticity model - CiJcs2
CiJcs
2
for J2 plasticity model
The identification of CiJcs for the J2 plasticity model with isotropic hardening requires the
2
linearization of the following set of equations:

∂Nσn+1
 dεen+1 + d (∆λ) Nσn+1 + ∆λ ∂σn+1 dσn+1 trial
" #
dεen+1

dαn+1 − d (∆λ) = 0 (10.18)
 ∂f (σn+1 ,k(αn+1 )) 0
n+1 · dσn+1 +
 Nσ dαn+1
∂αn+1
After a straightforward algebraic manipulation, the consistent tangent operator - Cics is

identified as
!−1
dσn+1 ∂Nσn+1 1
CiJcs = trial
= C −1
+ ∆λ − ∂f
Nσn+1 ⊗ Nσn+1 (10.19)
2
dεen+1 ∂σn+1
∂αn+1
what can be rearranged to other formats using some tensor algebra.
A numeric example
Effects of the use of CiJct
2
or CiJcs
2
in practice
Example: Rectangular plate with a hole The prescribed displacement at the top of
the plate is ūy = 0.5mm;
The material parameters are:
E = 200GPa, ν = 0.3, H = 129.24MPa,
δ = 16.93, σ∞ = 715MPa and
σo = 450MPa.
Also, the convergence criterion is the
number of iterations to reach the
288 Elements
650 dof
EPD
admissible error given by
krn+1 kadm
∞ ≤ 10−6 .
Step 1 2 3 4 5
y CiJct 3 19 38 54 52
EPD 2
CiJcs 4 6 7 7 6
2
x
CiJct
Axys 2
CiJcs
2
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction Under construction


Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Orthogonal tensors
A very special class of second-order tensors.
Let us define now a very important class of second-order tensors, the so-called orthogonal
tensors, which are denoted by Q in this text. An orthogonal tensor holds the following
properties
QT Q = QQT = I (11.1)
what is seen as the orthogonality property, what implies that
QT = Q−1 . (11.2)
Another important property is that the determinant of any orthogonal tensor equals either
+1 or −1, that is
det Q = ±1.
The set of all orthogonal tensors will be denoted O. An orthogonal tensor Q with
det Q = +1 is called a proper orthogonal tensor. The set of all proper orthogonal tensor
will be denoted O + .
Orthogonal tensors
A very special class of second-order tensors.
Proper orthogonal tensors represent a rotation. Orthogonal tensors that represent a

rotation will be denoted in this text by R to simplify their identification. Orthogonal
tensors with det Q = −1 represents a reflection in one of the axis, see Fig. (missing).
Also, see [Malvern 1969] p. 32 for more details.
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Change of basis
An very important application of orthogonal tensors is the change of basis... First, let us
investigate (revisit) the change of basis of a vector
The vector u is written in terms of the basis e1 , e2 , and e3 , that is a basis

b = {e1 , e2 , e3 }, as
u = ui ei .
As the choice of the basis is somewhat arbitrary, the same vector can be written in a
different basis such as e01 , e02 , and e03 , named b0 = e01 , e02 , e03
u = u0i e0i
Change of basis
Let us introduce the matrix notation where we explicit write the components in the basis
we are referring to:
So The relation between both basis:
e01 = e01 · e1 e1 + e01 · e2 e2 + e01 · e3 e3 .

 
u1
[u]b =  u2  (11.3)
Clearly
u3
e0i = e0i · e1 e1 + e0i · e2 e2 + e0i · e3 e3

is the vector u written in terms of
= e0i · ej ej .

the original basis ei , whereas (11.5)
Now, define the components Qij as

u01
 
[u]b0 =  u02  (11.4) Qij := ei · e0j . (11.6)

u03
is written in terms of the original

basis e0i .
Change of basis
Let us introduce the matrix notation where we explicit write the components in the basis
we are referring to:
That is, the cartesian components are Based on Eq. (11.6) one shows that the
written as components of Q are, in fact, the
" # direction cosines between both basis.
e1 · e01 e1 · e02 e1 · e03 That is
[Q] := e2 · e01 e2 · e02 e2 · e03 .
e3 · e01 e3 · e02 e3 · e03

Qij := cos ei , e0j . (11.11)
(11.7)
Then Eq. (11.5) is re-written as

e0i = e0i · ej ej = Qji ej (11.8)
Eq. (??)
= Qei (11.9)
or
ei = QT e0i . (11.10)
Change of basis
Components of u with relation to the Equations (11.12)-(11.13) in terms of a

original basis in terms of the new basis matrix notation
e0i , that is
[u]b = [Q] [u]b0 (11.14a)
ui = u · ei = u · Qij e0j =
[u]b0 = [Q]T [u]b (11.14b)
= Qij u · e0j = Qij u0j , (11.12)
where
or in analog form
e01 · e1 e02 · e1 e03 · e1
" #
u0i = u · e0i = u · Qji ej [Q] = e01 · e2 e02 · e2 e03 · e2
= Qji (u · ej ) = Qji uj (11.13) e01 · e3 e02 · e3 e03 · e3
| | |
" #
= e01 e02 e03 (11.15)
| | |
meaning that the vectors of the b0 are the

columns of [Q].
Change of basis
Second order tensors: Rule of transformation between two different bases
Consider the mapping in the basis ei :
v = Tu. (11.16)
The same mapping with relation to a new basis e0i is
v 0 = T0 u0 . (11.17)
How does T0 relate to T? Write u and v in the new basis, i.e.
Qv 0 = TQu0 → v 0 = QT TQu0 . (11.18)
Substituting Eq. (11.17) into Eq. (11.18) yields
T0 u0 = QT TQu0 → T0 − QT TQ u0 = 0 ∀u0

(11.19)
resulting in
T0 = QT TQ or T = QT0 QT (11.20)
or in components
Tij0 = Qki Tkl Qlj = Qki Qlj Tkl . (11.21)
Change of basis
Second order tensors: Rule of transformation between two different basis
Equation 11.14b and Eq. 11.20 are given, in Cartesian components, by
u01 Q11 Q21 Q31 u1

" # " #" #
u02 = Q12 Q22 Q32 u2
u03 Q13 Q23 Q33 u3
0 0 0
T11 T12 T13 Q11 Q21 Q31 T11 T12 T13 Q11 Q12 Q13
" # " #" #" #
0 0 0
T21 T22 T23 = Q12 Q22 Q32 T21 T22 T23 Q21 Q22 Q23 .
0 0 0
T31 T32 T33 Q13 Q23 Q33 T31 T32 T33 Q31 Q32 Q33
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Convex Set
Convex sets satisfy the following relations.
1 If K is convex and β is a real number,

Definition 19 β ∈ R, the set Kβ = { x| x = βc, c ∈ K}
Convex set: A set K ⊂ R n is said to is convex;
be convex if for every x1 , x2 ∈ K and 2 If K1 and K2 are convex sets, then the
α ∈ R, α ∈ (0, 1), the point such that set K1 + K2 =
αx1 + (1 − α) x2 ∈ K. { x| x = c + d, c ∈ K1 , d ∈ K2 } is
convex;
Figure bellow shows an example of 3 The intersection of any collection of
convex and non-convex set. convex sets is convex.
These properties are illustrated in the following
figure.
Convex hull
Convex hull
Definition 20
Convex hull: Let S be a subset of R n . The convex hull of S, denoted
conv (S), is the set which is the intersection of all convex sets containing S. The
closed convex hull of S is defined as the closure of conv (S).
Convex function
Convex function
Definition 21
Convex Function: Let f (x) : K → R, with K ⊂ R n convex. The function
f (x) is said to be convex on K if for any two point x1 , x2 ∈ K, the following
property holds
f (αx1 + (1 − α) x2 ) 6 αf (x1 ) + (1 − α) f (x2 ) , ∀α ∈ (0, 1) .
If f (αx1 + (1 − α) x2 ) < αf (x1 ) + (1 − α) f (x2 ) , x1 6= x2 the function is

called strictly convex.
Figure shows examples of convex and strictly convex functions. This definition is also
employed for a convex functional.
Examples of convex and strictly convex functions in R. a) Convex; b) Strictly convex; c)

Non-convex function.
Level set theorem
Level set theorem
Now, based in these definitions, we are ready to present the first theorem of this
subsection involving convex functions and convex sets. It is known as level set theorem
and relates a convex function f (x) with the set Sc = { x| f (x) ≤ c, c ∈ R} .
Theorem 22
Level set: Let S ⊂ R n be a nonempty convex set and let f (x) : S → R be a
convex function. Then the level set Sc = { x| f (x) ≤ c, x ∈ S, c ∈ R} is a
convex set.
Proof.
Let x1 , x2 ∈ Sc and let x be written as the convex combination of x1 and x2 , i.e.
x = αx1 + (1 − α) x2 , α ∈ (0, 1). As the theorem requires the convexity of f one can write, see
definition 21, that
f (x) = f (αx1 + (1 − α) x2 ) ≤ αf (x1 ) + (1 − α) f (x2 ) , ∀α ∈ (0, 1) .
Now, as x1 , x2 ∈ Sc then f (x1 ) ≤ c and f (x2 ) ≤ c and therefore
f (x) = f (αx1 + (1 − α) x2 ) ≤ αf (x1 ) + (1 − α) f (x2 ) ≤ αc + (1 − α) c = c, ∀α ∈ (0, 1) .
Then, one concludes that f (x) ≤ c implying that x ∈ Sc and as x was written as the convex combination
of x1 and x2 then Sc is convex.
Level set
Level set
This last theorem states that f convex then there exists a convex set associated with the
function. But note that the reverse is not true! See figure bellow. The level set theorem
as shown in 22 is also known as lower level set to differentiate it from the upper level set
Sc = { x| f (x) ≥ c, x ∈ S, c ∈ R} .
Graphical interpretation of the Level set theorem: Case a) one-dimensional and b)

two-dimensional case: Convexity of the function f implies convexity of the set of points Sc
defined by f (x) ≤ c, c constant; Case c) one-dimensional and d) two-dimensional case:
Convexity of the set of points Sc defined by f (x) ≤ c, c constant, does not imply in the
convexity of f , adapted from [Ottosen & Ristinmaa, 2005].
Epigraph & hypograph
Epigraph & hypograph
A graph of a function f (x) : S → R, with S ⊂ R n , can be fully described by the set
{[x,f (x)] : x ∈ S} ⊂ R n+1 . It is possible construct two sets that are related to the
graph of f (x): the epigraph, which consists of points above the graph of f (x), and the
hypograph, which consists of points bellow the graph of f (x).
Figure bellow shows the epigraph and
Definition 23 hypograph for some functions. In Fig. (a),
Epigraph and hypograph: Let S be a non neither the epigraph nor the hypograph of
empty set of R n and let f (x) : S → R. f is a convex set. But in Fig. (b) the
The epigraph of f (x), denoted by epi f is a epigraph of f is a convex set.
subset of R n+1 defined by
n+1
{ (x,y)| x ∈ S, y ∈ R, y ≥ f (x)} ⊂ R . epif epif
(11.22)
The hypograph of f (x), denoted by hyp f is
a subset of R n+1 defined by
hypof hypof
n+1 a) b)
{ (x,y)| x ∈ S, y ∈ R, y ≤ f (x)} ⊂ R .
x x
(11.23)
Theorem 24
Convex function and convex epigraph: Let f (x) : K → R, with K ⊂ R n a
nonempty convex set. Then f is convex if and only if epi f is a convex set.
Differentiable functions
Now we focus our attention on differentiable convex (and concave) functions. Let
Ω ⊂ R n and f : Ω → R. The function f (x) is said to be differentiable at xo ,
xo ∈ int (Ω), if there exists the gradient vector 5f (xo ) and a real value function
α : Ω → R in the such that
f (x) = f (xo ) + 5f (xo ) · (x − xo ) + kx − xo k α (x − xo ) ∀x ∈ Ω. (11.24)
In Eq. 11.24, lim α (x − xo ) = 0. The representation of f (x) in Eq. 11.24 is readily

x→xo
identified as the first order term of the Taylor approximation series at xo (or about,
around, in the neighborhood of xo , it is also referred as first order Taylor expansion
around xo .).
Lets us think about differentiable convex functions. Let K ⊂ R n be a nonempty convex

set and let f : K → R be a differentiable convex function. Now, let xo be a point in the
interior of K, xo ∈ int (K).
Note that by taking the first order Taylor expansion around xo and disregarding the
remainder term (equivalent to truncate the series at the first term) one gets
f (x) > f (xo ) + 5f (xo ) · (x − xo )
The graphical interpretation when x ∈ R and f : R → R is given in the following figure.
Supporting Hyperplane (Supporting Line)
Supporting Hyperplane - Supporting Line
Theorem 25
Supporting Hyperplane (Supporting Line): Let K ⊂ R n be a nonempty
convex set and let f : K → R be a differentiable convex function. Then for
xo ∈ int (K) it is possible to construct the set
H = { (x,y)| x ∈ K, y = f (xo ) + 5f (xo ) · (x − xo )} (11.25)
which supports epi f at [xo , f (xo )]. The set H is known as supporting
hyperplanes of epi f . In particular we have
f (x) > f (xo ) + 5f (xo ) · (x − xo )
for convex differentiable functions.
Proof.
Left as a research activity. It is needed to introduce a more complete description
of sets, distance between to sets, separation of two sets, etc...
Here we are assuming that the function is differentiable. In fact, to show some of the
concepts developed here it is not required a differentiable function. We can show that
such results hold for C 0 convex functions, but the concept of sub-gradients must be
introduced.
Supporting Hyperplane (Supporting Line)
Supporting Hyperplane - Supporting Line
Graphical interpretation for f (x) = R → R:
Point a admits a supporting line. The supporting line has the property that it touches f
at the point (a, f (a)) and lies benneath of f (x), ∀x; hence the term “supporting”. The
supporting line at a is strictly supporting becouse it touches the graph of f (x) only at a.
Point b does not admit any support lines. Any line passing through (b, f (b)) will cross the
graph of f (x). In this case we also say that f is nonconvex at b.
The point c admits a supporting line which is non-strictly supporting, as it touches
another point, point d, of the graph of f (x). That is, the points c and d have the same
supporting line.
Convex functions
Important theorems
Theorem 26
Convex functions: Assume that the function f : K → R is convex, with
K ⊂ R n convex, and smooth on K (differentiable). Then, f (x) is convex if and
only if the following inequality holds
f (x) − f (xo ) > 5f (xo ) · (x − xo ) , x ∈ K, xo ∈ int (K) . (11.26)
and it will be strictly convex when
f (x) − f (xo ) > 5f (xo ) · (x − xo ), x 6= xo , x ∈ K, xo ∈ int (K)

and (11.27)
f (x) = f (xo ) , x = xo , x ∈ K, xo ∈ int (K)
Proof.
Left as a research activity.
Convex functions
Important theorems
Theorem 27
Convex functions: Assume that the function f : K → R is convex, with
K ⊂ R n convex, and smooth on K (differentiable- C 1 ). Then, f (x) is convex
if and only if for each x1 , x2 ∈ K the following inequality holds
[5f (x2 ) − 5f (x1 )] · (x2 − x1 ) > 0. (11.28)
Similarly, when distinct x1 , x2 ∈ K produces
[5f (x2 ) − 5f (x1 )] · (x2 − x1 ) > 0 (11.29)
f is said to be a strictly convex function.
Proof.
Left as a research activity.
Convex functions
Important theorems
Theorems 26 and 27 provide necessary and sufficient conditions for convex and
concave differentiable function characterization.
However, checking these conditions is quite difficult and can lead to intricate
algebraic manipulations. A simple and more straightforward characterization is
given by the analysis of the so called Hessian matrix, but we require that the
functions belongs to the class of twice differentiable functions.
Twice differentiable functions
Let Ω ⊂ R n and f : Ω → R. The function f (x) is said to be twice differentiable at xo ,
xo ∈ int (Ω), if there exists the gradient vector 5f (xo ) and a n × n matrix H (xo ),
called the Hessian matrix, and a real value function α : Ω → R in the such that
1
f (x) = f (xo )+5f (xo )·(x − xo )+ H (xo ) (x − xo )·(x − xo )+kx − xo k2 α (x − xo ) ∀x
2
(11.30)
In Eq. 11.30, lim α (x − xo ) = 0. Again, the representation of f (x) in Eq. 11.30 is the
x→xo
second order (Taylor series) Taylor expansion around xo .
The Hessian matrix is comprised of the second order partial derivatives of f with relation
2
to x, that is, the entries Hij = ∂x∂ ∂x
f
= fxi ,xj or
i j
2
∂ f ∂2f ∂2f
 
∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x2
··· ∂x1 ∂xn
1
∂2f ∂2f ∂2f
···
 
 ∂x2 ∂x1 ∂x2
2
∂x2 ∂xn 
H (x) =  . (11.31)
 .. .. .. 
 . ··· . . 
∂2f ∂2f ∂2f
∂xn ∂x1 ∂xn ∂x2
··· ∂x2
n
Notice that theHessian

matrix is a symmetric matrix. That is:
∂2f ∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f

∂xi ∂xj
= ∂x ∂xj
= ∂x ∂xi
.
i j
Hessian matrix
Hessian matrix
Theorem 28
R be a nonempty convex set and let f : K → R be
Hessian convex: Let K ⊂ n
a twice differentiable C 2 function on K. Then f is convex if and only if the

Hessian matrix is positive semi-definite at each point in K.
Theorem 29
Hessian strictly convex: Let K ⊂ R n be a nonempty convex set and let
f : K → R be a twice differentiable C 2 convex function on K. If the Hessian
matrix is positive definite at each point in K then f is strictly convex. Conversely,
if f is strictly convex the Hessian matrix is positive semi-definite at each point in
K. However, if f is strictly convex and quadratic then its Hessian matrix is
positive definite.
Proof.
The proof of both aforementioned theorems is left as an exercise.
An example
Example:
Example 30
Consider this simple example.
12x2 0
Let f (x) = x4 + y 4 then H (x) = . Such Hessian is
0 12y 2
positive definite for all x 6= 0, but at x = 0 it is semi-definite. So, it is not
positive definite for all x!
But notice that f is strictly convex.Now let f (x) = x2 + y 2 (a quadratic
2 0
incomplete function) then H (x) = . The Hessian matrix is
0 2
positive definite for all x and the function is strictly convex.
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
Karush-Kuhn-Tucker (KKT) conditions in optimality
KKT conditions
The KKT theorem states that finding x ∈ R n that minimizes f (x) ,

(f : R n → R) submitted to a set of constrains, comprising a set of equalities
functions h (x) and inequalities functions g (x) which must be respected, is
equivalent to minimize the Lagrangian function L (x, ·) submitted to the following
conditions:Stationarity of L (x, ·) - the gradient condition;
1 Feasibility of the solution - respect the constrains;
2 Complementarity - Slackness;
3 Non-Negativity of the Lagrange multipliers for inequalities.
Let us put this in mathematical language. First, let x? be the solution of the
problem. Thus, the original minimization problem submitted to constrains can be
written as:
Karush-Kuhn-Tucker conditions in optimality
Find x? such that
x? = arg minf (x) (11.32)

x∈Rn
subject to
h (x) = 0; g (x) ≤ 0. (11.33)
Notice that hi (x) = 0, i = 1, 2 . . . , p and gj (x) ≤ 0, j = 1, 2 . . . , q.
Based on the KKT theorem one can mathematically write the equivalent problem
statement as
Find x? such that

x? = arg min L (x, λ, γ) = f (x) + λ · h (x) + γ · g (x) (11.34)
x∈Rn
λ6=0,γ≥0
where we have λi 6= 0, i = 1, 2 . . . , p , γj ≥ 0, j = 1, 2 . . . , q and γj gj (x) =

0, j = 1, 2 . . . , q (no sum).
1 Stationarity of L (x, ·) - the gradient condition:
∇x L (x, λ, γ) = ∇x f (x) + λ · ∇x h (x) + γ · ∇x g (x) = 0 (11.35)
2 Feasibility of the solution - respect the constrains:

h (x) = 0; g (x) ≤ 0; (11.36)
3 Complementarity - Slackness:
γj gj (x) = 0; (11.37)
4 Non-negativity of the Lagrange multipliers for inequalities:

γj ≥ 0, j = 1, 2 . . . , q. (11.38)
Outline

A first model

7 Change of basis
In many applications of physics and mathematics the Legendre-Fenchel transform, many
times refered as Legendre-Young-Fenchel, or yet conjugate or dual functions, plays a very
important role.
Definition 31
Legendre-Fenchel transform: Consider a function f (x) : R → R. The
Legendre-Fenchel (LF) transform of f (x) is defined as
f ? (k) = sup {kx − f (x)} (11.39)

x∈R
where the (•) ? stands for LF. Shortly f ? = (f )? . The LF transform of f ? (k) is
f ?? (x) = sup {kx − f ? (k)} . (11.40)

k∈R
The LF transform is not necessarily self-inverse (involutive). It means that f ?? not need
necessarily to be equal to f . In fact, as we will see later, f ?? = f holds only for a specific
kind of functions.
The definition of the LF transform can be easily extended to functions defined on
higher-order dimensional spaces. For example, x ∈ R n and f (x) : R n → R, n a positive
integer, then the product kx is the inner product k · x.
Supremum and Infimum:
Supremum and Infimum definition
Supremum and Infimum: Suppose that A is a subset of R n (A ⊂ R n ). The supremum
or the least upper bound of a set A is a number n0 which is an upper bound of A and
satisfies n0 6 n for all upper bounds n. n0 does not belong to A. When n0 exists, we write
n0 = sup A.
A set that has an upper bound is said to be bounded above. Similarly, the infimum or the
greatest lower bound of a set A is a number m0 which is an lower bound of A and
satisfies m0 > m for all lower bounds m. Again, m0 does not belong to A. When m0
exists, we write
m0 = inf A.
A set that has an lower bound is said to be bounded below. A set that has both an lower
bound and a upper bound is said to be bounded.
Definition of maximum and minimum of a set A: A number n that belongs to A and
also is an upper bound then n is called the maximum of the set A and we denote as
n = max A.
In contrast, if there is a number m that belongs to A and also is an lower bound then m
is called the minimum of the set A and we denote as
m = min A.
Let A = (0, 1] .Then max A = sup A = 1, and inf A = 0 although min A does not exist.
Graphical interpretation of LF transform
Graphical interpretation
To simplify the graphical interpretation, let us start using the most simple case: a strictly
convex a function f (x), see figure bellow, and linear function y = kx, for a fixed k.
from where we would like to find x∗ that maximizes kx − f (x).
affine functions
The answer is the affine function associated with the linear function y = kx, k fixed. For
a strictly convex function there is only one point x∗ that maximizes such distance.
Examples involving the LF transform
Smooth (differentiable) convex functions:
In order to evaluate the LF transform we need to solve Eq.(11.39), which is repeated here
f ? (k) = sup {kx − f (x)} .

x∈R
We need to find points that points xk that maximize the function
g (x, k) = kx − f (x) .
In mathematical notation, we express xk in the following manner:
x∗k = arg sup g (x, k)

x∈R
where “arg sup” reads “arguments of the supremum,” and mean in words “points at
which the maximum occurs”. The subscript k at x means that can exist more than one k.
However, here we assume that f (x) is everywhere differentiable. Therefore, the necessary
condition for a maximum is
∂ d
g (x, k) = 0 → k = f (x)
∂x dx
for a fixed k. If f (x) is a strictly convex function we assure that there exist only one
solution for every k ∈ R. In other words dx d
f (x) is continuous and monotonically
increasing for increasing x.
Calculation examples involving the LF transform
Example 32
A simple strictly convex function and its LF transform: Let
f (x) = x2 + 2x + 1
so
d k
k= f (x) = 2x + 2 → x∗ = − 1.
dx 2
Now substitute x∗ in
2
k k k

f ? (k) = g (x∗ , k) = k −1 − −1 +2 − 1 + 1.
2 2 2
k2
= −k
4
Notice that the graphs of f (x) and f ? (k) are similar to those shown in Figure in
slide.
Example 33
For the last example show that f (x) = f ?? (x).
Supporting line duality
Duality
Theorem 34
Supporting line duality: If f admits a supporting line at x with slope k, then
f ? admits a supporting line at k with slope x.
Theorem 35
Supporting line duality: If f admits a strictly supporting line at x with slope
0
k, then f ? admits a tangent supporting line at k with slope f ? (k) = x. f ?
admits a supporting line and is differentiable.
LF transform: dual variables/functions
An important result.
For strictly convex function there exist a This is very important result. Let us
d
unique valeu x∗ such that k = dx f (x∗ ) announce it with more prominence.
that maximizes g (x∗ , k). In other words
f ? (k) = kx∗ − f (x∗ ) (11.41)

Corollary 36
Notice that by means of the Legendre
with Transformation we can express the
d
k= f (x∗ ) . (11.42) correspondence
dx
It means that the LF transform reduces d d ? ∗
k= f (x∗ ) ←→ x = f (k )
to the Legendre transform for stricly dx dk
convex differentiable function. Moreover, (11.45)
in this case the LF transform is always given f (x) a strictly convex smooth
involutive, and the inverse Legendre function.
transform is the Legendre transform
itself, or
f (x) = xk∗ − f ? (k∗ ) (11.43)
with
d ? ∗
x= f (k ) . (11.44)
dk
Convex nondifferentible function
Let us consider, for simplicity, that f (x) is a piecewise-defined function, strictly convex,
and has only one nondifferentible point located at x = xo , see figure bellow.
Points x 6= xo are differentiable and the LF transform for differentiable functions takes
place as demonstrated in the last slides. But what happens at x = xo ?
The answer of this question has a very powerful meaning in mathematics. The
explanation that follows uses the meaning of supporting lines but this concept, as shown
ahead, give rise to the concept of Subgradients and Subdifferentials, which are in some
way a generalization of the derivative concept to deal with nondifferentible points.
Recalling that a supporting line must obey f (x) > f (xo ) + k (x − xo ). It means that the
number of feasible supporting lines at xo is infinity. However, those feasible supporting
lines are contained into a interval given by
f (x) − f (xo )
α1 = lim (11.46)
x→x−
o
x − xo
f (x) − f (xo )
α2 = lim . (11.47)
x→x+
o
x − xo
Duality of the supporting lines. a) piecewise-defined function f (x) with a nondifferentible point
at x = xo. b) LF transform of f (x).
Example 37
Let f (x) be a piecewise function defined by

f1 (x) = x2 − 2x + 4 x62
f (x) = . (11.48)
f2 (x) = 4ex−2 x > 2.
Its LF transform is

f1? (k) = k2
+k−3
4
k < k1
f ? (k) = fx?o (k) = 2k − 4 k1 6 k 6 k2 . (11.49)
 ?
f2 (k) = k (1 + ln k) k > k2
This strictly convex nondifferentiable function represents a special type of LF transform
with applications in theory of optimization.
Example 38
LF transform of f (x) = a |x| , a > 0
df
Coming from −∞ to 0 we get have a fixed slope given by dx
= −a. Values
df
varying from 0 to +∞ have a fixed valeu = a. As the nondifferentible point
dx
is located at x = xo = 0 and f (xo = 0) = 0 the LF transform is simple
f ? (k) = 0 for k ∈ [−a, a].

a if x ≥ 0 LF ? +∞ if k ∈
/ [−a, a] (or |k| > a)
f (x) = a |x| = → f (k) = .
−a if x < 0 0 if k ∈ [−a, a] (or |k| ≤ a)
(11.50)
This LF transform is knonw as the
Indicator function of a convex set and it
is denote as

? if k ∈/K
+∞
f (k) = IK (k) = .
if k ∈ K
0
(11.51)
K being a convex set in terms of k.
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction
Under construction

References
Lemaitre, J., Chaboche, J. L.:

Mechanics of Solid Materials, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1990.
Lemaitre, J.:
A Course on Damage Mechanics, Springer-Verlag, 1992.
Chen, W.F., Han, D.J.:

Plasticity For Structural Engineers, J. Ross Publishing Classics, 2007.
Lubliner, J.:
Plasticity Theory , Macmillan, New York, 1990.
Khan, A.S., Huang, S.:

Continuum Theory Of Plasticity, Wiley, 1995.
Ottosen, N.S., Ristinmaa, M.:

The Mechanics Of Constitutive Modeling, Elsevier Science, 2005.
References
Neto, E.A.S., Perić, D., Owen, D.R.J.:

Computational Methods For Plasticity – Theory And Applications, Wiley, 2008.
Simo, J.C., Hughes, T.J.R.:

Computational Inelasticity, Springer, 1998.
Owen, D.R.J., Hinton, E.: Finite Elements In Plasticity: Theory And Practice, Pineridge
Press, Swansea, 1980.
Zienkiewicz, O.C., Taylor, R.L.:

Inelastic And Nonlinear Materials, Chapter 3 In: The Finite Element Method. Volume 2:
Solid Mechanics, 5a Ed., Butter Worth Heinemann, Oxford, 2000.
References
Malvern, L. E.:
Introduction to the mechanics of a continuous medium, 1969.
Coimbra, A. L.:
Novas lições de mecânica do Contínuo, 1981.
Truesdell, C.:
A First Course in Rational Continuum Mechanics: General concepts, 1977.
Germain, P.:
Cours de Mécanique des Milieux Continus, 1973.
Gurtin, M. E.:
An Inortroduction to Continuum Mechanics, 1981.
Gurtin, M.E., Fried, E., Anand, L.:

The Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Continua, 2010.
References
Lai, W.M., Rubin, D., Krempl, E.:

Introduction to Continuum Mechanics, Fourth edition , 2010.
Gonzalez, O., Stuart, A. M.:

A First Course in Continuum Mechanics, 2008.
Spencer, A.J.M.:
Continuum Mechanics, 2004.
Heinbockel, J.H.:
Introduction to Tensor Calculus and Continuum Mechanics, 2001.
Nguyen-Schäfer, H., Schmidt, J.-P.:

Tensor Analysis and Elementary Differential Geometry for Physicists and Engineers, 2017.
Itskov, M.:
Tensor Algebra and Tensor Analysis for Engineers: With Applications to Continuum
Mechanics, 2014.
References
Reddy, J.N.:
An Introduction to Continuum Mechanics: With Applications, 2008.
Oden, J.T., Demkowicz, L.:

Applied Functional Analysis, Second Edition, 1996.
Reddy, B.D.:
Introductory Functional Analysis: With Applications to Boundary Value Problems and
Finite Elements, 1998.
Touchette, H.:
Legendre-Fenchel transforms in a nutshell, Technical report, School of Mathematical
Sciences, Queen Mary, University of London, 2005.
Bazaraa, M.S., Sherali, H.D., Shetty, C.M.:

Nonlinear Programing: Theory and Algorithms, 3rd, Wiley-Interscience, 2006.
Luenberger, D.G., Ye, Y.:

Linear and Nonlinear Programming, 3rd, Springer, 2008.

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Classroom Slides on Plasticity

Prof. Rodrigo Rossi1

1 Departamento de Engenharia Mecânica (DEMEC), Grupo de Mecânica Aplicada (GMAp),

Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Mecânica (PROMEC), Universidade Federal do

Draft version - - - Under development

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 1

Throughout this classroom Notes/Slides:

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 2

Table: Some examples of operations used in this text.

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 3

Curvilinear Coordinate System: Cartesian coordinate system:

Let u ∈ R 3 . Cartesian components:

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 4

The elastic predictor/plastic corrector algorithm for J2

6 Numerical integration algorithm of the one-dimensional 11 Supplementary Material

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 5

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 6

Assuming a linear elastic isotropic material

The model: This condition motivates the definition of the

f (σ) = |σ| − σo ≤ 0, (2.4)

f :R→ Ro− ,and the following admissible stress

Kσ = {σ ∈ R | f (σ) = |σ| − σo ≤ 0} . (2.5)

Kσ is a closed convex set. The set Kσ can be

Kσ = int (Kσ ) ∪ ∂Kσ (2.6)

2 If σ < σo there is no change in εp . That

ε̇p = 0 ↔ f (σ) < 0. (2.9)

Now from Eq. (2.2) one has the following

but from Eq. (2.1)

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 9

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 10

Notice that: Now, let us define the absolute slip rate γ̇

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 11

σ (t) ∈ ∂Kσ ↔ f (σ (t)) = 0. (2.20)

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 13

i Suppose that f˙ (σ (t)) > 0: As a first movement towards analysis we write

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 14

ii Suppose that f˙ (σ (t)) = 0: Using the same arguments as in (a) we write

given 4t > 0. Therefore, to enforce to f˙ (σ (t)) = 0 one has to enforce that

f˙ (σ (t)) = 0 → loading condition.

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 15

f˙ (σ (t)) < 0 → unloading condition.

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 16

γ̇ = 0 → f˙ (σ (t)) < 0 (2.22)

that can be encapsulated in only one condition, that is

This last condition is known as the consistency condition or persistence condition.

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 17

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 18

Notice that the formulation presented here appears in terms of deformation

ε̇p = γ̇sign (σ)

ε̇e = ε̇ − ε̇p = 0 (2.31)

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 19

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 20

Prof. Rodrigo Rossi1

1 Departamento de Engenharia Mecânica (DEMEC), Grupo de Mecânica Aplicada (GMAp),

Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Mecânica (PROMEC), Universidade Federal do

Draft version - - - Under development

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 21

The elastic predictor/plastic corrector algorithm for J2

6 Numerical integration algorithm of the one-dimensional 11 Supplementary Material

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 22

A body Ω ⊂ R 3 can be viewed as set of particles,

Mec0125 - Plasticity - Draft version - Under development Prof. Rodrigo Rossi 23