NAME: AYOOLA SAMUEL AYODEJI.

SUBJECT: SSC 107

FACULTY: SOCIALSCIENCES.

DEPARTMENT : GEOGRAPHY..

PART : 1

REGISTRATION NUMBER: 96402140FA.

INSTRUCTIONS:. List all and explain any 5 elements of climate. Describe the characteristics of each layer
of the atmosphere.

ANSWERS:

SECTION A

CLIMATE AND ITS ELEMENTS.

Climate is the Atmospheric condition of a particular geographical area over a long period of time,
usually not less than thirty five years according to the IPCC (Intergovernmental panel on climate
change). Having defined climate, weather cannot be left therefore weather is the Atmospheric
condition of a particular geographical area within a short period of time ranging from a second to
few years.

Paying reference to:

1. G. F Taylor: He stated that “ climate is the integration of weather and weather is the
differentiation of climate.” This citation explains that climate is a sum total or combination of
various weather conditions while weather is a functional unit of climate itself.
2. Koppen and De long: They stated that “ climate is the aggregate of weather.” This keyword
affirms the definition of G.F Taylor.
3. Critchfield: He diversified further by stating that “ climate is the aggregate of Atmospheric
conditions involving heat, moisture and air movement.” He meant that the interaction between
temperature, hydrosphere and air movement as in the water cycle on a long term and
predominant bases brings about the formation of climate.
4. Trewartha: he cited that “climate represents a composite of day to day weather conditions and
the atmosphere elements within a specified area over a long period of time.” i.e climate is the
combination of all weather conditions in corporation with all the activities of its elements.

Elements of climate:

The major elements of climate are:

1. Solar radiation
2. Temperature
3. Humidity
4. Pressure
5. Precipitation
6. Cloud cover
7. Wind
SOLAR RADIATION.

Solar radiation is the energy discharged by the sun towards the earth. It measures up to
6000°c. According to Trewartha, the per- minute energy flow from the sun to the earth is
nearly equal to the total amount of energy consumed by man on the earth. Based on a series of
research it was discovered that the incoming solar radiation striking the earth surface is
approximately 23billion horse power. Solar radiation emits two forms of electromagnetic
waves based on It’s wavelength . Those of longer wavelengths which are mainly absorbed in
the atmosphere are called infrared Rays while those of shorter wavelengths are the ultraviolet
Rays. The speed of solar radiation is 3×10^8m|s. When the earth receives the shorter waves
(ultraviolet Rays) and converts them Into the longer waves( infrared Rays) heat is produced on
the earth’s surface, lines joining places with equal rate of solar radiation is known as isohels.
The energy generated by solar radiation is measured using the solarimeter. Some of the
importance of the solar radiation are:

 Main or principal source of energy: It is unarguably true that the sun is the principal
source of energy to the earth and also the pioneer of every other forms of energy in our
present world of today. As a matter of fact every other element of climate depends on
solar radiation for their performance. Therefore the movements of the earth which are
rotation, revolution and precision are brought about by the energy provided from solar
radiation. Through these substantial proofs stated above we can term solar radiation as
“the energy generator of the earth.”
 Variation of temperature: Variation of temperature on the earth is brought about by the
variation In the intensity of the sun and the movement of the earth. This phenomenon is
explained by Perihelion and aphelion (i.e the variation of the elliptical orbit of the earth in
relation to the sun.)
 Effective maintenance of a stable ecosystem: Since solar radiation is an overall energy
source it provides the energy required for the efficient circulation of gases and materials in
the carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and water cycles.
 It is the major source of life to the biosphere: Based on a wide range of religious beliefs it
was stated that light was the first form of creation. We can link this fact to our biosphere in
the sense that plants as primary producers require sunlight to manufacture their food and
every other organism in the biosphere depends directly or otherwise on them for their
feeding.

Other importance includes:

1. Generation of renewable power e.g. electricity.

2. Provision of vitamin D3 according to health research
3. Essential requirement for some industrial production activities. To mention few.
Factors affecting solar radiation are:
 Solar elevation: The position of the sun in the sky affects the amount of solar radiation on the
earth surface. This is caused due to the amount of atmosphere required to diffuse through
before solar radiation gets to the earth surface. Therefore when the sun is at the horizon, the
 atmosphere absorbs much of It’s radiations before getting to the earth's surface and the
opposite is the case when the sun is directly overhead in the sky.
 Ozone layer: This is a layer of this allotrope of oxygen in the atmosphere which helps to reduce
the rate of solar radiation reaching the earth surface. Hence, the higher it's concentration the
lower the solar radiation and vice versa.
 Cloud cover: The cloud cover majorly reduces the Intensity of solar radiation reaching the
earth’s surface ( but might not be so in some extreme cases)
 Ground surface reflectivity: In this aspect it Connotes the reflection of the ultraviolet Rays
released by the sun by surfaces like hydrosphere, concrete and metal surfaces on the earth
surface. This reflection process augments the amount of solar radiation within the earth.
 Altitude: Based on numerous geographical and Astrophysical research works it has been
discovered that the rate of solar radiation Increases with Increase in altitude. This is due to the
fact that at higher altitude the Atmospheric layer becomes thin and has less absorbing effect on
Solar radiation.
 Aerosols: Aerosols scatter and absorb the incoming solar radiation on the earth surface and this
goes in turn to reduce the rate of solar radiation on the earth surface.

PRECIPITATION

This refers to any form of water particle either liquid or solid that falls from the atmosphere to the earth
surface. In most cases it is regarded as rainfall and is mainly controlled by the water cycle, The lines
joining places with equal annual rainfall is called isohyet. Precipitation is measured using a rain gauge.
The common forms of precipitation are:

 Mist: This is a suspension of water droplets in the air.

 Frost: They are formed from the condensation of water droplets into ice
crystals, when the temperature is below freezing point.
 Fog: This is formed when condensation takes place near the ground or
over the seasons. It usually causes poor visibility.
 Dew: This refers to any moisture from the atmosphere condensed by
cool bodies upon their surfaces.
 Hail: This refers to water droplets at great vertical height and usually
associated with thunderstorms.
 Snow: This is formed when water vapour condenses in the atmosphere
below freezing point resulting in the formation of ice crystals.

RAIN: This refers to the falling of condensed water from the cloud. It is the
predominant from of precipitation in West Africa. The types of rainfall we
have are:

(A) Frontal or cyclonic rainfall: This type of rainfall is caused by the

rising of warm air over cold air bringing about a sequence of
cooling, condensation and cloud formation.
(B) Orographic or relief rainfall: This type of rainfall deals with gradient
or slope of Land. It forms when warm air rises above the windward
 slope of a mountain, bringing about saturation of the air then
afterwards condensation and cloud formation.
(C) Convectional rainfall: It is formed when rising air becomes
saturated in the atmosphere and cloud (mainly cumulonimbus) is
formed.

The importance of precipitation are:

 Maintenance of water balance: The process of precipitation plays an

important role in the Hydrologic cycle and this helps to ensure the
availability of water in the ecosystem. We can therefore conclude
that if there was no precipitation the whole planet would have
undergone desertification.

Sustenance of life: The biosphere element of the earth definitely needs

water for their metabolism and 85% of this requirement is produced by
precipitation.

WIND.

Wind is air in motion. It has speed and direction, in other words wind is
the horizontal flow or movement of air masses on the earth's surface.

Types of wind

 Mountain and valley winds: These winds correlate and are

antagonistic in nature i.e anabatic and katabatic in nature. They
cause alternate heating and cooling. Examples are fohn wind in the
valleys of Northern Alps in Switzerland during spring, Chinook wind
on the Eastward slopes of the Rockies in USA and Canada in winter
and the zonda. wind in the Andes.

Land and sea breeze: This types of wind deals with the circulation of
moving air between the land and sea. Sea breeze occurs at day, in the
day the land becomes more heated than the sea and cool breeze from
the sea blows to the land, while land breeze occurs in a direct form
opposition to this process.

Gestotropic and non gestotropic winds:

Chart representing The processes involved chart showing the processes involved in

In land and sea breeze. Mountain and valley winds.

Some other common forms of wind are:

 Sirocco (which originates from the Sahara desert and blows

towards the Mediterranean regions)
 Mistral ( which is a cold wind from the north and blows
from the Rhine valley towards the Mediterranean region)
 Typhoons ( which occurs mainly in regions between 6°and
20°Nand S of the equator and are very frequent from July
to October.
 Hurricanes(they are mainly found in the West Indian
islands in the Caribbean and it is destructive)
 Tornadoes ( they are strong prevailing winds which are
very destructive, they are forms of tropical and sub-
 tropical cyclones. It is common in the southern USA and
Guinea lands of West Africa and they are propelled by a
very high speed.)
 Cyclones ( They are confined to temperate latitudes and
are associated with rain, snow or sheet precipitation)
 Anticyclones( They are the opposite of cyclones)
 Harmattan winds( They are strong, dry, cold and dusty
winds that occurs mainly in West Africa, blowing from
North East across the Sahara desert.)

Importance of wind:

 Mobilization of the moisture in the atmosphere during

the Hydrologic cycle process.
 Formation of landforms in the arid regions, e.g.
zuegens, yardangs, rock pedestals e.t.c
Factors affecting wind:
 Rotation of the earth: Due to the rotation of the earth,
winds are deflected to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere. This is often referred to as Ferrell’s laws
of deflection.
 Temperature: The rate of temperature varies directly
with the weight of air. Hence, when the temperature
of an air mass on the earth surface increases it weight
reduces and this activates it’s motion.
 Pressure: since temperature is inversely proportional
to pressure. High temperature lowers pressure and
this makes wind flow towards it’s direction. We can
then conclude that winds blow from high pressure belt
to low pressure belt.
Wind speed is measured using anemometer
while wind direction is detected by wind vane.

TEMPERATURE: This can simply be defined as the degree of hotness or coldness of a body or place.

Factors affecting temperature:

(a.) Latitudes and altitude: Tropical latitudes are

generally hotter than temperate latitudes,
because the sun's altitude is up high in the
tropics and lower in temperate regions.
(b.) Distance from the sea: since land surfaces cool
faster than sea surfaces. In summer land surfaces
are warmer than sea surfaces and the air over
 the land. Hence the sea warms coastal regions in
winter, but cools them in summer.
(c.) Prevailing winds: Winds affect temperature by
transporting their heat or Coldness into adjacent
regions. On- shore, westerlies convey much
tropical warm air to temperate coasts especially
in winter.

There are two entities that are to be observed in the determination of temperature by Altitude. The key
terms are “lapse rate” and “Temperature inversion”. Lapse rate is defined as the rate of the change with
altitude or the decrease in temperature as one ascends into the atmosphere, on standard bases
temperature decreases by 6.5°c for every 1000m ascension into the atmosphere. Temperature inversion
is the increase in temperature with increase in altitude. I.e. the inverse of lapse rate.

Temperature can be measured using thermometer, in °c, k or F. The major importance of temperature is
that it helps to differentiate between seasons by it’s variation and it also helps in the circulation of gases
within the ecosystem when it increases in value. Lines joining places with equal temperature is called an
isotherm.

CLOUD COVER.

A cloud is a visible mass of condensed water droplets suspended in the air. Lines joining places of equal
degree of cloudiness is known as an isoneph. Clouds are caused by the cooling of rising air by expansion,
it is also caused by temperature inversion. It’s measuring is oktas or eights of the sky cover.

Types of cloud:

(1.) High clouds: They have a height range of 6000- 12000m

(i)Cirrus (made up of small ice crystals which are white, wispy and fibrous of the highest
vertical height.)

(ii) cirrocumulus (they are ice crystals looking like ripples and forming thin cloud)

(iii) cirrostratus (a thin white milky cloud which is transparent and gives the sun and moon
haloes)

(2.) Medium clouds: Their height ranges from 2100-6000m they are;
(I)Altocumulus (it is a wooly bumpy cloud arranged in layers and appears like waves in the blue
sky.)
(ii) Altostratus ( they are denser, greyish clouds with a watery look)
(3.) Low clouds: They have an height range below 2100m,they are:

(I)Stratocumulus(they are rough, bumpy and posses pronounced waves.)

(ii) stratus (they are uniformly grey and can reduce the visibility of aircrafts.)

(iii) Nimbostratus ( It is a dark dull rain cloud.)

(4.) Clouds of great vertical extent: They have a height range of 6000-9000m, they are:
 (I) Cumulus(they are vertical with rounded top and horizontal
base and are common in humid tropical regions)
(II) Cumulonimbus ( they are black and white in colour and also
referred to as a thunder cloud because it brings
convectional rain with lightening and thunder)
Importance of cloud :
 Rain formation
 Reflection of shortwaves and radiations.

SECTION B: THE ATMOSPHERE AND ITS LAYERS.

The Atmosphere is an element of the earth which includes a mixture of gases, Aerosols and water
vapour. The aerosols are tiny dust particles suspended in the air and are derived from anthropogenic
activities such as travelling by air or land and they help in cloud formation. The gaseous content of the
atmosphere includes Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), carbon (0.03%) and others (mainly Noble gases by
1%). The Atmosphere as an element of the earth has four sub-elements(layers) which are:

 Troposphere: This is the lowest layer of the

atmosphere which is about 12km above the earth
surface but varies in value depending on it’s latitudes
(either at the poles or equator). It is thicker in the
poles than the equator, it’s temperature reduces with
increase in altitude. The troposphere is the major
causing factor of the green house effect and it occurs
when the troposphere absorbs long wavelength of
solar radiation (I.e infrared Rays).

Troposphere is the thickest layer of the atmosphere and , it

constitutes 80% of the mass of the atmosphere. It is also the
densest of all layers because a very large Atmospheric
weight rests on it this fact also underlies it’s compression
quality. The troposphere contains 85% of all the
atmosphere's water vapour and most weather processes
takes place there. It has a boundary that separates it from
the other successive layers the boundary is called the
tropopause and it is usually marked by temperature
inversion.

 Stratosphere: It is found immediately after the

tropopause. It is 50km above the Earth’s surface, the
Atmospheric pressure at it’s top is 1 part per
thousand at the sea level. It contains the ozone layer
 and it’s temperature increases with increasing
Altitude due to the absorption of ultraviolet Rays. The
stratosphere is cloudless but may occasionally have
nacreous clouds( i.e a cloud in the lower stratosphere
of polar regions.).
 Mesosphere: The mesosphere is found above the
stratopause, it is 85km above the earth's surface. It’s
temperature reduces with increasing Altitude and it is
the coldest part of the atmosphere. The mesosphere
is characterized by the presence of noctilucent clouds(
i.e high altitude clouds that reflects sunlight long after
sunset. Based on satellite observations it was also
discovered that meteors burn in the mesosphere.
 Thermosphere: It is the highest of all other layers and
it is 500km above the earth’s surface. It’s lower
boundary contains the ionosphere (which is formed
from the decomposition of oxygen and nitrogen
molecules into electrons. It has a very low density and
its temperature increases with increasing altitude. It is
cloudless but displays Aurora ( which occurs when
protons and electrons interact in the
ionosphere )occasionally. The residual part above the
thermosphere is the exosphere( which is the
outermost layer of the atmosphere).
Graphical format chart showing the relationship between temperature variation

In the Atmospheric layers and altitude.