Development Southern Africa

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Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa

Jaco Vermaak & Dewald van Niekerk

To cite this article: Jaco Vermaak & Dewald van Niekerk (2004) Disaster risk
reduction initiatives in South Africa, Development Southern Africa, 21:3, 555-574, DOI:
10.1080/0376835042000265487

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Development Southern Africa Vol. 21, No. 3, September 2004

Development Debate and Practice

Disaster risk reduction initiatives in
South Africa
Jaco Vermaak & Dewald van Niekerk1
The field of disaster management in South Africa has developed dramatically over the past seven
years. The paradigm shift from civil protection to disaster risk management brought with it the
realisation that the management of disaster risk is paramount to reducing successfully the
vulnerability of these communities most at risk. The resilience and coping mechanisms of
communities affected by disasters have demonstrated the importance of local and traditional
knowledge in the reduction of risk and the effects of hazards. This article aims to explore various
initiatives for disaster risk reduction in South Africa undertaken by government departments
and non-governmental organisations from 1994 to 2003. It describes the various methods and
systems employed to reduce risk and vulnerability. A case study of the February 2000 floods in
the Limpopo province of South Africa provides insight into local coping mechanisms and
indigenous methods of risk reduction.

1. Introduction
South Africa is a country not prone to spectacular, destructive and media-attracting
disasters such as volcanic eruptions and massive earthquakes. Disasters have mainly
been dominated by localised incidents of veld fires, informal settlement fires, seasonal
flooding in vulnerable communities, droughts, and human-induced disasters such as oil
spills and mining accidents. Of late, the impact of HIV/Aids on the economy of South
Africa has increasingly come under scrutiny.

South Africa has an area of approximately 1 219 080 square kilometres (about 470 690
square miles), with a population of approximately 43 million. The population density
averages 36 persons per square kilometre (about 93 per square mile). Nearly two-thirds
of the population live in urban areas (Facts on File, 1998).

South Africa thus constitutes a vast area that is not adequately covered in terms of
disaster risk reduction in the most vulnerable of communities. Rapid urbanisation
impacts on the availability of livelihoods and contributes to hazardous impacts and
vulnerabilities in communities. These undesirable disaster risk patterns are worsened by
poor planning and uncoordinated settlement. Increasingly, poor development is to
blame for risk creation and further increasing the probability of future disasters (ISDR,
2002). The lack of resources and access to basic services, the exposure to hazards, and
poor coping mechanisms in many communities also add to their vulnerability to risks
and disasters (South Africa, 1999).

The emergence of the democratic South Africa in the international arena has changed
the country’s status from pariah nation to an equal international player. This has meant
1
Respectively, Lecturer, School of Business Administration and Law, Department of Public and
Development Administration, University of Venda, South Africa; and Director, African Centre
for Disaster Studies, School for Social and Government Studies, North-West University Potchef-
stroom Campus, Potchefstroom, South Africa.
ISSN 0376-835X print/ISSN 1470-3637 online/04/030555-20 © 2004 Development Bank of Southern Africa
DOI: 10.1080/0376835042000265487
556 J. Vermaak & D. van Niekerk

not only a change of government, but also a new realisation of the importance of risk
and disaster reduction in communities at risk. A process of implementing new policies
and legislation relating to disaster management also began.
This article looks at the disaster and risk reduction initiatives that many government
and private role-players have embarked upon from 1994 to 2003. Various initiatives are
discussed, which gives an indication of the importance of risk reduction in South
Africa. A practical case study from the February 2000 floods in the Limpopo province
of South Africa is given to illustrate what communities, and farmers in particular, are
doing to reduce the risk of disaster.

2. DISASTER RISK REDUCTION VS DISASTER MANAGEMENT

The subject of disaster and risk reduction draws its relevance from earlier contributions
and previous practices in the area of disaster management, where traditionally the focus
has been on preparedness for response. At this point, it is important to establish a
common understanding of the basic tenets of disaster risk reduction and disaster
management in the South African context.
Disaster risk reduction reflects a new global approach to the management of disasters
and disaster risk. It can be seen as ‘the systematic development and application of
policies, strategies and practices to minimise vulnerabilities and disaster risks through-
out a society, to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) adverse
impact of hazards, within the broad context of sustainable development’ (ISDR,
2002:25).
Strategies for disaster reduction include, first and foremost, vulnerability and risk
assessment, as well as a number of institutional capacities and operational abilities. The
assessment of the vulnerability of critical facilities, social and economic infrastructure,
the use of effective early warning systems, and the application of many different types
of scientific, technical and other skilled abilities are essential features of disaster risk
reduction. It is therefore multidisciplinary in nature and does not assume that only one
function of government has responsibility.
Disaster management, as defined by the UNDP (1992:21), is ‘the body of policy and
administrative decisions and operational activities which pertain to the various stages
of a disaster at all levels’. The disaster management cycle in Figure 1 depicts these
various stages.
Disaster management is defined by the Disaster Management Act No. 57 of 2002
(South Africa, 2002) as a continuous and integrated multisectoral, multidisciplinary
process of planning and implementation of measures aimed at the following:
• Prevention or reduction of the risk of disasters
• Mitigation of the severity or consequences of disasters
• Emergency preparedness
• A rapid and effective response to disasters
• Post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation
Disaster management in its international form entails the integration of pre- and
post-disaster activities in order to safeguard lives and property against possible
disasters. At first glance, disaster risk reduction appears to form an underlying tenet of
disaster management in the definition supplied by the Disaster Management Act.
 Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 557

Figure 1: The disaster management cycle (continuum)

Notes: A ⫽ Pre-disaster reduction phase; B ⫽ Post-disaster recovery phase.

Should this, however, have been the case in practice, then 20 years of disaster
management in Africa would have yielded more positive results, less loss of life and
livelihoods, and fewer disasters.

One significant problem with disaster management – as a discipline and the application
of the continuum in Figure 1 – is that it still has a disaster-oriented focus. All activities
and resources are geared towards a disastrous event. In most cases, the underlying
causes of these disasters (e.g. risk, hazards and vulnerability) are not considered, or are
the product of bureaucratic ignorance. Another weakness in the application of the
disaster management cycle is that a number of practitioners view its implementation as
a phased approach where the activities follow a sequential path. Often, it is not
recognised that each of the cycle’s processes occurs simultaneously.
Through multiple efforts, the importance and uniqueness of hazard and further risk
reduction for the future have become evident. In contrast to the earlier concepts of
disaster management, hazard and risk reduction practices relate to significantly larger
professional constituencies and depend on much more diverse information requirements
(Jeggle, in Rosenthal et al., 2001). While there is no doubt that emergency assistance
will remain necessary, the potential consequences of increasingly severe hazards
indicate that much greater investments need to be made to reduce the risk of social and
economic disasters. The challenge for risk and disaster management in the coming
years is to find effective means by which a much more comprehensive and multisec-
toral participation of professional disciplines and public interests can contribute to
reducing disaster risk. Accomplishment of this goal requires both a political commit-
ment, as much as public understanding to motivate local community involvement. It is
in no one’s interest that the resources on which all societies depend must first be lost
to hazards before their value is deemed worthy of protection, replacement, or repair.
Table 1 sets out the difference between the focus of disaster management and disaster
risk reduction.
558 J. Vermaak & D. van Niekerk

Table 1: Comparing traditional disaster management and new international

thinking in disaster risk reduction

Disaster management (traditional) Disaster risk reduction

Primary focus on hazards Major focus on vulnerability

Single, event-based scenarios
Basic responsibility to respond to an event
Often fixed, location-specific conditions
Responsibility in a single authority or agency
Command-and-control directed operations
Established hierarchical relationships
Urgent, immediate to short time frames in outlook,
planning, attention and returns
Rapidly changing, dynamic use of information;
often conflicting or ‘sensitive’
Primary, ‘authorised’ or singular sources
Need for definitive ‘facts’
Operational, or public information-based use of
communications
Dynamic, multiple-risk issues
Fundamental need to assess and update
Extended, shared or regional locales
Multiple interests, actors and responsibilities
Situation-specific functions and free association
Shifting, fluid and tangential relationships
Comparative, moderate to long time frames in
outlook, planning and return values
Accumulated, historical, layered, updated and
comparative information; open or public
Multiple and diverse or changing sources
Differing perspectives and points of view
Multiple-use, shared exchange, intersectoral
information, matrixes, nodal and lateral flows in
communication

Source: Jeggle, in Rosenthal et al. (2001); ISDR (2002).

The increasing number of disasters in the 1990s emphasised the need to move beyond
pure ‘disaster management’. This provided the impetus for a much greater focus on
disaster risk reduction, which aims to assess risk before mitigation and prevention
strategies are developed. Disaster risk reduction therefore has a clear focus on hazards:
their characteristics and impact; vulnerability in terms of social, political, economic and
environment factors; and risk as the product of hazards interacting with conditions of
vulnerability. Solving disaster and disaster risk-related problems therefore needs to
have a clear development focus.
Holloway (2003:30) indicates that in southern Africa, and perhaps more widely
throughout Africa, the field of disaster reduction has never explicitly achieved the same
policy stature or secured levels of financial commitment comparable to those seen in
Asia or Latin America. This is not only due to the nature of Africa’s disaster risk
profile, which has differed from that of other continents, but is also explained by the
character of international assistance that has tended to be either prolonged aid for
refugees and displaced populations, or highly visible food and other humanitarian
assistance in times of drought and famine.
In the light of the above, it is clear that the focus in dealing with conditions of risk
should be on disaster risk reduction. The emphasis therefore shifts from disaster to risk.

3. RISK ASSESSMENT
The first step in disaster risk reduction is the assessment of possible hazards that can
impact on a community. The ISDR (2002) defines risk assessment as the process of
determining the nature and extent of risk by analysing potential hazards and evaluating
existing conditions of vulnerability that could pose a potential threat or harm to people,
 Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 559

property, livelihoods and the environment on which they depend. The Yokohama
Strategy and Plan of Action (1994) indicates that risk assessment is a required step in
the adoption of adequate and successful policies and measures for disaster reduction.
Risk assessment therefore requires the systematic use of information and data to
determine the likelihood that a hazard (of certain magnitude) might exploit a particular
vulnerability within a given community. It also considers the possible consequences of
the hazardous impact.
Risk assessment is undertaken by a number of national, provincial and local govern-
ment departments as well as other non-governmental organisations (NGOs). The policy
document of the South African government on disaster management, the White Paper
on Disaster Management (South Africa, 1999), mentions that one of the key policy
proposals is the ‘urgent integration of risk reduction strategies into development
initiatives’.
Two of the most profound processes of development planning at municipal level in
South Africa are the development of land development objectives and Integrated
Development Plans (IDPs) for all municipalities. Integrated development planning is a
process through which municipalities prepare a strategic development plan for a
five-year period. According to the Municipal Structures Act No. 117 of 1998 (South
Africa, 1998a) and the Municipal Systems Act No. 32 of 2000 (South Africa, 2000),
all municipalities (i.e. metros, district municipalities and local municipalities) must
undertake an integrated development planning process to produce IDPs. The IDP is a
legislative requirement, which has legal status, and therefore supersedes all other plans
that guide development at local government level. The development of a disaster
management plan therefore forms an integral part of the IDP. The aim of a disaster
management plan is to enhance the capacity of the municipality to assess risks, prevent
and deal with hazards, and avoid developments that are subject to high risk and
possible disaster. Such a disaster management plan should specify the following
(DPLG, 2001a):
• Likely types of disasters or hazards, and specific locations or communities at risk
• Prevention and mitigation strategies for each of the likely types of disaster
• Contingency plans and emergency procedures that ensure maximum emergency
preparedness, under consideration of available capacities
• Roles and responsibilities of all role-players
The guidelines for the preparation of IDPs suggest that, rather than taking possible
disasters into consideration, municipalities must focus on likely risks. The emphasis on
risk assessment is therefore understandable. Guidance on how to conduct risk assess-
ments in order to compile disaster management plans still requires considerable
development. Disaster management officials at local government level are not knowl-
edgeable of the IDP process, or of the elements that should be included in a
comprehensive disaster management plan. Apparent confusion also reigns over the
difference between disaster management plans and contingency plans (Van Niekerk,
2002). Until such time as the National Disaster Management Centre (NDMC) gives
clear guidance on these issues to local authorities, one can expect that risk assessment
will be a haphazard exercise.
Besides the integration of risk assessment into development planning, various govern-
ment departments at all spheres are engaged in activities that aim to reduce the risk of
disaster:
560 J. Vermaak & D. van Niekerk

• The Department of Provincial and Local Government (DPLG) is responsible for risk
assessment at national level through the NDMC.
• The Department of Agriculture provides support in times of droughts, floods, fires,
locust outbreaks and severe weather conditions like tornadoes.
• The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) is responsible for national
water management, including irrigated rural agriculture, urban water supply, and the
monitoring of rainfall patterns, rainfall and dam, river and reservoir levels.
• The Department of Health uses health indicators (such as levels of malnutrition and
disease) to assess health-related disasters in communities, such as cholera, malaria
and HIV/Aids.
• The Department of Minerals and Energy (DME) conducts risk assessment in relation
to radioactive materials, pollution and hazardous waste, as well as mining safety. It
also monitors the atomic energy plant at Koeberg in the Western Cape.
• The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) deals with pol-
lution, hazardous waste and radioactive materials.
• The Department of Social Development (DSD) plays an important role in alleviating
poverty through development and poverty alleviation programmes (DSD, 2001) and,
in so doing, contributes to risk assessment and the reduction of communities’
vulnerability to disasters. The DSD also focuses on HIV/Aids issues, especially Aids
orphans.
• The Department of Housing assesses risk in relation to informal settlements,
adherence to building standards, provision of infrastructure, and aspects of planning
(e.g. housing densities, soil stability, slope angles and flood lines).
• The South African Weather Service supplies meteorological data and early warning
systems for drought, severe weather conditions, floods, tornadoes, tropical cyclones
and other atmospheric data.
• The South African Bureau of Standards (SABS, 2001) aims to develop standards of
risk assessment for application at local government level.
Each of the above national departments maintains risk assessment measures within its
field of jurisdiction. Due to ‘cross-pollination’ through the Interdepartmental Disaster
Management Committee (IDMC), coordination of risk assessment activities is im-
proved and duplication is eliminated to a large extent.
Ideally, data dissemination should occur horizontally and vertically throughout all
spheres of government. High-risk areas and hazards to communities are frequently
assessed in terms of ‘hazard-mapping’ techniques.

4. HAZARD MAPPING
Various organisations and institutions conduct hazard mapping in South Africa.
Unfortunately, some projects are carried out in isolation and the data are not widely
utilised. This, however, does not mean that the information is not beneficial to
institutions other than those it was intended for. Historical data contribute greatly to
hazard mapping, for instance data concerning dam and reservoir levels, polluted surface
water, land and veld degradation, and reported cases of malaria and cholera. Several
hazard maps are available online and function as clickable image maps that contain
additional information on particular areas. Satellite data are also used to compile hazard
maps. These data provide a timely and relatively inexpensive means for assessing crop
condition and size, vegetation cover and type, surface temperature (land and sea), fire
monitoring and risks of diseases. Satellite data from the National Oceanic and
 Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 561

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the United States allow the generation of

geo-referenced maps. The National Botanical Institute also embarked on mapping land
and veld degradation patterns for the whole of South Africa.

However, many practical problems are associated with the use of hazard maps. Due to
the complicated nature of some software, considerable time delays may be experienced
when downloading relevant programs, especially from the Internet. In addition,
computer literacy and ignorance amongst government officials and decision makers are
also problematic. Another challenge is the quality and accuracy of hazard characterisa-
tion. Information on various hazards (e.g. extreme weather and its distribution) is very
poor and further inhibits the use of hazard maps.

The impact of a hazard on a community depends largely on the community’s own

vulnerability and capacity to withstand or recover from a disaster. A number of
initiatives are currently in place to assess community vulnerability. In the next section,
attention is given to certain initiatives regarding vulnerability assessment.

5. VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT
Little, if any, formal mechanisms exist that ensure annual vulnerability assessments.
The Disaster Management Act makes provision for these types of assessments and
requires that local and provincial governments give feedback annually on a variety
of issues relating to vulnerability assessment. Some of the existing initiatives are
discussed below.

5.1 Social development/poverty alleviation project

The Department of Social Development plays an integral part in the identification of
vulnerable communities as part of its social development/poverty alleviation pro-
gramme in the different provinces. The eradication of poverty and social integration are
emphasised. The programme has five basic tenets:

• Support for food security initiatives

• Provision and maintenance of support structures for those affected by HIV/Aids
• Creation of skills and employment opportunities to reduce the level of youth
criminality
• Support for income-generating activities for rural women
• Community-based child care that capitalises on the economic and social capabilities
of the aged

5.2 National Disaster Vulnerability Atlas

One of the biggest projects in vulnerability assessment at national level is the NDMC’s
development of a national disaster vulnerability atlas. This atlas is a web-enabled,
database-driven, interactive, vulnerability and risk assessment management system. It
enables all departments to capture data relating to vulnerabilities on one system for
easy access. The atlas will enable users to access ‘maps on the fly’ (i.e. creating maps
in real time using the most current data available), graphs, charts, drawings, and images
relating to a variety of risks, hazards and potential disastrous scenarios. Some features
of the vulnerability atlas are already available online (see http://sandmc.pwv.gov.za;
Sakulski, 2001; Safari2000, 2001).
562 J. Vermaak & D. van Niekerk

The initial focus of the vulnerability atlas is on floods and drought. The NDMC aims
to have all vulnerability data relating to floods, drought, extreme weather conditions,
fires, landslides, hazardous material spills and pollution, and other human-made
disasters included in the atlas. The main aim of the atlas is to provide all relevant
role-players with a one-stop website that provides all the data and information required.
This project will further ensure better coordination and help to prevent duplication
(Sakulski, 2001).

5.3 DiMP’s Mandisa Project

Universities, NGOs and private sector companies are also developing systems to assist
with risk and vulnerability assessment. An example is the Mandisa Project of the
University of Cape Town’s Disaster Mitigation for Sustainable Livelihood Programme
(DiMP). DiMP has developed a disaster risk information management system to track
and represent small, medium and large-scale disaster events in the Cape Town
Metropolitan Area. The objective is to provide a system that could identify trends and
vulnerabilities related to localised disaster incidents. The information gathered will be
made available on a website that will enable users such as emergency medical services,
fire and rescue, disaster management departments and city planning services to draw up
reports. The system is capable of capturing data relating to the:

• Disaster (type, date, declared, geographic information system (GIS) location through
a geographical map interface, photos, etc.)
• Triggering event (type, sub-type, duration, intensity)
• Contributing risk factors (environment, building infrastructure, service infrastructure,
siting/location, social/behavioural, management/organisational, climatic co-risk fac-
tors, emergency preparedness/response)
• Impacts (people, buildings, public infrastructure, humanitarian relief organisations)
• Reconstruction and recovery (buildings, public infrastructure, agriculture)

This system could potentially be implemented in other cities once the initial ground-
work and data collection are completed (Computer Week, 2001).

5.4 ITL-Sysman’s DRM

A Johannesburg-based software company specialising in emergency management
software, joined forces with the African Centre for Disaster Studies at the North-West
University (Potchefstroom Campus) and developed a generic all-inclusive risk, hazard
and vulnerability assessment tool. The software package, called DRM (Disaster Risk
Management), is a client-based application that uses qualitative formulae and scales to
rank and measure hazards and vulnerability. The software is generic in nature, allowing
for a wide variety of different hazards and vulnerabilities to be assessed. It has a GIS
output for easy viewing of maps. The system uses public domain information (e.g.
census data, street maps, 1:50 000 topographical maps and aerial photographs) as its
baseline information, which is supplemented by field research. Through the capturing
of hazard, vulnerability and capacity-related information, layers for the different maps
can be created. For instance, all settlements within fire-prone areas can be viewed, or
the location of fire stations and the area they can cover in a reasonable period of time.
The system further provides the user with a variety of different templates and reports
(e.g. disaster management plans) to facilitate the planning process.
 Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 563

5.5 CSIR Environmentek

CSIR Environmentek of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
provides technologies for environmental assessment and management, terrestrial re-
sources, forestry and forest products, water resource management, coastal development
and marine resources (CSIR, 2001b).

5.6 Working for Water Programme

The Working for Water Programme was launched in 1995 as a multi-departmental
public works programme, in an effort to tackle the problems of invasive alien plants
and of unemployment. There are currently 300 such projects in South Africa, spread
throughout the nine provinces. The programme aims to enhance water security,
improve ecological integrity, restore the productive potential of land, promote sustain-
able use of natural resources, and invest in the most marginalised sectors of the South
African society (DWAF, 2001).

5.7 Safari2000
Safari2000 is an international regional science initiative that has been developed for
southern Africa through the collaboration of southern African and North American
universities, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the
CSIR. It explores, studies and addresses linkages between land-atmosphere processes,
the relationship of biogenic, pyrogenic or anthropogenic emissions, and the conse-
quences of their deposition to the functioning of the biogeophysical and biogeochem-
ical systems of southern Africa. This initiative is being built around a number of
ongoing activities funded by NASA, the international community and African nations
in the southern African region (Safari2000, 2001).
The above said, the best risk assessment, hazard mapping and vulnerability assessment
will have a minute impact on any community if they are unaware of possible hazards
and their impact on the community’s own distinct way of life. Public awareness and
education play a paramount role in the reduction of risk.

6. PUBLIC AWARENESS
A considerable number of public awareness projects are currently under way in
different municipalities. In this section, some of these awareness campaigns are briefly
discussed.

6.1 Ukuvuka: Operation Firestop Campaign

One of the most active awareness campaigns is the Ukuvuka: Operation Firestop
Campaign in the Cape Town Metropolitan Area. The campaign was launched in
February 2000 as a result of the fires that destroyed almost 8 370 hectares of land along
Table Mountain in January of the same year. The campaign aims to reduce the risk of,
and danger from wildfires in the Cape Peninsula in at least three focus areas:
• The first target area is the land and its plants, where the aim is to control invading
alien plants and rehabilitate fire-damaged areas.
• The second key area concerns communities and individuals, by helping to create
employment, offering training and poverty relief for disadvantaged people, protect-
564 J. Vermaak & D. van Niekerk

ing the most vulnerable communities from fire, and promoting cooperation and social
cohesion between communities.
• Thirdly, institutions will be assisted to implement integrated fire management plans
and manage the urban edge.

The Ukuvuka Campaign has a four-year mandate to achieve its goals. The lessons
learned about effective biodiversity conservation linked to social delivery can be passed
on to other communities. Another aim of the campaign is to become a role model for
similar projects elsewhere in the country. Linked to this campaign is supplying
communities at risk with fire buckets, whistles and awareness posters. These posters
can be used as part of the construction of informal settlements, thus incorporating the
awareness message into the informal architecture (Pillay, 2001; Santam/Cape Argus,
2000).

6.2 Tshwane Metro Disaster Management Awareness Campaign

In other provinces in South Africa, various disaster awareness campaigns are also under
way. The Disaster Management department of Tshwane Metropolitan Council em-
barked on a campaign to create awareness among the urban community as to a variety
of urban risks, including informal settlement fires, spreading of diseases, floods,
extreme weather conditions, pollution and HIV/Aids. Information brochures were
placed in matchboxes and handed out in various communities. Bruwer & Fourie (2001)
note that a variety of other materials were also used, such as posters, fridge magnets,
computer mouse pads, and colouring-in competitions for primary schoolchildren
depicting various risks in the community.

6.3 EYE-SPY
The Western and Eastern Cape provinces jointly implemented the EYE-SPY awareness
campaign, which involves the distribution of ‘information boxes’. These boxes are
perfect squares, approximately the size of a matchbox, with round magnifying glasses
on two adjacent sides. Disaster risk information can be gained by peering through the
magnifying glass that enlarges the information printed on the opposite inside side of the
box. The information was depicted in picture format to cross language barriers (Reid,
2001).

6.4 Eastern Cape Disaster Awareness

The Eastern Cape province is in the process of proposing a further two programmes in
capacity building and community awareness. The first programme involves community
awareness aimed at communities at risk in rural areas, which will be channelled
through headmen, schools and the media. The strategy is to identify those communities
most at risk, and then to assess particular hazards and risks in each of them. Reid
(2001) indicates that a presentation package will be prepared, which directly addresses
specifics relating to risk and vulnerability. To disseminate the information amongst
schools a one-day teacher’s workshop will be arranged in view of channelling the
information to the parents via the schoolchildren. This will be linked to a school
competition. A further medium that will be used is local radio stations, where
well-known, credible personalities will interview knowledgeable individuals who can
speak the local vernacular.
 Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 565

The second programme is a capacity-building programme for functionaries in local

government that will empower them to initiate effective disaster management, planning
and organisation in their area of responsibility (Reid, 2001).

6.5 HIV/Aids awareness

A nationwide HIV/Aids awareness programme is currently in operation with the
assistance of the Department of Health. The programme is underpinned and supported
by a communication strategy, using print media, radio, television, leaflets, billboards
and mobile media, such as mini-bus taxis. An Aids toll free helpline provides advice,
education and support to callers. Communication strategies for reaching those who are
physically challenged have also been developed and continue to be improved.

7. DISASTER MANAGEMENT NETWORKS

7.1 Interdisciplinary and intersectoral partnerships
The nature of current policies in South Africa requires a considerable amount of
networking and intersectoral collaboration. Beside the structures listed in the following
section, a Training and Capacity Building Working Group (TCBWG) of the Interde-
partmental Disaster Management Committee was established at national level. The
main aim of the TCBWG is the comprehensive compilation of a framework for disaster
management training and capacity building. This framework should include all formal,
non-formal and capacity-building programmes (DPLG, 2001b). The TCBWG has also
developed standards for disaster management training through the Public Administra-
tion and Management Standards Generating Body (see http://www.jupmet.org.za/ti-
tles.htm). This is in keeping with the National Qualifications Framework and the
prescriptions of the South African Qualifications Authority. The TCBWG is also in the
process of bringing together different tertiary educational institutions and NGOs to
form a single national body for monitoring disaster management training and research.
The Disaster Management Institute of Southern Africa (DMISA) (see
www.disaster.co.za) is a professional body of disaster management practitioners within
the southern Africa region (DMISA, 2001). DMISA aims to promote disaster manage-
ment practice in southern Africa and to establish disaster management as a professional
field. Within DMISA, a Technical Training Board (TTB) has been established for the
accreditation and registration of disaster management offerings and service providers.
The TTB is also involved in community awareness and capacity building. It is
responsible for administering the training policy of DMISA and for making recommen-
dations regarding training to the executive committee (DMISA, 2001).

7.2 National institutional arrangements

After the June 1994 floods on the Cape Flats, the Cabinet resolved to assess South
Africa’s ability to deal with risks and disaster management. This resulted in the review
of disaster management structures and policies (South Africa, 1998b). In 1995, the
Cabinet recommended that a formal structure for disaster management be established.
It resolved that the Department of Constitutional Development (now the Department of
Provincial and Local Government), which administers the Civil Protection Act No. 67
of 1977, would serve as the focal point for disaster management in the interim. The
National Disaster Management Committee was subsequently established in 1996, with
the functions of coordinating and managing disaster management policy.
566 J. Vermaak & D. van Niekerk

This body never came into its own right and by mid-1997, the Cabinet approved the
formation of the Interministerial Committee for Disaster Management (IMC), thus
making the National Disaster Management Committee redundant (South Africa,
1998b). In August 1997, the IMC formed a Disaster Management Task Team with the
duty of tabling a Green Paper on disaster management for all spheres of government
– national, provincial and local. February 1998 saw the birth of the Green Paper on
Disaster Management, the first step in the establishment of formal disaster management
policy in South Africa.

In order to address South Africa’s immediate needs, an Interim Disaster Management

Centre (IDMC) consisting of ten different national departments was established in
1997. With the run-up to Y2K, the IDMC was converted to the National Disaster
Management Centre (NDMC). The NDMC has been operational since 1999. To ensure
better coordination between different government departments at national level, an
Interdepartmental Disaster Management Committee was established in 1999. This,
however, is an interim measure until such time as the statutory structures, contained in
the Disaster Management Act No. 52 of 2002, are fully functional.

The Disaster Management Act gives guidance as to the legal establishment of the
NDMC, the duties and powers of the national, provincial and local spheres of
government, and funding for post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation.

The Act makes provision for an Intergovernmental Committee on Disaster Manage-

ment. This committee will consist of Cabinet members involved in disaster manage-
ment, members of the Executive Councils in the nine provinces, and representatives of
organised local government. This committee will advise the Cabinet on issues relating
to disaster management in all spheres of government.

A further structure established by the Act is the National Disaster Management

Framework (NDMF). The NDMF will outline coherent, transparent and inclusive
policy on all aspects of disaster risk reduction, including training and capacity building.

Furthermore, the Act makes provision for a National Disaster Management Advisory
Forum (NDMAF). The NDMAF will consist of the head of the NDMC, representatives
from all provincial governments, representatives from all national departments that
form part of the Intergovernmental Committee on Disaster Management, representa-
tives from organised labour, community-based organisations, NGOs, and other experts
on disaster management designated by the Minister of Provincial and Local Govern-
ment.

The NDMC is responsible for not only the reduction of disaster risk and vulnerability,
but also disaster rehabilitation and recovery. Emphasis is also placed on the important
role of the NDMC in training, and in raising community awareness. Parallel to regional
trends, the NDMC and the IMC are actively involved in the initiative of the Southern
African Development Community (SADC) to establish a regional disaster management
coordinating body (Sakulski, 2001).

Considering the above, it appears that a large number of the statutory requirements and
institutions on disaster management will soon become fully operational. The Act,
however, is not the only piece of legislation or policy that contributes to the reduction
of risks and disasters. The next section focuses on the current policies and legislation
that govern disaster management in South Africa.
 Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 567

7.3 Review of policies and legislation

Until April 2004, disasters were managed under the auspices of the Civil Protection Act
No. 67 of 1977 and the Fund Raising Act No. 107 of 1978. Civil protection formerly
aimed at combating the consequences of terrorist activities against the privileged ruling
minority, and later an apparent paradigm shift from civil protection to disaster
management took place. In February 1998, the Green Paper on Disaster Management
was tabled. In January 1999, the White Paper on Disaster Management was published,
followed by the first Disaster Management Bill in May 2000, put out for public
comment. In the period following May 2000, the initial enthusiasm and momentum
evident in the government seemed to decline with the repeated postponements of the
tabling of the Bill.

The devastating floods in the southern African region in February/March 2000

reiterated the importance of disaster management policy and legislation. The second
house of Parliament, the National Council of Provinces, called for a disaster manage-
ment conference in May 2000 to investigate disaster prevention at a regional level.
After this conference, which was funded by USAID, the process regained momentum
and the Bill was finally tabled before Cabinet and subsequently approved in August
2001. After another delay, the Disaster Management Act No. 57 of 2002 was enacted
on 15 January 2003.

The aim of the Green Paper on Disaster Management was to ensure that an effective
disaster management system would be realised and implemented by way of national
policy reflected in the White Paper. The Green Paper process was designed to set a
conceptual framework for disaster management and risk reduction. In building on the
initial work in the Green Paper, the emphasis in the White Paper on Disaster
Management is clearly risk and disaster reduction, with a focus on regional and
international trends and development. Besides the major policy proposals contained in
the White Paper on Disaster Management, the development of joint standards and
practices across the SADC are also emphasised.

As a fairly well-established developing country, South Africa has for some years
enforced legislation pertaining to building codes and building within vulnerable areas.
The establishment of economically, physically, environmentally and socially integrated
and sustainable built environments is one of the most important factors that will
contribute to harnessing the full development potential of the country and addressing
the needs of its growing population. Recently, the CSIR published the Red Book, which
stipulates guidelines for planning and designing human settlements (CSIR, 2001a).
Increasingly, the planning and management of informal settlements are enjoying
attention at all levels of government.

7.4 Community involvement

The practice of using volunteers to perform disaster management functions is common
throughout South Africa. The Eastern Cape province, for instance, has over 8 000
registered volunteers who have received some form of training, be it first-aid or more
intensive courses, such as establishing early warning systems and managing joint
operation centres. The use of volunteers in other provinces is sadly lacking. The high
unemployment rate in South Africa contributes to the unwillingness of communities to
do voluntary work, as they expect some form of payment. Nevertheless, various
568 J. Vermaak & D. van Niekerk

successes have been achieved with the assistance of volunteers in communities

periodically affected by emergencies and disasters, such as seasonal flooding.
As the case study in section 9 shows, many communities have taken ownership of risk
reduction, vulnerability assessment and early warning. Moreover, the community
awareness campaigns are bearing fruit and there is a definite increase in the involve-
ment of communities in reducing risks and disasters. Formal structures for mobilising
communities are still, however, inadequate and are in need of urgent attention.

8. APPLICATION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

The need for, and access to spatial information in South Africa for use in decision
making, development planning and disaster reduction have inevitably led to discussions
on uncoordinated efforts, a lack of funding and expertise, and the unavailability of
quality standardised data. In many circles it has been recognised that a well-
coordinated, integrated and holistic model by means of GIS technology is a critically
useful approach to assist with the current problems surrounding disaster management
in South Africa. Such a model will help to address national growth and development
strategies; to comply with international protocols, treaties, conventions, agendas
(e.g. Agenda 21 – the convention on biodiversity, desertification and climate change)
and programmes in view of global sustainability; and to promote the national govern-
ment’s Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) framework. It could also
facilitate the storage, analysis and interpretation of geo-referenced information,
including maps.
This need has led to the creation of the Agricultural Geographic Information System
by the Department of Agriculture (2001). The project intends to structure a corporate
GIS for agriculture at a national and provincial level to such an extent that tasks are
coordinated and integrated as provincial, regional and national data sets, models and
decision support systems in order to ensure effective decision making.
Between the national Department of Agriculture, the provincial Departments of
Agriculture, the Agricultural Research Council (ARC, 2000) and other spatial infor-
mation providers, there is a wealth of information pertaining to agricultural and related
issues. However, this information is not readily accessible. This is because data are
retained as a power base; communication is unsatisfactory, resulting in role-players not
being aware of the information; and information is a non-standard or incompatible
format.
The ARC has further developed an early warning system that monitors hazards that
could impact on agricultural production. It is called the Umlindi system, from the
isiZulu word meaning ‘watchman’. This system attempts to inform decision makers of
prevailing drought conditions, fire risks and vegetation conditions based on interpreted
NOAA satellite data and climate data (Department of Agriculture, 2000).
As regards research, a number of different projects have been conducted addressing
various issues from food security, agriculture, sustainable development, and remote
sensing (Safari2000, 2001) to the psychological impact of disasters on communities.
Various universities and technikons are partners in these projects. Most of the
research conducted does not relate directly to the reduction of disasters per se, but
focuses on areas relating to disaster management and, in doing so, contributes to risk
reduction.
 Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 569

With such a considerable number of formal risk and disaster reduction initiatives
present, one could ask whether it is still necessary for communities to embark on risk
reduction. The following section sheds more light on the initiatives taken by communi-
ties in the Northern Province of South Africa following the devastating floods in
February 2000 that impacted on a number of southern African countries.

9. CASE STUDY
The heavy rains that fell throughout southern Africa during late January and early
February 2000 brought severe flooding to the south-eastern regions. Further to the
north, rivers filled to unprecedented levels. Reservoirs filled to maximum capacity,
released the excess and caused even greater damage to the southern parts. The flatlands
in the region flooded severely, submerging hundreds of square kilometres on neigh-
bouring land.
Considerable media attention was given to the devastating floods that occurred in
Mozambique and adjacent regions. Worldwide, television viewers could see the
destructive force of Cyclone Eline as it moved over the affected area. Although the
severity and extent of the consequences of disaster events are frequently discussed,
little attention is often given to the aftermath and post-disaster period, which requires
considerable adaptation by farming communities. Farmers in disaster-affected regions,
particularly the Nzhelele subsistence farmers, revealed considerable potential for
restoring their ecological balance. This case study provides practical insight, and aims
to extend the theoretical debate on disaster management and risk reduction as discussed
previously in section 2.
Indigenous knowledge is well established in the developing world and, as in the case
of Nzhelele in the Limpopo province (Figure 2), agricultural activities are an important
element of rural peoples’ lives. The Nzhelele farmers harvest fruit and vegetables such
as spinach, tomatoes and mangoes, and also farm with cattle.

Figure 2: Location map showing Nzhelele

570 J. Vermaak & D. van Niekerk

9.1 Case study methodology

The information on the impact of the 2000 floods on the Nzhelele farmers was gathered
from field visits to the area. These visits involved informal interviews with agricultural
producers and 28 subsistence farmers in Nzhelele. Informal interviews were also
conducted with road-side produce sellers, farm workers on large farms, and local
businesses operating in Nzhelele. Two translators were used. Furthermore, practical
observations were made, and newspaper articles and local radio broadcasts supple-
mented the data obtained from the interviews.

9.2 Consequences
Both direct and indirect consequences resulted from the flood disaster. Farmers were
directly affected by infrastructural damage, such as severe damage to roads, bridges,
building structures and telephone lines. Farmers also experienced damage to existing
irrigation structures (like water pipes and boreholes) and the loss of crops and
livestock. Excess mud caused blocked furrows and canals. Large-scale erosion occurred
on dirt and gravel roads and also on sensitive land. When the shores of dams and rivers
continued to swell, grazing land became scarce and dry firewood became more and
more difficult to find. Power failures occurred frequently and there was large-scale
damage to the root systems of crops.
These direct effects of the flood triggered additional indirect consequences that severely
hampered farmers’ ability to sustain their livelihoods. The large water pools created a
lush breeding ground for malaria and cholera, as well as other health-associated risks
such as bilharzia. Crops and livestock became susceptible to diseases and, due to the
continuing rain, they could not be sprayed and vaccinated. Relative to the impact on
other larger-scale farmers in the flood-affected region, the economic implications for
the Nzhelele subsistence farmers were dramatic.

9.3 Economic impact

Based on practical observations as well as the responses received from the intervie-
wees, the cost of farming increased substantially. The following factors were listed:
• Economic activity declined in the form of loss of labour hours and income for
temporary workers and farmers.
• Due to the condition of the roads in the region, petroleum and diesel could not be
delivered. As a result, farmers could not take their produce to markets, and auction
meetings could not be attended.
• Savings money was spent on repairing the damage.
• Food prices increased due to the shortage of fresh fruit and vegetables.
• Loans from banks, microlenders and financial schemes had to be repaid.
Farmers’ innovations in reaction to the consequences of the catastrophe were many and
varied, and resulted directly from the urgent need for flood relief to meet their basic
daily needs.

9.4 Initial relief

Like many other farmers in the region, the Nzhelele farmers had to confront the
challenge of seeking aid to rebuild the physical infrastructure on their farms, in their
villages, and the roads between villages and strategically situated larger towns. The
 Disaster risk reduction initiatives in South Africa 571

Nzhelele Farmers’ Association applied for funding from various agricultural unions,
but it was the financial assistance from churches that brought the much-needed
immediate relief. In addition, farmers applied for state and insurance finance, but
institutionalised finance and technical assistance could only be released after conditions
had stabilised. The South African government established a National Disaster Relief
Fund as a vehicle for administering and channelling national and international dona-
tions to severely affected farming communities, in particular. Military helicopters also
brought much-needed medical supplies, food and blankets to isolated farmers.

9.5 Farmers’ reaction

Farmers’ local knowledge and types of innovations were subject to a variety of factors,
such as experience, training and tradition. The planting season was brought to a
standstill and many farmers were forced to rethink planting and fertilising techniques
on their farms. This was a direct result of the increased degree of harvest risk
associated with the flooding circumstances. With the trace of the natural waters’ flow
clearly visible, many farmers took the initiative of amending and improving contours.
These forms of risk reduction were brought on as a direct result of the floods and, as
reactive mechanisms, farmers’ innovations became means to foster preventative mea-
sures. After the flood water levels declined, the Nzhelele subsistence farmers began
replanting.
Innovative reactions from farmers were facilitated by means of local and regional radio
broadcasts. During the flooding period, farmers regularly followed weather forecasts
each day and, by doing so, tried to predict when the rain would begin subsiding.
Farmers listened to radio stations in particular, as the frequent occurrence of power
failures made it difficult to watch television, and battery-operated radios are common
in Nzhelele. Some local and regional radio broadcasts helped farmers to form
partnerships across cultures, and interaction between innovators was thus facilitated.
Farmers’ interaction later proved to be a valuable asset, especially when they had to
assess their damage resulting from the flood.
Many other remarkable innovations resulted from inside and outside the local farming
villages to neutralise the negative effects of the flooding. Small-scale farmers and
commercial farmers alike demonstrated altruistic behaviour, for example rendering
assistance to emergency rescue operations with their own equipment (like generators
and vehicles), providing food and blankets to their workers, and bringing mobile
phones to people. In some cases, repayment periods were reconsidered upon farmers’
requests.
To spare farm workers long trips by taxi or bus, some farmers erected tents for
temporary accommodation. This was much needed, as even the alternative routes
became hardly accessible for normal vehicles. Some of the Nzhelele farmers succeeded
in constructing a temporary bridge from logs in an effort to provide at least a pedestrian
crossing over one of the damaged bridges. Farmers also repaired some important access
roads and removed mud from canals and furrows.

9.6 Disaster risk reduction

The case study did find that the theoretical perspectives of disaster risk reduction
described in section 2 are useful to (potentially) reduce the effects of a flood disaster.
However, the resource poor farmers in the study site revealed that indigenous
572 J. Vermaak & D. van Niekerk

knowledge is mobilised or transformed into risk reduction efforts for the local
community. Farmers experimented with the following innovations or risk reduction
behaviour in order to build on their existing knowledge:

• Planting early
• Ploughing deep
• Applying strip cropping
• Modifying channels
• Stabilising river banks
• Broadening the variety of vegetable crops planted
• Using nutshell and grass mulch

In addition, some farmers used sandbags to break water speed and deflect water away
from crops. New canals, contour steps and floodwalls were built in an effort to prevent
further negative consequences. Various specific preventative measures were employed
to reduce the effects of a possible flood during the next rainy season. Farmers were able
to detect high-risk areas, and the post-flooding period revealed that even inexperienced
small farmers planted crops in precautionary ways. Some farmers began to plant trees
and grass to protect the topsoil and to combat future erosion. Livestock farmers
transferred their livestock to lesser-effected camps and started with early vaccination
before the next rainy season.

The extent of the flooding disaster re-emphasised the need to avoid overgrazing and to
protect natural vegetation. This will improve farmers’ resilience and also their chances
to recover and sustain their livelihoods. The value of farmers’ innovation in risk
reduction lies in the learning experience gained.

10. CONCLUSION
The importance of proper risk reduction cannot be overemphasised. This article
explains the government, private as well as informal measures for reducing risks in
communities. It is clear that the government has an important role to play in the
assessment of risks and vulnerability, and the planning for possible disasters. Because
disaster risk reduction as defined in section 2 does not precisely fit the actions of
farmers in Nzhelele’s case, it is instructive to explore both disaster risk reduction
theory and community development practice. The importance of indigenous knowledge
should also not be underestimated, as the Nzhelele community has clearly shown.
Africa should learn from Africa. Although good in their own right, risk reduction
models cannot be successfully implemented in communities that do not understand (or
foresee) the hazards affecting them. Together, the modern and the traditional risk
reduction initiatives can, and will deter the adverse effects of disaster on communities
most at risk.

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