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Programmed Instruction Handbook Eddy Current
Programmed Instruction Handbook Eddy Current
SECOND EDITION
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
eddy current
m•N•RAL DVNAMICll
Com,air Division
Pl-4-5
SECOND EDITION
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
eddy current
Copyright @ 1980
GENERAL DYNAMICS
Convair Division
first printing 1983
second printing 02/88
third printing 09/89
fourth printing 02/91
fifth printing 03/94
sixth printing 03/97
seventh printing 02/01
eighth printing 04/06
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface v
Acknowledgements v1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vm
1
Factors Affecting Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-34
Effect of Conductive Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-38
Dimensional Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-48
Discontinuities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-51
Edge Effect 2-54
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-58
ii
Chapter 5 - Impedance-Plane Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1
Self-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1
Glossary B-1
iii
PREFACE
This Second Edition of Pl-4-5 is a total revision of the earlier edition. As was
the case with the earlier issue, several years of use in hundreds of training
situations has produced many recommendations for changes and improve-
ments. All such recommendations were carefully screened and where they fell
within the scope of coverage and where it was felt they would improve the
teachability or understanding of the subject matter, they were incorporated.
The material has been further expanded to cover the recent developments in
eddy current testing.
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Vl
INTRODUCTION
During the past two decades eddy current testing has developed into one of
the important nondestructive testing tools and its use is still growing. Inspec-
tion with eddy currents is used to identify or differentiate between a wide
variety of physical, structural, and metallurgical conditions in electrically con-
ductive material.
In this handbook you will learn what eddy currents are, how they are introduced
into an article being inspected, and how they are affected by the physical, struc-
tural, and metallurgical conditions in the material. You will also learn how these
effects are sensed and interpreted.
When you have completed this handbook you should be ready for practical
demonstration sessions and on-the-job training that will eventually qualify
you as an eddy current test technician.
Do not rush through the book. Take whatever time you need to get the most
from the material presented. Depending on your background knowledge,
reading speed, etc., the reading time it takes to complete this book may vary
from 4 hours to 12 hours or more.
At the back of the book is a set of self-test questions that will help you in
evaluating your newly-gained knowledge. Also included is a glossary of terms
relating to eddy current testing.
vii
INSTRUCTIONS
On many pages you will be faced with a choice. For instance, you may find a
statement or question at the bottom of the page together with two or more
possible answers. Each answer will indicate a page number. You should
choose the answer you think is correct and turn to the indicated page. That
page will contain further instructions.
As you progress through the book, ignore the back of each page. THEY ARE
PRINTED UPSIDE DOWN. You will be instructed when to turn the book
around and read the upside-down pages.
As you will soon see, it's very simple - just follow instructions.
viii
1-1
The word "electromagnetic" simply means that electricity and magnetism are
used. "Induction" is a form of the word "induce" which means "to bring
about" or "cause." In fact, the flow of electricity, under certain cir-
cumstances, can cause magnetism; and magnetism, under certain cir-
cumstances, can cause the flow of electricity.
By the year 1820 scientists had discovered that when current from a battery
was sent through a coil of wire that a magnetic field was set up in the coil. The
magnetic field was present only during the time the current flowed through
the coil. They had discovered how to use electricity to make magnetism and
they thought that somehow magnetism could be used to make electricity.
Some 12 years later, in 1832, a man named Faraday was experimenting with
some coils of wire and a battery. He noticed that when he connected one coil to
the battery he got an electrical current through a second coil, placed near the
first, for just an instant. He also found that when he disconnected the battery
that he got an electrical current through the second coil for just an instant;
but, he noticed, the second current was in the opposite direction of the first
current.
He knew that somehow the two coils were affecting each other. The first coil
was inducing a current in the second coil, but only when he turned the battery
on and off. He reasoned that the magnetic field could be the coupling between
two coils. But since the currents occured only when the battery was turned on
and off, it could only be the change in the magnetic field that caused the cur-
rent to flow in the second coil.
We think you may have been a little hasty in selecting this answer. The state-
ment "Electromagnetic induction is the name given to the effect one current
carrying coil has on another" (your selection) is true in its fashion but it is far
from being complete.
You will recall that electromagnetic means that electricity and magnetism are
involved. The answer you selected mentioned only electricity (i.e., current).
We think you may have been a little hasty in selecting this answer. The state-
ment "Electromagnetic induction is the name given to the coupling of two
coils by a changing magnetic filed" (your answer) is true in its fashion but it is
far from being complete.
You will recall that electromagnetic means that electricity and magnetism are
involved. The answer you selected mentioned only magnetism (i.e., changing
magnetic field).
Excellent! Of the three choices given, this was the best one to describe electro-
magnetic induction.
The next logical step was to make different changes in the set up and see what
effect they had. For example:
We won't, at this point, go into the effect that each of these variables had on
the amount of current that was induced in the secondary coil. It is enough to
say that each and all of these variables had an effect on the current induced in
the secondary coil. It changed - in one way or another.
Right! The current in the secondary coil is a variable. Variables are anything
that can be changed or that are changed as a result of other changes.
Now that we have established what a variable is, let's get on with electromag-
netic induction. We have described how Faraday was able to produce an elec-
trical current in a secondary coil by changing the magnetic field surrounding a
primary coil. Faraday reasoned that the current was produced by the change
in the magnetic field and not by the simple presence of the field. In other
words, so long as the magnetic field in the primary winding did not vary (was
held constant) no electrical current was induced in the secondary coil. Thus,
utilizing the theory of a magnetic field, current was induced only when the
lines of force of the magnetic field moved past the coil. Here is an illustration
of that theory.
BUILDING FIELD COLLAPSING FIELD
,;,=.---,
{,. \\
r.11\
11
11
I) JI
&~)'
\ LINES OF FORCE
Now, if this were true, as it appeared to be, then it should be possible to induce
a current by moving a coil through a magnetic field.
Do you agree?
You believe that the statement "the current in the secondary coil is a
variable" is false. We're sorry but the statement is true.
Were going to assume that you know that "variable" means "subject to
change."
Since the amount of current in the secondary coil can be changed by varying
any one of several factors (number of turns, distance between coils, etc.), the
current is then, itself, a variable.
Good, we both agree. And so it proved out. A coil of wire was placed in the
open end of a horseshoe magnet and given a spin; electricity was induced in
the coil.
COIL
AXIS OF ROTATION
MAGNETIC FIELD
(LINES OF FORCE)
But the current induced did not travel in the same direction through the coil
at all times, nor was it of a constant value. This situation required analysis.
The analysis of the current being produced showed that the current started
out at zero, rose to a maximum value in one direction, returned to zero, rose to
a maximum value in the opposite direction, and returned to zero in one com-
plete revolution of the coil. All of this could be explained by the theory of elec-
tromagnetic induction.
Let's go back and examine what might happen when a single wire is moved
through a magnetic field. CURRENT ~
///.,__ WIRE
MOVEMENT
The wire, shown here being moved downward through the magnetic field, has
a current induced in it as it passes through the lines of force. Suppose that the
lines of force are thought of as having a direction from the north pole to the
south pole, and suppose the current induced in the wire travels away from you
as you look at the diagram above.
Now, what do you suppose might happen when we move the wire back
(upwards) through the magnetic field?
The direction of the current through the wire will change Page 1-10
The direction of the current through the wire will
remain the same . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 1-11
From page 1-6 1-9
You do not agree with the statement "If it is true that a current is induced
when a magnetic field moves past a coil, then it should be possible to induce a
current by moving a coil through a magnetic field. "
Look at it this way. The· induction of the electric current into a coil is due to
the relative motion between the magnetic field and the coil. It makes no dif-
ference whether the magnetic field is expanding and contracting past the coil
or whether the coil is moving through the magnetic field. The relative motion
is the same. Thus, a current is induced in the coil in either case.
You supposed correctly! The direction of the current will change when the
direction of the movement of the wire is changed. There is a rule for determin-
ing the direction of the current induced in the wire but you will not have any
need for it in Eddy Current testing so we will not bother to learn it. It is suffi-
cient that you know that there are three ways to cause the current to change
direction in the wire. First, you could change the direction of the magnetic
field (difficult to do in a permanent magnet); second, you could change the
direction that the wire is moving through the field; or third, you could swap
ends with the wire (which is exactly what happens when a coil is rotated in a
magnetic field).
Let's bend the wire into a "U" shape, insert it into the magnetic field, and
rotate it around the axis as shown so that the segment of wire A-Bis coming
down through the field while segment C-D is coming up through the field.
Remember the building and collapsing magnetic fields? The current induced
went in one direction when the field was building and in the opposite direction
when the field was collapsing. We could expect the same effect if we passed
the wire in one direction through the field and then in the other direction -
the current would change its direction through the wire.
You selected the wrong answer, but getting the right answer requires some
detailed thinking. Let's look at the setup once more.
Do you understand how the U-shaped wire is rotating? Segment A·B is mov-
ing down through the field while segment C-D is moving up through the field.
We have just learned that the current in these segments will have to travel in
opposite directions. So let's assume that the current in the top segment is
going from A to B; then the current in the bottom segment is going in the
opposite direction, or, as shown on the diagram, from C to D.
Now, since the two segments are joined at one end by wire segment B-C, the
current path is A to B to C to D. See it?
So the two currents would be aiding each other and therefore would be added
together.
That's absolutely right! The current through the segment C-D is added to the
current through A-B so that we have current flow now from A to D (in that
direction).
Now, let's keep rotating the wire until the segment D-C is coming down
through the field and segment A-Bis moving up. The current in segment D-C
is flowing from D towards C.
Be careful! Remember - in the setup we've shown, the direction of the cur-
rent in the segment depends on the direction that the segment is traveling.
We've told you that segment D-C is moving downward through the field and
that the current is flowing from D to C.
If you understood the way the U-shaped wire is rotating around the axis, it
must follow that segment A-Bis moving upwards through the field and the
current is flowing from B to A (in the opposite direction as it was in segment
D-C).
True! The current in that segment is flowing from B towards A. And since the
current in the other segment was flowing from D to C, we now have a current
in the wire from D to A.
In the first instance the current flowed through the wire from A to D; and in
the second instance the current flowed through the wire from D to A. Imagine
that the wire is wrapped to form several loops and then spun on its axis in the
magnetic field. Can you now see that the current through the loop will change
directions at every half-turn that the coil makes as it rotates? If not, study the
diagrams again to see if you missed anything.
Now that you understand why the current changes direction, we have to see
when. But first, let's figure out how often it changes direction. (There's a clue
in the preceding paragraph.)
You have just completed the programmed instruction course on Eddy Current
Testing.
Now you may want to evaluate your knowledge of the material presented in
this handbook. A set of self-test questions are included at the back of the
book. The answers can be found at the end of the test.
We want to emphasize that the test is for your own evaluation of your
knowledge of the subject. If you elect to take the test, be honest with yourself
- don't refer to the answers until you have finished.Then you will have a
meaningful measure of your knowledge.
Since it is a self evaluation, there is no passing score. If you find that you have
trouble in some part of the test, it is up to you to review the material until you
are satisfied that you know it.
Turn or rotate the book 180° and flip to page A-1 at the back.
From page 1-15 1-16
Your choice was excellent. The current does change direction after 180 ° of coil
rotation. Now let's see exactly when the change occurs.
Here we show a coil in a position where the plane of the coil is across the
magnetic lines of force. Notice that, as the coil moves, the top windings and
the bottom windings are moving in a direction that is parallel to the lines of
force. Since the direction of movement is parallel to the lines of force, no lines
of force are being crossed - therefore, no current is being induced in the coil.
In this view, the coil has rotated 90°. It now lies parallel to the lines of force
but the movement of the coil sides is perpendicular to the lines of force. At
this point, as the coil turns, it is passing through (or crossing) the maximum
number of magnetic lines of force.
You would expect then that the current induced in the coil as it passes
through this point would be at a ...
4. frequency
•
Return to page 6-24,
frame 6.
9. data
•
Return to page 6-24,
frame 11.
14. natural,
artificial
•
Return to page 6-24,
frame 16.
19. nonconductive
'
From page 1-15 1-17
You think that the current changes direction in the coil after 360 ° rotation of
the coil. In a way you are right - but not completely. The current does change
direction after 360° of travel but it also changes direction after only 180° of
travel.
In view A the current flows from A to D while in view B the current flows from
D to A. The current has reversed direction, right?
Now - the U-shaped wire has been rotated turn about the axis in getting
112
from the position shown in view A to the position shown in view B. Since 112
turn about the axis is equal to 180° of rotation, it follows that the current
changes direction every 180° of rotation of the U-shaped wire.
3. depth of penetration
8. reference standard
•
9. In eddy current testing, the most useful test data is obtained by compar-
ing the data from an item under test with the-~· obtained from a
reference standard.
13. test
•
14. The two types of discontinuitystandards are n and -----
a
18. artificial
•
19. Lift-off standards are made from material.
•
From page 1-16 1-18
You expect the current induced in the coil to be at a minimum when the coil is
parallel to the magnetic lines of force. You have missed a very important concept.
Current is induced in a coil only when the coil is cutting across the magnetic
lines of force. By "cutting across" we mean that the motion of the coil is such
that the wires in the coil pass through the magnetic field in some direction
that is not parallel to the lines of force. The more lines that are being cut in a
given period of time, the more current induced.
Look at the illustration again. Can you see that as the coil rotates through this
position it is cutting across the maximum number of lines of force? Then,
since the maximum number of lines of force are being cut, the current induced
is at a maximum.
2. standards
3. Even though the presence of a crack will effect the reading on a conduc-
tivity tester, the tester cannot be used as a crack detector because the
d of p cannot be controlled.
7. lift-off
•
8. In using any eddy current instrument the instrument must be calibrated
with a before conducting any tests .
12. IACS
•
13. An ideal discontinuity standard duplicates the situation as closely
as possible.
17. acceptability
•
18. Discontinuities which are machined into an article which has no natural
discontinuities are called discontinuities.
•
From page 1-16 1-19
It's maximum - You're right on the button. At the moment the plane of the
coil is parallel to the lines of force the coil is crossing the maximum number of
magnetic lines of force - therefore, the current induced in the coil is at the
maximum.
Now, let's draw a graph so that we can visualize what is happening to the cur-
rent as the coil rotates.
®
~XE
:-rr
~I I
90°
-----,-----
I
I _____
270
I
I
I
0
_
360°
I
I
~Iut I
I I
--'
MAX- 0°
I
900 180° 270° 360°
COi L POSITION
The instant the coil is at position A (0 °) the current is zero; the instant the coil
is at position B (90° of rotation) the current is maximum in one direction; at
position C (180° of rotation) the current is zero; at position D (270° of rotation)
the current is maximum in the opposite direction; and at position E (360° of
rotation) the current is back at zero. The curve that results from this plotting
of current values against coil position is called a sine wave.
Now, looking at the sine wave, you can see that the current reaches its max-
imum value in either direction at coil positions of ...
1. False
6. frequency
(depth of penetration)
•
7. By varying the frequency of operation of a crack detector we can suppress
the effect of ------
11. sensitivity
•
12. Commerciallyprepared conductivity standards have a value stamped on
them. This value represents the conductivity of the block in %
-----
16. accumulated
•
1 7. A reference standard should have at least one discontinuity that is at the
limit of a
---------~
•
From page 1-19 1-20
~XE
:-rr
~I
w I
90°
I
-----,-----
_____
270°
I
I
I _
360°
I
I
~10
u
I
I I
I
I
I I
0 0
MAX-0 900 180 270° 360°
COi L POSITION
Let's take a closer look at the graph of the sine wave. Notice that the zero posi-
tion of the current is in the middle of the graph. The upper portion (above the
zero line) gives values of current in one direction while the lower portion
(below the zero line) gives current values in the opposite direction.
Thus, the graph shows that the maximum current in one direction occurs at
90° of coil rotation and the maximum current in the other direction occurs at
270 ° of coil rotation. Do you see it?
5. True
•
6. Before any instrument can be used to detect discontinuities it must have
some means of controlling the
---------
10. limits
•
11. A reference standard may also be used to make sure that the test equip-
ment provides consistant sen each time the equipment
is used.
15. developed
•
16. A sample which contains a discontinuity that developed during the
manufacturing process is an example of an _
reference standard.
•
From page 1-19 1-21
Your eyesight is excellent. The current is at its maximum value in one direc-
tion at 90° and at its maximum value in the other direction at 270°.
.r
MAX+
I
~I I
/1 I
I _
I
-----,----- -----1
~ ol I
u I I
~
--'
MAX-0
0
I
000 180° 270° 360°
COi L POSITION
You will, as we progress, run into such statements as "the voltage lags behind
the current in time by 15°." It is by virtue of the relationship between the
rotating coil and time elapsed that we can measure time in degrees.
You feel that the lift-off standard has to be constructed from the same
material as was used for the coating of the article. This is incorrect.
The firm requirement for a lift-off standard is that the thickness of the non-
conductive material be known. It is the thickness that determines the
measurement of the amount of lift-off.
1. The next few pages are different from the ones that you have been reading.
There are arrows on this page. (Write in the correct number of
arrows.) Do not read the frames below. FOLLOW THE ARROW and turn
to the TOP of the next page. There you will find the correct word for the
blank line above. •
4. changing
8. magnetic field
1-- !
MAX+~ I
ffi T I
~i~ MAX - o
0
I
90
o
I
180
o o
270
I
360
o
•
rotates through 360°.
13. The current induced in a coil rotating in a magnetic field is maximum when
the coil is passing through the maximum number of magnetic lines of
force. Maximum current, then, is induced at coil positions of __ 0 and
0
From page 6-21 6-22
You are so right. The firm requirement for constructing lift-off standards is
that the thickness of those standards be known.
Standards are also used in another way. If, after the equipment has been
calibrated to the standard, the electrical characteristics of the test set have
been inadvertantly changed, the test results will not be accurate. For this
reason it is wise to recheck the equipment against the reference standard
whenever an unexpected result is obtained in order to be assured that the
cause of the unexpected reading is not due to a fault in the equipment.
5. electromagnetic
induction
6. When we say that the spacing between coils is a "variable" we mean that
the spacing between coils is subject to =ch=-----
9. direction
10. The current induced in a coil rotating in a magnetic field is zero when the
plane of the coil is across the m f
----
~;~ MAX-
0
o
I
90
o
I
180
o o
270
I
360
o
14. Time may be measured in degrees. In the diagram of the sine wave the 90°
point represents the time it takes for the coil to rotate __ 0• •
From page 6-19 6-21
Good choice. The reference standard should have discontinuities that repre-
sent the limit of acceptability.
When external comparison techniques are being used, the standard under the
reference coil should represent perfection for that article. It must be free of
discontinuities. However, even then, the limits of acceptability must be
established by placing a reference standard containing the required discon-
tinuity under the test coil to obtain a reading that represents the limit of
acceptability.
Since lift-off amounts to having a nonconductive space between the test coil
and the article, lift-off standards are easy to construct. The application of a
known thickness of any nonconductive material to a sample of the material
under test will constitute a lift-off standard. Paper, mylar, and cellophane are
examples of nonconductive materials often used.
The firm requirement for the lift-off standards we construct is that ...
2. frame
6. change
11. When the rotating coil reaches a position so that the plane of the coil is
E. to the magnetic lines of force, the current induced is at the
maximum value.
14. 90
15. 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, and 360° are all measurements of when
considering a coil rotating in a magnetic field.
From page 6-19 6-20
You felt that the fabricated discontinuity should be greater than the limit of
acceptability. This is incorrect.
You must keep in mind that the reference standard is most often used to
establish limits of acceptability so that we can record its effect on the test set.
Once the reading of the acceptability limit is taken and recorded, any reading
taken on the test items that exceeds this reading is cause for further
investigation.
7. variable
11. parallel I ~ t
~ 0
a t
MAX - a a a a a
0 90 180 270 360
12. The current output from a coil rotating in a magnetic field is in the form of
a sine wave. The sine wave shows that the current is at a maximum at 90 °
and 270°; and at a minimum at_0, 0,
an.d 0•
15. time
You are right. The reading on the instrument that we obtain when the test coil
is placed over the crack that is at the limit of acceptability is the highest
reading that we can get and still accept the article we are testing.
Artificial discontinuity standards are standards that are prepared in the shop
by machining artificial discontinuities into an article that has no natural
discontinuities. Several samples may have to be run through the inspection
system to find one that does not produce any appreciable indications of
natural discontinuities.
Once such a sample is located, standard reference discontinuities that are per-
tinent to the required specification are then fabricated into the sample. Types
of standard reference discontinuities used to simulate natural discontinuities
are longitudinal notches, circumferential notches, drilled holes, file cuts, pits,
diameter steps, and indentations.
So far we have shown you the current generated as a coil makes one revolution
in a magnetic field. What we have shown you is one cycle of current. An alter-
nating current generator, of course, does not stop after one revolution. As the
coil continues to rotate through additional revolutions, the generator puts out
more cycles of current; each cycle corresponding to one revolution of the coil.
The number of current cycles put out by the generator in one second is called
the frequency of the alternating current. The usual household alternating cur-
rent, for example, has a frequency of 60 cycles per second.
The term Hertz (abbreviated Hz) is the term that is used instead of cycles per
second. Household current, then, is at 60 Hertz. In eddy current testing we
often use frequencies as high as six meggahertz (MHz) which is six million
cycles per second.
Your thinking is a little askew. Let's see if we can set you straight.
We have a crack that is at the limit of acceptability. This means that we will
reject anything that has a crack that is bigger than this one.
Then, if we place the test probe over this crack we will obtain a meter reading
that identifies the limit of acceptability. During subsequent tests any reading
on the instrument that is higher than the reading we established from the
reference standard is cause for further investigation.
Now that we know what happens when a coil is rotating in a magnetic field,
let's go back and look at electromagnetic induction between two coils; but
instead of using a battery, we will supply the primary coil with a source of
alternating current.
AC PRIMARY SECONDARY
SOURCE COIL COIL
The alternating current from the power source is in the form of the sine wave
that was generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field. The important point
is that the current in the primary coil is constantly varying. It goes from zero
to maximum and back to zero in one direction and then to maximum and back
to zero in the opposite direction.
Since the current in the primary coil is constantly varying, what is happening
to the magnetic field produced by the primary coil?
That is correct! The magnetic field in the primary coil is varying in exactly the
same manner as the current. We now have a situation where the magnetic
field is building up in one direction, collapsing, building up in the opposite
direction, collapsing, and so on. Since this field intercepts the secondary coil, a
current is constantly being induced in the secondary coil because the lines of
force are cutting across the wires forming the secondary coil.
r;:-..."'"
{,.\ \\
rrl I !
0
r>
::, 1·
) 11
~;;;,
P,)I
',\c".,
In order for the secondary coil to carry the current, it must be made of a material
that will conduct electricity - for example, no current would be induced in a coil
made of cotton string since cotton is not a conductor of electricity.
In general, metals are the best conductors of electricity but there is a dif-
ference in conductivity even between metals. Silver has the best conductivity
of all the metals while titanium has the lowest conductivity. This means that
silver has less resistance to the flow of electricity than titanium.
In your opinion, would the conductivity of the material in the secondary coil
have any effect on the amount of current induced in it by the primary coil?
LOCATION OF
INDUCED FATIGUE SMALLSLOTTOINDUCE
CRACK FATIGUE AT THIS POINT
0 0 0
FATIGUE SPECIMEN
MACHINE TO LEAVE
CRACK ON SURFACE
At least one of the cracks in the reference standard should be at the limit of
acceptability.
You felt that the magnetic field caused by the alternating current through the
primary coil would be canceled out because the current reversed direction.
It is true that the field changes direction and therefore could be thought of as
cancelling the original field but, to be sure that you understand, the idea that
we are emphasizing here is that during a span of time the magnetic field caused
by the alternating current is varying just as the current is varying.
When alternating current is applied to the primary coil the magnetic field,
over a period of time, goes from zero to a maximum and back to zero in one
direction, then goes to maximum and back to zero in the opposite direction.
The magnetic field is constantly varying just as the current is varying.
No! The fact that both the test piece and the reference standard are both
made from copper is no guarantee that they are both the same type of
material.
Both may look alike but one may be an alloy of copper and some other metal.
In order for us to know that they are exactly the same material we should
check the conductivity of each. If they both have the same conductivity then
we know they are made from the same material.
Of course, if we have some other reason for knowing that they are made from
the same material we won't have to check the conductivity.
Yes, the amount of current induced in the secondary coil is affected by the
conductivity of the material in the secondary coil. A higher conductivity
allows more current to be induced than a lower conductivity. This is an impor-
tant point to remember in eddy current testing.
Now let's look at another point of extreme importance in eddy current testing.
Let's see what occurs when an alternating current is applied to a coil.
900 180° 270° 360°
/
/
/
/
,,,,"'
MAX - ·o
0 90° 180° 270° 360°
If we connect a voltmeter to measure the voltage across the coil and put an
ammeter in the circuit to measure the current and then plot the instantaneous
readings of the instruments on a graph, we find that the voltage rises to a
maximum before any current begins to flow. Then, while the voltage is
decreasing to zero, the current is increasing to a maximum as shown on the
graph above.
The graph shows that the current lags behind the voltage by 90°.
Very good! You seem to have realized that, though two pieces of material may
look alike, the test of whether they are alike is to measure their respective con-
ductivities. If their conductivities are the same they are made of the same
type of material.
The material in the standard, then, must be of the same type as the material to
be tested.
The reason that the geometry of the standard should be the same as the
geometry of the test articles is fairly obvious for pieces that have exotic
shapes. Geometry is also very important for thin pieces since thickness in
those ranges has such an effect on the results. As you shall see, obtaining
samples of test articles for use as reference standards is not a great problem.
Discontinuity standards fall under two types - natural and artificial - depend-
ing on their source.
Here we show two batteries hooked up to light bulbs. The batteries and bulbs
are identical; the difference between the two circuits is the type of material
used in the hookup wiring.
I I I/
I"<~ . . _.
- -'- -
IRON COPPER
WIRE WIRE
,,,' 11 ,, ,
I I \'
Copper wire has a better conductivity (less resistance to current flow)than the
iron wire, therefore the lamp will burn brighter in the circuit with the copper
wire. The brighter lamp indicates that more current is flowing through that
circuit.
From this we can conclude that the type of material does have an effect on the
amount of current that will flow in a circuit. Conductivity is the cause of this
effect.
Your selection is correct. Since the "high" block has 101.0 stamped on it you
know that the conductivity of that block is exactly 101 % IACS. If the meter is
adjusted to read 101% when the test coil is placed on that block then the
"high" end of the meter is calibrated.
The next step, you will recall, is to calibrate the meter so that the low end of
the meter will read the value stamped on the "low" block. In this case, 13.5%.
After these two steps have been accomplished the meter has been fully
calibrated and is ready for use in the test situation.
Calibration blocks are also available in the mid-range - 25 to 50% IACS - for
use with aluminum alloys.
This means that if copper pipe is to be tested that a sample of copper pipe can
be used as a standard provided that the sample and the material to be tested ...
Excellent! From the chart you can see that the current through the coil lags
behind the voltage by 90 °.
To show why this occurs let's look for a moment at a coil with one turn slightly
separated from the rest of the coil and consider what is happening in the coil
when ac is applied to it.
Here we show one turn of the coil separated from the other turns. The alter-
nating current through that one turn produces a constantly varying magnetic
field that cuts across all of the other turns in the coil thereby inducing a cur-
rent in each of the other turns of the coil. This self-induced current opposes
the original current in part of the cycle and aids the original current in another
part of the cycle so that the net effect is that the resultant current is shifted
out of phase with the voltage. (It is delayed in time).
In the same manner, every turn in the coil induces the same effect in every
other turn. The overall effect is that the current through the coil lags behind
the voltage by 90°. This effect that causes the current to lag behind the
voltage is called inductive reactance.
Be careful! The value stamped on the "high" block was 101 % not 100%.
If you adjust the conductivity tester to read 100% while the test probe is on a
piece of metal that is known to have a conductivity value of 101 % you will
introduce an error into all subsequent readings of conductivity.
The conductivity tester is always adjusted to read the value stamped on the
block when calibrating the instrument.
You have selected the answer that indicates that you do not understand the
graph.
0 0
360°
180
I
..•.. , 270
''
',
' /
/
/
/
//
MAX - "o
0 90° 180° 270° 360°
Here's the graph again. Note the sine wave marked "voltage." The graph
shows that the voltage is zero at 0°, maximum at 90°, zero again at 180°, max-
imum in the opposite direction at 270°, and zero at 360°.
Now, look at the sine wave marked "current." See how the current is zero at
90°, maximum at 180°, zero again at 270°, and maximum at 360°.
See how the voltage is at its maximum 90° before the current is at its maximum?
Thus we say that the voltage across a coil is 90° ahead of the current, or, con-
versely, the current lags behind the voltage by 90°.
In eddy current testing, standards are most often manufactured at the test
site to fit a particular test situation. However, commercially prepared conduc-
tivity standards are available and are usually supplied with conductivity
measuring instruments.
101.0% 13.5%
HIGH LOW
With the test probe of the conductivity tester placed on the conductivity
standard representing the high level of conductivity, the tester is adjusted so
that the tester reads exactly ...
You may have been a little hasty in making this selection. Stop and think for a
moment.
1
0
!
/
/
/
/
,,/
MAX- "o
0 90° 180° 270° 360°
You must remember that the sine wave showed us the relationships of things
occuring over a span of time. In the plot of current and voltage shown above,
the maximum voltage occurs at 90 ° and 270° and the maximum current
occurs 90 ° later (at 180° and 360°) because of inductive reactance.
Study the sine waves until you are sure you understand this relationship, then
proceed to page 1-35.
From page 6-8 6-10
That is correct! Once the instrument has been calibrated to the reference
standard any adjustment of the frequency and scale controls will upset the
calibration and invalidate the test results.
Some discontinuity testers are also equipped with light and buzzer systems
which may be preset to alert the operator to any readings which exceed the
values established by the readings taken on the reference standard. Refer to
the manufacturer's handbook for the procedure to set these alarms.
The operation of more advanced test equipment, such as resistance and induc-
tive reactance measuring testers and such testers as use CRT and strip-chart
recorders, are of such complexity that an explanation of how they are
operated is better left to labs where the equipment is available.
STANDARDS
Very good. Apparently you understand the time relationship involved when
we say that in a purely inductive circuit the current lags behind the voltage by
90° because of inductive reactance.
Now let's take a look at another factor that affects the flow of current through
a circuit.
3 AMPERES
A
BATTERY COIL
RESISTANCE
As soon as the direct current through the coil reaches its maximum value
there is no inductive reactance from the coil and the only factor opposing the
flow of current is the resistance of the wire.
We can compute the amount of resistance in the circuit from Ohm's Law
which states that the resistance (R) in a circuit is equal to the voltage (V)
divided by the current (I). Since we know the voltage of the battery, and the
meter tells us how much current is flowing, we can compute the resistance in
the circuit.
In our circuit the voltage of the battery is 16 volts and the ammeter reads 2
amperes, the total resistance of the circuit is ...
We were afraid that you might have gotten the wrong idea. Once the instru-
ment has been calibrated on the reference standard, the frequency and scale
controls are not to be adjusted during testing. To do so will invalidate all the
results of the tests.
Hold up! You selected the answer you could only have reached by multiplying
16 X 2. You must remember that the resistance is equal to the voltage divided
by the current ... in this case, 16 volts divided by 2 amperes equals 8 ohms.
The total resistance of the circuit is eight ohms.
12V COIL
BATTERY RESISTANCE
We hope that you can see from the diagram above that the voltage of the bat-
tery is 12 volts and that the current measured by the ammeter is 3 amperes.
The total resistance of the circuit is 12 divided by 3 which equals 4 ohms. The
total resistance of the circuit is 4 ohms.
With the instrument turned on, a frequency is selected and the probe is placed
on sound, bare metal. If a meter reading cannot be obtained by adjustment of
the scale control, another frequency is selected and the scale control adjusted.
This procedure is repeated until a reading is obtained.
The next step is to fine-tune the instrument to find the frequency that will
suppress the lift-off variable. This is accomplished by placing a sheet of paper
between the probe and the material, noting the reading on the dial, and com-
paring it with the reading obtained on bare metal. The frequency must be fine
tuned until there is no change, or a minimum change, between the two
readings. The instrument is now set up for detecting discontinuities.
The next step is to calibrate the instrument with the reference standard. This
is accomplished as follows: With the probe over the required discontinuities,
the meter readings are noted. At this time the scale may be contracted or
expanded to adjust the reading from significant discontinuities to particular
scale divisions on the meter. Further adjustments of frequency may be
required to obtain the required sensitivity to the discontinuities. If so, the lift-
off suppression procedure must be repeated.
Based on the information you now have, will the frequency and scale controls
have to be adjusted during tests on the specimens?
8 ohms, very good. Now that you seem to understand how voltage, current,
and resistance are interrelated, let's hook up the resistance to a source of alter-
nating current, add an ammeter and voltmeter as we did before, and plot the
results.
00 90° 180° 270° 360°
Mr+ ,;,"'°''<,~
l
~o /~..(,.
'/ ~«.;
~
Vl>R GV
MAX-
00 900 180° 270° 360°
This time we find that when the voltage is at the maximum, the current is also
at the maximum; and when the voltage is zero, the current is also at zero.
There is no leading voltage or lagging current.
In other words, the applied voltage and the resultant current are exactly in
phase with each other through a resistance.
Resistance in an ac circuit does not cause the current to lag behind the
voltage.
We realize that you probably had to guess at this answer but you guessed
wrong. The effects of lift-off can be suppressed by selecting the right fre-
quency. Notice that we did not say that the effects of lift-off are eliminated
but they can be greatly reduced.
In adjusting the frequency we are looking for that point where lift-off has the
least effect yet where the depth of penetration is still adequate to do the job.
True, very good. Now that you seem to understand how voltage, current, and
resistance are interrelated, let's hook up the coil to a source of alternating
current.
r- -1
I XL I
COIL I I
I I
I R I
I I
L- _J
First of all you must understand that the resistance (R) we found in the circuit
is still there. It resists the flow of alternating current just as it did the flow of
direct current. The factor that has been added is the inductive reactance of the
coil. The inductive reactance (indicated by the letters XL) causes the current
to lag behind the voltage by 90°, i.e., out of phase by 90°.
The total impedance (Z) of the circuit is the sum of the resistance (R) and the
inductive reactance (XL).However, the two cannot be added directly because
their effect on the voltage is out of phase. The maximum current due to
resistance does not occur at the same instant that the maximum current due
to inductive reactance occurs.
Very good! The variable frequency can be used to suppress the lift-off variable
in addition to obtaining the proper depth of penetration.
OBATTERY TESb
1 2
FINE LEVEL
II
__µ..---- SCALE
FREQUENCY
CONTROLS
0 20 40 60 80 100 O CONTROL
e
PROBE
The meter scale control provides the means to expand or contract the scale of
the meter so that readings which are too slight to be read may be stretched
across the scale or, conversely, readings which are too large to appear on scale
may be reduced to values which are on scale.
To set up this type of instrument for operation the test coil is first placed on a
reference standard that represents the type of material to be tested and that
contains the type and size of the discontinuity sought.
It is very important that you realize that when alternating current is applied
to a purely resistive circuit, the current is always in-phase with the voltage.
The presence of resistance does not cause the current to lag behind the
voltage.
00 90° 270° 360°
MAX+
I
0
j
MAX-
180° 270° 360°
You must also remember that when alternating current is applied to a purely
reactive circuit the inductive reactance causes the current to lag behind the
voltage by 90°. The voltage and current are 90° out of phase as shown here.
900 180° 270° 360°
MAX+ Oo
I
0
j
/
/
/
/
.,,,,,
MAX - "o 0
0 90° 180 270° 360°
Now let's see what happens when we have both resistance and inductive reac-
tance in a circuit when alternating current is applied. Turn to page 1-38.
From page 6-2 6-5
Right! The next step is to calibrate the low end of the scale to make sure that
the meter reads as it should at the low end as well as at the high end.
Once the instrument is calibrated, the high and low controls are not touched
during the ensuing tests.
Tests are conducted by placing the test coil firmly on the test specimen and
rotating the IACS% dial to a position where the meter is centered. The
reading on the dial at that point is the conductivity of the specimen.
CRACK DETECTORS
Since the frequency applied to the coil may be varied, we can suppress lift-off
effects with this instrument.
Here we show a plot of both the current due to resistance and the current due
to inductive reactance.
CURRENT CURRENT DUE TO
DUE TO INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
1-
z
w
a:
a:
::::>
o
MAX - o 0 0
0 90° 180° 270° 360 180° 270 360°
00 00
Since the total current due to the impedance (lz) is the algebraic sum of the
current due to resistance (IR) and the current due to inductive reactance
(IXL), we can plot the current due to impedance by adding the resistance cur-
rent to the reactive current. The results are as shown here.
TOTALCURRENT CURRENT CURRENT DUE TO
,,/
DUE TO DUE TO INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
' ',
0
180 270° 360° 90° 180° 210° 360°
00 00
Sorry, we cannot begin testing yet. In this type of instrument the high end
and the low end of the scale have to be calibrated.
What we are accomplishing is this - Suppose that the "high" standard has
100% stamped on it. By placing the coil on this standard then making the
instrument read 100% we have established that the 100% point on the scale
agrees with the signal received from the 100% standard.
The next step is to establish that the low reading on the scale agrees with the
figure stamped on the "low" standard.
MAX-0o
180° 270° 360° 90° 180° 270° 360°
00 00
Note that at any point along the lz curve its value is equal to the sum of the
values of IR and IxL at that same instant in time.
Note, also, that Iz now lags behind the voltage by some angle (a) other than 0°
or 90 ° (in this case - approximately 52 °). The voltage and current are said to
be out of phase by approximately 52 °.
The simplest way to combine the resistance and inductive reactance values to
obtain the impedance value is through vector addition.
A vector is a line whose length represents a value and its direction represents
its phase relationship. We therefore can show resistance and inductive reac-
tance by two vectors 90 ° apart in direction like this.
90°
90°
0 ' R 00
90°
Since the diagonal line is the result of combining resistance and inductive
reactance, we would expect that the diagonal line represents the ...
You are absolutely correct. The meter reading will be affected by lift-off. In
using a conductivity tester the operator must be continuously aware of all the
factors that can affect conductivity before reaching any conclusions based on
the meter readings.
IACS%
~
Ii -1f )
~~
2.
~~--·,L.;....-~~o""-'-!~0
- POSITION SWITCH
....
CALIBRATION SAMPLES
¥
The tester is supplied with two standards of conductivity that are used to
calibrate the instrument prior to its use. Each standard has its conductivity in
% IACS stamped on it.
The first step in the calibration of this instrument consists of setting the
IACS knob to the reading stamped on one of the standards. Then, with the
probe positioned firmly on the standard, the high or low calibration control
(depending on whether the standard is high or low) is rotated to center the
needle on the meter.
Let's assume that the high end of the scale has been calibrated. The next step
is to ...
We've confused you. "Current" is not the answer we were looking for. We will
restate the facts.
To obtain the impedance value we must combine the resistance value with the
inductive reactance value.
...J O
2$ 90
w
o
2
;:
o
-c
w
a:
w IMPEDANCE
> (Z)
1-
o
:::,
0
~ 0
RESISTANCE (A)
In eddy current testing, many instruments are designed for a particular appli-
cation to a testing problem. Others are designed for general-purpose use.
Among the latter some, such as conductivity testers and discontinuity
testers, are designed to test for a particular variable while others are designed
with the capability of testing for several variables. A detailed explanation of
all the designs of eddy current instruments available on the market is beyond
the scope of this handbook. We will, however, attempt to explain the opera-
tion of two of the more common types.
CONDUCTIVITY TESTERS
"Impedance value" is correct. As with all vectors the length of the vector
gives the value of the impedance. Let's assign some values to resistance and
inductive reactance, and see how this works out.
90°
en
::!E
J:
0
00
II
.....I
x
0
R = 6 OHMS
If we make R equal 6 ohms ( V4" = 1 ohm) and make XL equal 8 ohms, con-
struct the parallelogram, draw the diagonal, and measure Z, we will find that Z
measures 10 ohms.
The next question is - is there a way to figure the length of the diagonal
mathematically? The answer is "yes." A greek philosopher named
Pythagoras figured it out in the sixth century B.C. He developed what is now
known as the Pythagorean theorum which states that in a right triangle the
square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides. In our situation this means that z2 = R2 + XL2. Let's see if that works
in our example.
z2 = 62 + 82
z2 = 36 + 64 = 100
Z = Jioo = 10 ohms.
It is nice for you to know this but you will probably never have to use it in
eddy current testing.
4. low
5. In the modulation analysis method, cracks produce a signal that looks like
a frequency wave to the filter.
•
Return to page 5-82,
frame 6.
9. False
•
Return to page 5-82,
frame 11.
14. resistance
15. The reactance testing method cannot separate the effects of conductivity
variables from the effects of dimension variables since both have an effect
on the of the test coil.
19. amplitude
•
From page 1-44 1-45
The concept that you must fully understand is the concept of what is meant
by "phase angle." In the illustrations on the last few pages the phase angle
between the resistance vector and the inductive reactance vector has been
90°. In the illustration below, Greek letter alpha (a) is used to denote the
phase angle of the impedance vector.
900 r---------.71
0 R
The area that we want to explore next is the effect that changes in the circuit
parameters have on the phase angle. First let's look at resistance changes.
With all other factors held constant, changes in resistance will affect the
impedance of the circuit as shown below.
90° 900 90° 90°
I
I
z I
I
I
I
I
IL_-~-~ loo
R R R R
This chart shows that as the value of the resistance (R) increases, the value of
the impedance (Z) increases and the phase angle of the impedance . . .
3. frequency
8. modulation analysis
•
9. A signal-to-noiseratio of 2 to 1 is acceptable in the modulation analysis
method (True, False).
18. resistance
•
19. In the loss sensing test method the of the oscillation
rather than its frequency is measured.
•
From page 1-45 1-46
Right, the illustration showed that as the resistance value increased, the
impedance value increased and the phase angle decreased.
Now, here's an illustration that shows what occurs when the inductive reac-
tance changes while all other factors are held constant.
goo
------
90°
R R
As the value of inductive reactance (XL) increases, the impedance value (Z)
increases and the phase angle approaches ...
0° Page 1-48
90° Page 1-49
5-84
2. filter
7. 3, 1
•
8. The eddy current test method that uses an electronic filter to separate
indications of desired variables from indications of undesired variables is
called the method.
•
From page 1-45 1-47
0 0
90° 90 90 90° 90°
-------71 --------- I
I I
I I
XL I ~-; i XLI LI I XLI / i XLI 2/ I XL
z I
I
I I
I I
I a I
I
00 v l •. loo 1.1'.'. l •. loo v l •. loo loo
R R R R R
Note that the length of the vector XL is held constant while the vector R is
increased in length as we move from left to right. As R is increased, the value
of Z increases as shown by the increase in length of the vector.
But, at the same time, the phase angle (a) gets smaller (it moves towards O 0) as
the resistance increases. Therefore, increasing values of R will cause the phase
angle to get smaller.
1. strip chart
6. signal, noise
•
7. The minimum acceptable signal-to-noiseratio is considered to be_ to_.
'
From page 1-46 1-48
90°
0 R
The illustration shows the effect of changing only the value of the inductive
reactance. The resistance value is held constant.
In the view on the left, the inductive reactance is very low and the phase angle
(a) is very small (close to O 0). In the view on the right the inductive reactance
is large and the phase angle has increased. It is moving towards 90 °. If we
increased the inductive reactance still further, the angle a would get closer
and closer to 90 °.
5. high
•
6. The addition of a filter in the test circuit increases the -to-
---- ratio.
10. cracks
(discontinuities)
•
11. In the reactance testing method an o is added to the test
circuit.
•
From page 1-46 1-49
Right! As the inductive reactance increases, the phase angle of the impedance
increases. So it approaches (moves toward) 90°.
In a given alternating current circuit the resistance value stays fairly con-
stant. The value can change if the temperature of the wiring increases or
decreases but the change is slight. Changes in voltage or frequency do not
affect the resistance that is in the circuit.
We thought that you might not know what we meant when we used the word
''amplitude.''
~r11
MAX+
MAX-~ I B .I
You felt that the letter B designated the amplitude of the wave. That is incor-
rect. The amplitude of the wave is the height of the wave and is designated by
the letter A on the chart.
Now that you know what is meant by the word amplitude, go back to page
5-79, reread the information, and select the better answer.
From page 1-49 1-50
Sorry, you guessed wrong. We didn't tell you that doubling the frequency
would cause the inductive reactance to double (which is true), but we did say
that increasing the frequency would increase the inductive reactance. For that
reason you should have chosen the larger number.
Return to page 1-49, reread the last paragraph, and select the better answer to
the question.
From page 5-79 5-80
Yes, the amplitude of the wave, the thing that we want to measure, is
designated on the wave by the letter A.
When we say that the amplitude of the current is dependent on the ratio of
inductive reactance to resistance, we are saying that a change in either, or
both, of those factors causes a change in the amplitude of the signal.
- -
SPECIMEN
OSCILLATOR
FEED-BACK
COIL
_ FEED-BACK
r
HEAT LOSS
l
INDICATOR
UR RATIO
In the feedback controlled testing system special feedback circuits are pro-
vided in the test set whereby the voltage corresponding to the amplitude
(XLIR ratio) of the secondary coil is sensed and sent back to control the
amplitude of the current through the sensing circuit. With the use of special
feedback circuits it is possible to eliminate or reduce the effect of either the
inductive reactance or the resistance, whichever is desired.
NOTE: When eddy currents flowin a specimen, the resistance of the specimen
causes a certain loss of energy which is released as heat. Since such energy
losses tend to damp the oscillation (reduce the amplitude), feedback controlled
testing is sometimes called "loss sensing" testing.
Good selection! We presume you selected 40 ohms because you knew that
increasing the frequency would increase the inductive reactance, so you
selected the higher number.
But did you also notice that when we doubled the frequency we also doubled
the inductive reactance? Doubling the frequency does cause the inductive
reactance to double. Let's see what this looks like on a graph so we can see
what happens to the impedance of the circuit. Keep in mind that we are show-
ing what happens as the result of changing frequency.
90°
??
R R
A) f = 50 kHz B)f=100kHz C) f=200kHz
If we doubled the frequency once again to 200 kHz, the phase angle of the
impedance would ...
Right! Lift-off has very little effect on the test results when we are using the
reactance testing method.
There is one more eddy current testing method that we want to cover. It is
called "Feedback Controlled" testing.
~r
MAX+
:LI~ B
In the sine wave shown above, the amplitude of the wave is designated with
.I
the letter ...
A Page 5-80
B Page 5-81
From page 1-51 1-52
You feel that if the frequency were doubled that the phase angle of the imped-
ance would increase and you are correct.
You felt that lift-off would have a great deal of effect on the test results. It is
wrong for you to feel that way. Let's look at an impedance-plane diagram for a
moment.
90°
AIR
t \\. col\!
',
w ()vC'7-
o
z lv17-}-
<{
1-
o
<{ <,
-
w
a:
w <,~ .
> ·01:- ,...._ ••.•...
~ /::" ........•••
o
:::> •..•...••. ""-
0
z
..J
0
o AL
cu
0 0°
COIL RESISTANCE •••
You feel that if the frequency were doubled that the phase angle of the imped-
ance would decrease. That is wrong!
Here is the illustration again. You must remember that the angle we are talk-
ing about is the angle marked a.
90°
9[&]0° - ----- I
z I
XL a II
I oo
O R R
f=50kHz f = 100 kHz
When we doubled the frequency from 50 kHz to 100 kHz, angle a increased in
size. It will do so each time the frequency is doubled. If you've changed your
mind, turn to page 1-52 and continue.
From page 5-7 5 5-77
You felt that when the impedance of the test coil changes, the inductive reac-
tance of the test coil would not change. You have forgotten a basic precept of
eddy current testing.
You must always keep in mind that the impedance of the test coil is made up
of two components - an inductive reactance component and a resistance com-
ponent. These two components lie at right angles to each other.
90°
.
AIR
-
GRAPHITE
tw
o
z
<{
t3
~
a:
w
>
i=
o
:::>
0
z INCREASE IN INDUCTIVE
...J REACTANCE
0
o
cu
0 ~
COIL RESISTANCE ••
The conductivity curve was the locus of all the impedances that we obtained
by measuring the conductivity of various kinds of materials. Therefore every
point on the curve represents an impedance. Now, if we look at the point
marked CU (copper) and compare its inductive reactance with the inductive
reactance of the point marked BRONZE (see the horizontal dashed lines) we
find that the inductive reactance has increased.
So we can assume that if the impedance of the test coil changes, its inductive
reactance will change.
4. 90°
5. The 90 ° lag of the current behind the voltage is caused by a factor of the
coil called inductive _
8. inductive reactance
12. decrease,
increase
13. The equation for determining the inductive reactance (XL)of a coil in an ac
circuit is XL= 21rfL. In this equation "L" is the inductance of the coil and
"f" is the alternating current _
From page 5-7 5 5-76
Exactly! If the impedance of the test coil changes, the inductive reactance
component of the impedance must change.
Now, since the inductive reactance of the test coil changes, and the coil is in
the secondary circuit with the oscillator, the frequency of the oscillator
changes. So, by monitoring the frequency of the voltage in the secondary cir-
cuit we can detect changes in the condition of the material. Note that the
resistive component of the impedance has no effect on the frequency of oscilla-
tion, so it is effectively ignored.
In your opinion, how much effect would lift-off have on the test results?
1. varying
EJ SECONDARY A
5. reactance
9. direction
13. frequency
14. The equation for inductive reactance tells us that when the frequency (f) is
increased, the inductive reactance XL of the coil will .
From page 5-7 3 5-75
It hardly seems necessary but we'll say it one more time. Reference standards
with known discontinuities are used in the modulation analysis to establish an
acceptable signal-to-noiseratio and to establish limits of acceptability.
The next method that we want to cover is called the "Reactance Testing"
method. The illustration below shows the type of test circuit that is used in
reactance testing.
SPECIMEN
SECONDARYCOIL
... ,, I
OSCILLATOR 0
1 \\ q I I I 1
~v
CHANGE IN INDICATES
DISCONTINUITY FUNDAMENTAL CHANGE IN
FREQUENCY FREQUENCY
Note that the primary coil of a double coil, absolute arrangement is used to
induce the eddy currents and the secondary coil is used to sense the presence
of eddy currents.
The frequency of the oscillator depends directly upon the inductive reactance
of the secondary circuit; and, as you know, if the test coil is moved over a
specimen, the impedance of the test coil changes in accordance with condi-
tions within the material.
When the impedance of the test coil changes, the inductive reactance of the
coil changes.
1-56
2. alternating
3. If the coil in the secondary side of the circuit were made of nonconductive
material there would be (alternating, direct, no)
current induced in the secondary side of the circuit.
6. does not
10. vector
11. The Greek letter alpha (a) is used to denote the phase of the
impedance vector.
14. increase
15. If the frequency of the alternating current through a coil is doubled, the
inductive reactance will and the phase angle of the imped-
ance will (increase, decrease).
From page 5-73 5-74
3. no
7. resistance (R)
11. angle
15. double,
increase
This completes the review. For application to eddy current testing of what
you have learned about electromagnetic induction, turn to page 2-1.
From page 5-71 5-73
Because noise tends to hide indications that are of interest to the operator, the
ratio of the amplitude of responses from variables of interest to the amplitude
of responses that contain no useful information becomes important. This ratio
is called the "signal-to-noise" ratio.
This statement means that the signal in which we are interested must be at
least as high as the signals in which we have no interest.
From the preceeding it is clear that the test specimen must have one require-
ment that limits the use of eddy current testing to articles that are made of
materials that are ...
No! If you selected a filter that would pass low frequency signals you would
wipe out any indications of cracks.
Let's see if we can make the situation a little clearer for you.
In this situation we are interested in the rate of change of the signal. The rate
of change of the signal for a crack is very high. The signal from the coil
changes rapidly when the crack is encountered by the magnetic field of the
coil.
To the filter that will pass high-frequency signals, the sudden change in the
signal from a crack looks like a high-frequency wave since its rate of change is
high. The high-frequency filter would allow such a signal to pass. The low-
frequency filter would not.
Well, we thought it would be clear. You selected the answer that says the arti-
cle under test must be made of materials that are standard in size and shape.
Think for a moment. This would eliminate a great many articles from eddy
current testing. An inspection system would not be very versatile if it could be
used only on articles that are of a standard size and shape. No, the size and
shape of the article is not one of the limitations of eddy current testing.
Eddy currents are electrical currents that are induced into the specimen under
test. This one statement should give you a clue to the correct answer.
Return to page 2-1 and see if you can now select the correct answer.
From page 5-70 5-71
You made an excellent choice. A crack will produce a sudden change in the
test coil's impedance. To the modulator this sudden change looks like a high-
frequency signal. Therefore, if we select a modulator (filter) that will pass the
high frequency signals, the presence of the crack will be registered on the strip
chart recorder. The slower changes caused by changes in dimension will not
pass through the filter.
Since the apparent frequency of any of the variables depends upon the speed
of movement of the test specimen past the inspection coil it is necessary that
the motion be at a constant speed so that the filter can do its job effectively.
This requirement limits this type of test to expensive equipment used in large
production runs.
This illustration shows the effect that filters have on the output of a test
system.
NO FILTERS
CRACK SIGNAL
GOOD FILTRATION
Assuming in this case that the variable of interest is the presence of cracks,
the rest of the marks or peaks caused by variables of interest hide the indica-
tion. These confusing indications are called "grass" or "noise."
Let's look at the relationship between the magnetic field of an inspection coil
and the material under test. We know now that the material must be a conduc-
tor of electricity. In Chapter 1 we learned that when a magnetic field cuts
through an electrical conductor, current is induced in the conductor. Of
course, the conductor was a wire or a coil. Let's see what happens if the con-
ductor is a thick sheet of electrically conductive material.
COIL'S
MAGNETIC FIELD
AC 9{__
EST COIL CURRENT FLOWSIN ONE DIRECTION
AND THEN THE OTHER (ALTERNATES)
EDDY CURRENT
MAGNETIC FIELD
The action that we can't show clearly in this illustration is the fact that, since
the current in the inspection coil is alternating direction, the magnetic field is
continually changing direction, and the eddy current and its magnetic field
are also continually changing direction.
'With continually changing currents and magnetic fields, the eddy current
magnetic field is . . .
You are exactly right. We do not know that either of those peaks represent a
crack since we recorded everything that would cause a change in the coil's
impedance.
The way to limit what we record is to add a modulating device between the
test set and the recorder as shown here.
MODULATING INDCATING
TEST SET
DEVICE DEVICE
¢1 I I I I I
VERTICAL MARKS
ON PAPER
Now, we know that a crack will give a sudden change in the coil's impedance
while a dimensional change will usually occur over a longer period of time. If
our primary interest was in locating cracks, we would select a filter that will
pass ...
Sorry. We must have confused you with all those words about magnetic fields.
The material does not have to be magnetizable. In fact, in eddy current testing
magnetizable materials cause a particular problem which we will discuss in
later chapters, but there is one requirement for the material that is a must if
we are going to induce eddy currents in any specimens.
Return to page 2-1, re-read item 2 in the list of items, then see if you can select
the correct answer.
From page 5-67 5-69
You may be right, but, on the other hand, you may be wrong. That could be the
signal for a crack or it could be the signal from something else. Since we are
recording everything, there is no way that we can tell what we are looking at.
We have to find some way of taking only those readings that pertain to the
changes that we are looking for. Turn to page 5-70 to find out how this is done.
From page 2-3 2-5
Wrong! The eddy current magnetic field always opposes the coil's magnetic
field. This is because the two fields are exactly 180° out of phase with each
other as shown on this graph.
MAX-
The graph above shows the phase relationship between the two fields. Note
that when the coil magnetic field is at its maximum in one direction, the eddy
current field is at its maximum in the opposite direction. Thus the fact that
each field is constantly varying does not change the fact that the eddy current
magnetic field always opposes the coil's magnetic field.
You may be right, but, on the other hand, you may be wrong. The point is we
don't know whether peak A represents a crack, a change in dimension, or even
something else.
Since every change in the impedance of the test coil is being recorded we
simply cannot tell what the peaks and valleys on the recording represent.
They could be anything.
We have to find some way of taking the readings that will record only the
variations that we are interested in locating. Turn to page 5-70 to find out how
this is done.
From page 2-3 2-6
Good choice! In spite of the fact that the currents and magnetic fields involved
are constantly changing (alternating direction) the phase relationship between
each always remains the same. Thus the eddy current magnetic field always
opposes the coil's magnetic field.
The next factor to consider is the strength of the eddy current magnetic field.
With a given inspection coil, carrying a given amount of current that creates a
magnetic field of a given strength, is it reasonable to assume that the strength
of the eddy current magnetic field will depend on the strength of the eddy cur-
rents induced in the material?
In the modulation analysis method the signals received from the test coil are
transmitted to a strip-chart recorder. In the strip-chart recorder the imped-
ance changes cause a pen to swing across a chart. The movement of the pen is
proportional to the change in impedance of the test coil. The coil must be
moved over the specimen at a constant rate of speed and, at the same time,
the paper in the recorder is moved past the pen at a constant rate of speed.
With the various signals that are generated in the coil by changes in such
properties as permeability, dimension, hardness stresses, and other, it is very
difficult to distinguish discontinuities such as cracks or holes. Under normal
conditions, wtihout modulation analysis, a strip-chart recording might look
something like this.
A Page 5-68
B Page 5-69
Don't know Page 5-70
From page 2-6 2-7
And right you are. All other things being constant, the strength of the eddy
current magnetic field depends directly on the strength of the eddy currents.
Stronger currents cause stronger magnetic fields to oppose the coil's
magnetic field.
Now, remember that we said that one factor that affects the amount of cur-
rent induced in a secondary coil is the conductivity of the material of which
the coil is made. We said then that more electric current will be induced in a
coil with high conductivity than in a coil with low conductivity. The same
holds true for the induction of eddy currents in articles to be inspected by
eddy currents. With all other factors held constant, stronger eddy currents
will be induced in articles that have higher conductivities than will be induced
in articles having lower conductivities.
Here we show a coil being used to inspect two articles that are just alike
except that one is made of copper and the other is made of iron.
INSPECTION INSPECTION
COIL COIL
IRON
COPPER
A B
Assuming that all inputs (voltage, current, and frequency) to the coil are con-
stant, which article will produce the strongest eddy currents?
4. Lift-off
•
Return to page 5-62,
frame 6.
9. reference
10. In the Ellipse Display Method, when the impedances of the test coil
and the reference coil are exactly alike the cathode ray tube (CRT)will
display a straight horizontal _
•
Return to page 5-62,
frame 11.
14. dimension
•
Return to page 5-62,
frame 16.
You have completed the review. Now turn to page 5-67 and continue.
•
From page 2-6 2-8
By your selection you indicate that it is not reasonable to assume that the
strength of the eddy current magnetic field will depend on the strength of the
eddy currents induced in the material.
But if you are, remember: The strength of any magnetic field produced elec-
trically depends on the number of turns in the coil and the amount of current
through the coil.
When eddy currents are induced in an article, the article is acting like a coil.
Therefore the strength of the magnetic field will depend on the amount of cur-
rent induced. If the current is high, the field will be high. Lower currents will
produce weaker fields. Your answer should have been "yes".
900
3. conductivity
0
-~
"' _ ••• o
0°
8. impedance-plane
9. In the Ellipse Display Method, the voltage drop across the inspection
coil is being compared with the voltage drop across the _
coil.
13. ellipse
•
14. In the Ellipse Display Method, a change in the tilt of the line or ellipse
indicates a change in the variable.
18. dimension
•
19. A method in which the dimension variable is automatically suppressed
is called the
method.
•
From page 2-7 2-9
You exhibited sound judgement in making this selection. Since copper is a bet-
ter conductor of electricity than iron, stronger eddy currents will be induced in
article A than in article B. These stronger eddy currents will result in a stronger
eddy current magnetic field to oppose the magnetic field of the coil.
Remember then that the CONDUCTIVITY of the material is one factor that
affects the induction of eddy current in the material.
Now let's look at another factor which affects the eddy current and the eddy
current magnetic field. Consider the magnetic field that surrounds the inspec-
tion coil as shown here.
COIL
ALTERNATING
CURRENT
SOURCE
The field extends from each end of the coil. The field is at its strongest next to
the coil and progressively gets weaker away from the coil.
Consider now a comparison between the strength of the coil's magnetic field
versus the strength of the induced eddy current magnetic field. Think about it
for a moment then decide which of the two statements below is true.
900
2. conductivity
0
D""'
.-~ -- 0
0
7. conductivity
variable.
•
8. An i -p diagram may be plotted on the
face of a Catode Ray Tube.
12. tilt
•
13. In the Ellipse Display Method, a difference in the impedances of the
test coil and the reference coil will cause the CRT to display a tilted
17. impedance
•
18. Since, in the Linear Time Base Display method, a change in phase
angle is primarily due to a change in conductivity, the
________ variable is effectively suppressed.
•
From page 2-7 2-10
If you selected this page it's because you've forgotten that copper is a better
conductor than iron.
INSPECTION INSPECTION
COIL COIL
IRON
COPPER
A B
Due to the fact that a stronger eddy current will be induced in the better con-
ductor (all other things being equal), article A, being made of copper, will have
a stronger eddy current than article B which is made of iron. The stronger
eddy current will produce the stronger eddy current magnetic field.
However, the point we really want to hammer home is that the conductivity of
an article affects the strength of the eddy current magnetic field.
000
1. variable
~/
I
0
o'-------o
2. Selection of point D on the impedance plane diagram above as an
•
operating point will set up the equipment to measure _
variables.
6. perpendicular
11. conductivity
•
12. In the Ellipse Display Method a change in the dimension variable is
indicated by a change in the of the line or ellipse.
16. waveform
•
17. The Linear Time Base Display method measures the phase shift to
indicate a change in the of the test coil.
•
From page 2-9 2-11
Yes, the stronger the coil magnetic field, the stronger the eddy current
magnetic field opposing it. Since the coil field is strongest near the coil and
gets progressively weaker away from the coil, we can hold the coil a short
distance away from conductive material and still induce eddy currents in the
material.
CONDUCTIVE
MATERIAL
The eddy current induced in the conductive material will be much weaker than
the eddy current induced if the inspection coil were placed directly on the part,
but so long as the conductive material intercepts any of the coil's magnetic
field there will be a corresponding amount of eddy current induced in the
material.
Now let's see how we can use this fact in eddy current testing. Let's cover the
conductive material with a coating of nonconductive material and place the
test coil directly on the nonconductive coating.
NON CONDUCTIVE
CONDUCTIVE
If the conductive coating were thinner, the induced eddy current would be ...
5. suppression
•
6. The lift-offsuppression line is a line that is _
to the lift-off curve at the point of interest.
10. line
•
11. In the Ellipse Display Method the widening of the ellipse means an
increase in the g_ variable.
15. conductivity
•
16. The Linear Time Base Display method uses the CRT to display the
of the voltage applied across the test coil.
•
From page 2-9 2-12
A weaker magnetic field induces a stronger eddy current field!That just isn't so.
The correct statement is: A stronger coil field will always induce a stronger
eddy current which, in turn, will produce a stronger eddy current field. In
short, the stronger the coil field in the material, the stronger the eddy current
field.
This may seem to be a minor point to spend so much time on but it is a very
important point in its application to eddy current testing. Changes in cur-
rents, their effects on magnetic fields, and vice versa are the very foundation
of eddy current testing and you must understand their relationships.
We repeat: A stronger coil magnetic field will result in a stronger eddy current
magnetic field.
You selected the answer that indicates that you think the waveform will shift
to the left. Let's go back to our old friend - the impedance-plane diagram to
see what is happening.
The impedance value associated with the discontinuity (X) causes the lag
angle to shift towards the 90 ° line. In other words, the lag angle increases.
FROM THIS OR THIS TO THIS
As this illustration shows, as the lag angle increases from 0° to 30° to 90°, the
waveform moves to the right.
Perhaps we didn't make the situation clear enough. Here's an illustration that
will show what we mean.
- NONCONDUCTIVE-
CONDUCTIVE
VIEWA VIEW B
Note that in view B the test coil is closer to the conductive material than it is
in view A. Since the nonconductive coating has no effect whatsoever on the
magnetic field, the conductive material in view B is in a stronger portion of
the coil's magnetic field and the induced eddy currents will be stronger.
Can you see that, by making the nonconductive coating thinner, we have
moved the inspection coil closer to the conductive material. Since the coil in
view Bis closer to the conductive material the eddy current will be stronger.
Yes, with the test coil over a discontinuity the waveform will shift to the right.
How much it shifts depends on the size of the discontinuity, its direction with
respect to the eddy currents, and its depth below the surface. From this you
should be able to see the necessity of standards that establish the maximum
acceptable limits.
Because this method measures the time delay of the waveform it is called the
"Linear Time Base Display" method.
Does this give you the idea that eddy current testing might well be used to
indicate thickness of nonconductive coatings on conductive materials? It
should because that is one of the uses of eddy current testing.
We have now discussed two factors which affect eddy current testing. These
are lift-off and . . .
That's right! Measuring the phase shift will suppress the lift-off variable. So
how can we measure phase shift?
One way is to use a CRT hooked up to display the voltage being applied to the
test coil. When this is done, the CRT displays the waveform of the voltage.
Here are three examples of how that waveform might look.
Phase shifts are measured by the shift of the waveform across the tube as
shown above. In actual practice the waveform obtained from discontinuity-
free material is centered on the grid of the tube so that it looks like the illustra-
tion on the left. This is accomplished with a knob on the CRT which has the
effect of zeroing the instrument. All testing is conducted from this point.
If we now place the test coil on a piece of the same type of material directly
over a discontinuity the wave form will shift ...
The two factors we have discussed so far that affect the magnetic fields are
"conductivity" and "lift-off". Any changes in the conductivity of the material
under test and any lift-off of the coil from the surface of the material will cause
changes in the magnetic fields of the inspection coil and the eddy current.
You feel that measuring the phase shift would suppress conductivity. That is
wrong.
=-j" ' A
PHASE SHIFT
Now compare the phase shift caused by the change in conductivity with the
phase shift caused by the same amount of change in lift-off. The lift-off phase
shift is much smaller.
Conductivity is the correct word. Conductivity and lift-off are the two factors
that we have discussed thus far.
Lift-off is not a factor that results from something in the material. It results
from the inspection procedure. Lift-off has been put in the category of being a
dimensional factor. There is another dimensional factor that does result
directly from the material. The illustration below shows this other dimen-
sional factor.
CONDUCTIVE
MATERIAL
If we put the inspection coil on progressively thinner and thinner pieces of con-
ductive material we reach a point where the material is intercepting only part of
the coil's magnetic field. Thus the induced eddy current must be reduced. Since
the eddy current is reduced, its magnetic field is reduced and the magnetic field
through the coil is changed.
Here we show two different thicknesses of copper being tested with an inspec-
tion coil.
COPPER
Can we expect to get different results when we eddy current test these two
pieces?
Let's consider for a moment how the phase angle is affected by changes in the
dimensional variable and by changes in the conductivity variable. To see how
the phase angle is affected, we go back to the impedance-plane diagram.
90°
Col\.'.
Ovc"l':
'"' ?->-
t
w
o
z
~
I-
C.)
-c
w
a:
w
>
.::
o
::::>
0
z
.J
8 -,~,, ~
O
I ~ COIL RESISTANCE ___.
I \ I LIFT-OFF
CHANGE
0°
In this illustration we want to look at the equal changes in lift-off and conduc-
tivity as marked. Note how the change in conductivity causes a much larger
change in the phase shift than an equal change in lift-off.
If, in testing an article, we were able to measure the phase shift, which
variable would be suppressed by this method?
You felt that we would get different results if we tested the two pieces with
eddy current. Well, you are right if you assumed that these were thin pieces.
Since we did not say they were thin (we only said that they were of different
thicknesses) you actually don't know whether there will be a different result or
not.
Return to page 2-16, reread the question, and select a better answer.
From page 5-5 2 5-56
Right! That particular display indicated that both the conductivity and the
dimension variable had changed, i.e., were different in the test piece than they
were in the reference standard.
Since the magnitude of the differences is indicated by the angle of tilt of the
ellipse and by the size of the opening of the ellipse, it is possible to mark the
tube to indicate the largest allowable variations (limits) in these two variables.
The procedure is to test a specimen that has the largest acceptable discon-
tinuity, measure the width of the ellipse, and mark the angle of tilt. Any test
article which exceeds either of these limits is rejected.
Now let's look at another way the CRT may be used. Turn to page 5-57.
From page 2-16 2-18
You felt that we would not get different results if we tested the two pieces
with eddy current. Well, you are right if you assumed that both pieces were
relatively thick. Since we did not say they were thick (we only said that they
were of different thicknesses) you actually don't know whether there will be a
different result or not.
Return to page 2-16, reread the question, and select a better answer.
From page 5-50 5-55
The tilt of the axis of the ellipse, as shown by the dashed line in the illustra-
tion, tells us that there is a difference in the conductivity variable between the
test piece and the reference standard.
Also, the fact that we see an ellipse rather than a straight line tells us that
there is a difference in the dimension variable between the test piece and the
reference standard.
So, you see, that particular display indicates that both the conductivity and
the dimension variable in the test piece changed from those variables in the
reference standard.
We are proud of you. You cannot know whether or not different results will be
obtained until we tell you the actual thicknesses. If at least one of the two
specimens was thin enough to not contain the entire magnetic field of the coil,
then we would get different results from the two tests.
So, now we have two factors, lift-off and material thickness, that are DIMEN-
SIONAL factors to be considered in eddy current testing.
When the material under test is magnetizable (has permeability), the coil's
magnetic field is affected in an inconsistant way. For example, if the coil's
magnetic field is relatively weak, the slightest variation in the induced eddy
current causes relatively extreme changes in the coil's magnetic field. On the
other hand, if the coil's magnetic field is relatively strong to begin with, slight
variations in eddy current cause only slight variations in the coil's magnetic
field. As you can probably understand, this type of inconsistancy would be
difficult to live with.
Magnetizable materials can cause problems in eddy current testing because ...
You are only partially correct. You did recognize that the display was an
ellipse and you knew that the presence of an ellipse rather than a straight line
indicated a difference in the conductivity variable between the test piece and
the reference standard.
However, you didn't notice that the axis of the ellipse was tilted.
To answer the question let's take a piece of unmagnetized soft iron and
magnetize it by placing it in a coil to which we can apply direct current. Let's
start with zero current through the coil, then gradually increase the current. If
we measure the strength· of the magnetic field induced in the iron during the
time we increase the current, we will find that the magnetic field strength
increases sharply at first, then, at the higher levels of current, the strength of
the magnetic field ceases to increase regardless of any increase in magnetizing
current. If we plot current values against magnetic field strength we get a
curve that looks like this.
CURRENT INCREASING--.
Note that for lower values of current (the left-hand part of the curve) two units
of current change caused about three and a half units of change in field
strength while at the higher values of current two units of current change
caused less than one unit of change in field strength. It is this inconsistancy
we cannot live with.
Study the graph for a moment. There is an area on the curve where changes in
current do not change the strength of the magnetic field. This area is at ...
In the illustration below a circle is being rotated about the axis as shown.
AXIS AXIS
On the left we see a full circle. As we proceed to the right the circle is turning
and we see an ever-narrowing ellipse until, in the center, the circle appears as a
straight line since we are looking at the edge. As the circle continues to turn,
we see an ever widening ellipse until, finally, we see the full circle once again.
You will see the same effect if you spin a coin on the top of a table and view it
from the table top level.
By your selection you indicate that you think magnetizable materials are non-
conductive. This is incorrect.
Materials which conduct electrical current and are magnetizable at the same
time are numerous. And we must be aware before starting an eddy current
test whether or not the material is a conductor of electricity and whether or
not the material is magnetizable. It makes a difference as you shall see.
The point is that, if the material is magnetizable and we do nothing about it,
the test results will be so inconsistant that we can obtain no useful informa-
tion from the test. Thus magnetizable materials can cause problems in eddy
current testing.
NO DISCONTINUITIES
(DIFFERENTIAL COIL BALANCE)
SMALL CHANGE
DIMENSIONAL DISCONTINUITIES
(VOLTAGE CHANGE)
SMALL CHANGE
SMALL CHANGE
You indicated that the area at the left end of the curve is the area in which
changes in current do not change the strength of the magnetic field. Let's look
at the graph again.
~t
Zc,
I
I
I
I
~z I
I- - I
(/)~ I
ow I
...J a: I
WU I
-z
U..- Ir--6 UNITS-1
0
CURRENTINCREASING-+ CURRENTINCREASING-+
VIEWA VIEWS
In view A we've marked the graph at the left end of the curve to show exactly
what we mean. The vertical dashed lines indicate that when the current
changes from two units to eight units, the field strength (horizontal dashed
lines) increases from one and three-quarters units to eight and one-quarter
units. The change in current resulted in a change in magnetic field strength.
In view B we show a corresponding six units of current change at the far right
end of the curve. Notice that there is now no change what-so-ever to the
magnetic field.
Woops. Somewhere we've gone wrong. You shouldn't be reading this page.
This entire chapter has been devoted to explaining that if we can separate a
change in impedance into its inductive reactance component and its resistance
component that we can then distinguish a change in dimension from a change
in conductivity. The impedance-plane diagram is still working.
Turn back to page 5-49 and reread the information presented there. Keep in
mind that, though the approach is different, the results are the same.
From Page 2-20 2-23
Yes, at the right end of the curve the soft iron has become magnetically
saturated so that changes in the magnetizing current no longer have any
effect on the strength of the magnetic field.
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This gives us a clue to a method that can be used to overcome the problems
caused by the PERMEABILITY factor. Suppose that we use a separate coil
(not an inspection coil) powered by direct current to magnetize the test
specimen to saturation. When the inspection coil is then applied, the eddy cur-
rent induced are affected only by the CONDUCTIVITY and DIMEN-
SIONAL factors of the test specimen. The inconsistencies caused by the
permeability factor have been eliminated. Note that we have not eliminated
the permeability, we have eliminated the inconsistencies caused by the fact
that the material is magnetizable.
Now, read the followingquestion carefully and select the best answer.
Under balanced conditions (both impedances equal) the CRT display will be a
horizontal straight line. Dimension differences in the test material will cause
the line to tilt as shown here.
DIMENSIONAL
Conductivity differences between the two impedances will cause the line to
widen into an ellipse as shown here.
CONDUCTIVITY
No, the statement was not true. But before you turn back and look at it again
we admit that it was a trick question. But for a purpose!
We wanted to find out how firmly implanted in your mind is the fact that eddy
currents are caused only by varing magnetic fields. The magnetic field caused
by direct current does not vary - therefore there is no eddy current induced
by that magnetic field. The statement was false for that reason.
The visual picture is actually very simple. It only gets complex when you try
to explain it.
The next method that uses a CRT as an indicating device is called the "Ellipse
Display Method.''
In this method the inspection coil is used in conjunction with a reference coil so
that the specimen under test is compared with a discontinuity-free standard.
The CRT is set up to read and compare the voltage drop across each coil. Since
a difference in impedance between the two coils causes the two voltages to be
out of phase, the setup is measuring the difference in phase between the two
voltages. At the same time, the magnitude of the two voltages is being com-
pared. The difference in phase, and the difference in magnitude, are caused,
primarily, by a difference in inductive reactance and a difference in resistance,
respectively.
Since, with this setup, we can sense a change in inductive reactance and we
can sense a change in resistance, can we separate a dimension variable from a
conductivity variable?
That was, indeed, a false statement. We hope that you realize that it was false
because the field caused by direct current does not vary - and a field that
does not vary cannot cause an eddy current. It this is not the reason that you
selected "False" you had better go back and reread the question and select
the other answer. There is some very important information there you should
not miss.
Okay, it's time for a little review of what we have learned so far in this
chapter. But before you start the review, the three properties of materials that
affect eddy current testing are:
CONDUCTIVITY,
DIMENSION,
and PERMEABILITY.
You selected the wrong answer; perhaps because we didn't clearly explain
what we were doing.
You must understand that in testing one kind of material wtih this type of
system, that the dot appears on the face of the CRT in a position that is in
some way proportional to the impedance of the test coil. In effect we are doing
the same thing as we did when we plotted the impedance of the test coil on a
piece of graph paper. The only difference is that the point appears on the CRT
instead of on a piece of paper.
Now, since we are testing several different kinds of material, we are obtaining
points on the CRT that represent the impedances that resulted from testing
those different materials. The one factor that obviously changes between
materials is their conductivities. Therefore, a line connecting all those dots
will be the conductivity curve.
5. opposes
6. The strength of the eddy current magnetic field depends upon the
strength of the induced in the material.
10. stronger
11. A nonconductive coating on the material under test will cause the
induced eddy currents to be than they would be if
the coatings weren't present.
16. results
We can also plot the lift-off curve on the face of the CRT by taking readings of
varying thicknesses of nonconductive material placed on top of the material
that we are about to test. In this way the entire impedance-plane diagram can
be plotted on the face of the CRT.
During actual testing of specimens, the impedance of the test coil will cause a
dot to appear at some point on the screen. Its position with respect to the
impedance-plane diagram tells the operator what has occured within the
specimen.
CONDUCTIVITY CONDUCTIVITY
LIFT-
OFF ~
I \
With the display rotated to the position shown on the right, a change in lift-off
will move the dot to the left or right whit a change in conductivity will move
the dot up or down. Now turn to page 5-4~ and continue.
2-27
1. conductive
6. eddy current
7. One factor of the material that affects the strength of the induced
eddy current is the con of the material.
11. weaker
17. direct
Very good! The dashed line from D to E is indeed the conductivity suppres-
sion line. The selection of an operating point that lies somewhere on that line
will cause the conductivity variable to be suppressed without affecting the
indication of a change in lift-off.
When a cathode ray tube (CRT) is provided as part of the test equipment it is
possible to set up the equipment so that the impedance of the test coil will
cause a dot to appear on the face of the CRT. The position of the dot is deter-
mined by the test coil impedance.
2. eddy currents
7. conductivity
12. DIMENSIONAL
18. saturation
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•
There are two things on this diagram that we want you to pay particular
attention to:
1) Notice that the distance from D to A is equal to the distance from D to B.
This tells us that a change in conductivity from A to B will not cause the
meter reading to change. The conductivity variable has been suppressed.
2) Notice also that any point along the line from D to E is equidistant from
points A and B. This tells us that the line D - E is now the conductivity
suppression line.
3. circular
8. factors
•
9. If a material has low conductivity, the eddy current induced will be
(strong, weak).
13. thickness
•
14. The three categories of material factors that affect eddy currents are:
CONDUCTIVITY,DIMENSION, and P
•
From page 5-43 5-44
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On this diagram the dashed line connecting point D to point E represents ...
4. magnetic field
9. weak
10. When testing a material with low conductivity, the eddy current
field will be weak, therefore, the field of the inspection coil will be
_______ (stonger, weaker)than if the same test were being
made on a material with high conductivity.
JI Return to page 2-26,
.,. frame 11.
15. PERMEABILITY
20. CONDUCTIVITY
DIMENSION
PERMEABILITY
Yes, point E could have been used since it is on the lift-off suppression line. Of
course, the operating point selected could lie anywhere along the line D - E.
If the operating point selected is too far away from the conductivity curve it is
possible that the meter will be driven off scale, but selecting an operating
point considerably away from the conductivity curve will produce the best
overall results.
If point D is selected as the operating point and the test probe is moved from
Alloy A to Alloy B, the meter reading will decrease. If point Eis selected as
the operating point, the meter reading will increase as the probe is moved
from Alloy A to Alloy B. It is possible that better sensitivity will be obtained
using an operating point located on one side than on the other. In practice, the
best procedure is to evaluate operating points on both sides, then choose
whichever gives the best results.
Now that you have seen how a particular operating point can be selected so
that variations in lift-off are suppressed, you probably realize that, in the
same fashion, an operating point can be selected that will suppress variations
in the conductivity variable.
In the IACS the conductivity of unalloyed (pure), annealed copper was arbi-
trarily selected as the standard and the conductivities of all other materials are
expressed as a percentage of this standard. In other words, annealed copper is
assigned a rating of 100% and a material that conducts electrical current only
half as well is rated at 50% IACS. The IACS rating of several common
materials is given in the following table.
You selected the answer that indicates that you do not think that we could
have used point E as an operating point and we don't want you to think that.
900 LIFT-OFF
SUPPRESSION
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Point D was selected as an operating point because it was equidistant from two
points on the lift-off curve, point C and Alloy A. Point E is also equidistant
from the same two points so it also could have been used as an operating point.
We also want to make sure that you understand that we could use any point
that lies on the line E - D since any point on that line is equidistant from
points C and Alloy A.
Gold is not a better conductor than silver. Let's look at the table again.
Gold is listed in the table as having a conductivity of 70% IACS while silver is
listed as having a conductivity of 105% IACS. Thus gold has a conductivity of
only 70% of that of copper while silver at 105% is even a better conductor of
electricity than copper.
You may have been misled because you happen to know that switching con-
tacts in highly reliable electronic equipment are gold plated. This is true, but
the gold is used because it does not corrode. Since it does not corrode it has
better conductivity than corroded (no longer pure) copper. Corrosion on the
copper switch contacts can, in fact, lead to no conductivity at all.
Sorry, the meter will not read zero. You must keep in mind that the meter will
always give an indication that is proportional to the distance between the
impedance of the operating point and the impedance of the test coil.
In this case we have allowed the coil to be lifted slightly from the surface of
Alloy A and the impedance of the inspection coil did change. But, the distance
between the impedance of the test coil and the impedance of the operating
point did not change. Thus, the reading on the meter does not change.
Since the meter reading does not change with lift-off we have determined a
way of operation where lift-off will not affect the meter reading.
The table is only a partial list of materials, but it illustrates that materials do
have different abilities to conduct electrical current. They range from good
conductors like copper and silver through poor conductors like nickel or steel
to nonconductors like wood or glass.
Now, if we establish a given magnetic field in an inspection coil and place the
coil, first, on a piece of copper, and then on a piece of aluminum, the coil's
magnetic field will be affected differently by each metal because of the dif-
ference in conductivity. The stronger eddy current induced in the copper will
produce a stronger field in opposition to the field of the coil.
Notice that we used a given magnetic field to test those materials. If we had
used a different magnetic field in each of those two tests we would not have
been comparing the two metals under exactly the same conditions and the
results would have been unreliable.
Right On! With point D selected as the operating point, lift-off will not affect
the meter reading since the distance from point D to point C is equal to the
distance from point D to Alloy A.
Now we want to point out that point Dis not the only point that we could have
used as an operating point. We could have used any point that is equidistant
from points C and Alloy A.
Students of geometry will recognize that the locus of all the points that are
equidistant from two points on a plane is the perpendicular bisector of the line
drawn between the two points. For those who are not students of geometry,
all this means is that we find a point midway between Alloy A and point C and
draw a perpendicular line at that point. In the illustration below we have
drawn that line (D to E) and have labeled it the "LIFT-OFF SUPPRESSION
LINE".
900 LIFT-OFF
SUPPRESSION
LINE
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No . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-42
Yes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-43
From page 2-33 2-34
But - there are other factors which can change the conductivity of a sample
of given material. While the inherent conductivity of a material is always the
same there are internal factors that can cause what appears to be a change in
the inherent conductivity. These are: 1) A combination of two or more
materials to form an alloy, 2) changes in the hardness of the material due to
heat treatment, 3) changes in the temperature of the material, 4) residual
stresses in the material, and 5) the presence of a thin coating or cladding of
another conductive material. Let's discuss these one at a time.
Alloys. Alloys are combinations of other metals and/or chemical elements with
a base metal to form what is essentially a new and different material whose
properties, including that of conductivity, are different from the base
material. The new material, so long as it has the same proportional amounts of
its elements, will always have the same conductivity. A variation of any of the
alloy elements will cause the conductivity to change. This change in conduc-
tivity is detectable with eddy current instruments, provided that the change
in conductivity is large enough to be detected. The purity of the alloy can be
tested in this manner when alloying elements increase or decrease the conduc-
tivity of the alloy.
An alloy of two base materials will have the same conductivity as one of the
base materials.
O.K.! The meter will read a value that is proportional to the length of the vector
from point D to Alloy A. This reading, of course, corresponds to the difference
in impedance between the inspection coil and the variable impedance.
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COIL RESISTANCE •••
In shifting our inspection coil from Alloy A to Alloy B, the meter reading will
change since the distance from point D to Alloy A is not the same as the
distance from point D to Alloy B. The change in the meter reading indicates
the difference in conductivity between the two alloys.
Notice that the distance from point D to Alloy A is equal to the distance from
point D to point C which is on the lift-off curve. Since these two distances are
equal ...
Just before the last review we stated that one of the properties of materials
that affects eddy current testing is the CONDUCTIVITY of the material.
Isn't it reasonable to expect that a material that has a conductivity of 20%
IACS would cause less effect on the field of the inspection coil than a material
that has a conductivity of 50% IACS since the eddy currents induced in the
material are of different strengths?
No, the meter will not read zero. Perhaps we should have described the test set
that we are using a little better.
VARIABLE
RESISTOR
VARIABLE
REACTANCE
Now, if the variable resistance and the variable reactance are set so that the
impedance of that leg of the bridge is at point D on the impedance-plane
diagram, and the impedance of the leg of the bridge containing the inspection
coil is at the point marked "Alloy A", the bridge will be out of balance. Since
the bridge is out of balance, the meter cannot read "zero."
Actually, with the variable impedance set at one point on the impedance-plane
diagram and the inspection coil impedance being at another point, the meter
will read a value that is proportional to the difference in impedance between
the two legs of the bridge. In other words, the meter will show a value that is
proportional to the distance between the two points described.
It is very important that you understand this concept. Now turn to page 5-39
and continue.
From page 2-34 2-36
An alloy does not have the same conductivity as that of one of its base metals.
An alloy of different materials always has different properties (hardness, ten-
sile strength, malleability, etc.) than the parent materials. Conductivity is one
of those properties.
It is this fact that makes eddy current testing most useful in the identification
of different materials and their alloys. In fact, the purity of a metal or an alloy
can be determined through knowledge of what its conductivity should be or
by comparison of its conductivity with the conductivity of a standard for that
material.
Let's put the statement another way. Conductivity is one of the properties
that identifies a material. Tin, for example, is a silvery metallic element with
an atomic weight of 118.69, a melting point of 231.89°C, a specific gravity of
7.31, and a conductivity of 15% IACS. All of these are properties of tin. Any
material that has these properties is tin since tin is the only element that has
these properties. Any material that has a conductivity different from 15% is
not pure tin.
When using the type of equipment where the bridge network may be balanced
(nulled) by adjustment of resistance and inductive reactance, the bridge may
be set to operate from any point on the impedance plane. Let's see how this
capability is used so that the response is more sensitive to one variable and
less sensitive to the other.
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COIL RESISTANCE------
Let's "dial in" the right amount of inductive reactance and resistance into the
balancing impedance so that the equipment is set to operate from the point
marked D on the impedance plane diagram shown above. If everything is as it
should be, the impedance of the inspection coil, when it is placed on the
material, will lie on the conductivity line at the point marked Alloy A.
Very good! You seem to recognize that an alloy will have its own distinct
conductivity.
Up to now, eddy current testing looks too good to be true. Right? Here's
where we begin to complicate the picture.
Material hardness. The hardness of some materials (metals) will affect the con-
ductivity. A material that has been heat treated or that has been over-heated
in service will also have a change in it's conductivity. This change is due to an
internal change in the material. If the change in conductivity is great enough
(as it is in age-hardenable aluminum) it is possible to monitor the heat-treat
process to assure that the proper hardness is attained.
When inspecting an article such as an axle or shaft that has been in service,
the presence of an area that has become hardened or softened due to
overheating is ...
4. inductive reactance
•
Return to page fi-32,
frame 6.
900
9. lift-off
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14. increases
•
Return to page 5-32,
frame 16.
19. decrease
This completes the review. Now turn to page 5-37 and continue.
'
From page 2-3 7 2-38
Right! The test technician has to be aware of the possibility that such hardened
areas are likely to exist in articles that have been in service.
Here again the technician must realize this effect exists when he is working
with materials at temperatures above or below normal. Fortunately, articles
under test very seldom have hot spots (the article is generally at the same
temperature all over) so test results are simply shifted in conductivity and are
not garbled as a result of temperature changes.
i=::::::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::=:::==t~~~-ALUMINUM
COPPER
3. lags behind
8. impedances
90° 0
0
•
0
\\100% 00
18. increase
•
19. Increasing the frequency also causes the depth of penetration to
•
From page 2-3 7 2-39
You feel that an article such as an axle or shaft that has been in service is
unlikely to have a heat affected area. You may be right, but unless you know
that you are right, you are wrong. If you are absolutely certain that the article
has not been affected by heat, then, and only then, may you assume that there
will be no changes in conductivity due to hardened or softened areas.
Until you are certain, you have to assume that any changes in conductivity
might be due to service inflicted heat.
2. phase
3. The phase angle is a measure of how much the current through a test
coil the voltage applied to the coil.
7. conductivity
•
8. The conductivity curve on the impedance-plane diagram is the locus
of all the im that result from changes in conductivity .
12. lower
•
13. The point at which the thickness curve meets the conductivity curve
identifies the of of the eddy
currents.
•
From page 2-38 2-40
Apparently you feel that the conductivity of the aluminum, since it was on
top, would be the conductivity of the article. Let's put an inspection coil on
the article and see what happens to the field of the coil.
ALUMINUM
COPPER
Note that the field of the coil enters both the aluminum and the copper, so
both materials will affect the field.
If the aluminum had been thick enough so that the field of the coil did not
reach the copper your answer would have been correct. The conductivity of
the article would have been the conductivity of the aluminum.
But here we are talking about a very thin coating of aluminum (say 1 or 2 mils).
Now do you agree that the conductivity of the article would not be 61% ?
1. length
OL_ 00
6. 90
90° •
\ 00
11. thickness
•
12. Increasing the operating frequency causes the material under test to
move towards the (lower,higher) end of the conductivity
curve.
16. thin
•
17. To make eddy currents more sensitive to dimensional changes we can
_____ the frequency.
•
From page 2-38 2-41
You feel that the conductivity of the article would be 100% IACS (the conduc-
tivity of the copper). You probably decided that since there was so much more
copper than aluminum that the conductivity of the copper would be the cor-
rect answer. You were wrong. Here we show the situation as it would exist if
we had shown the inspection coil and its field.
Note that the magnetic field extends through the aluminum and into the cop-
per. Most of the field lies in the copper, that's true, but a tiny portion of the
stongest part of the field is in the aluminum. This small increment is enough
to lessen the conductivity of the copper portion. So, the copper looses a tiny
portion of its conductivity that is almost :replacedby the conductivity of the
aluminum.
5. in phase
•
6. The inductive reactance componentof the impedancelags behind the
applied voltage by __ degrees.
10. A
90° •
~
0 00
15. decreases
•
16. Eddy currents are more sensitive to dimensional changes when the
material under test is (thin, thick).
•
From page 2-38 2-42
Exactly! The conductivity of that article will be something less than the con-
ductivity of the copper since the aluminum intercepts a small portion of the
magnetic field that would otherwise be available for the induction of eddy cur-
rent in the copper. The aluminum also has its eddy currents but they will not
be as strong as they would have been for an equal thickness of copper; so the
conductivity would be something less than 100% IACS.
Now, suppose that the aluminum cladding was not of equal thickness over the
entire surface of the article. Let's assume that the cladding was to be 2-mils
thick but, due to a problem in the manufacturing process, the cladding over
part of the article was only 1-mil thick. These under-cladded areas can be
located by eddy current testing because the conductivity of the article
changes as the inspection coil moves from the thicker cladding to the thinner
cladding.
Now, think carefully about this question before selecting your answer.
When the inspection coil is placed over an area where the cladding is 2-mils
thick, the conductivity is 98.5% IACS. When the coil is placed over an area
where the cladding is 1-mil thick the conductivity will be ...
Good thinking! The conductivity will increase since there is now more copper
and less aluminum in the magnetic field.
Now let's reverse the materials. Let's clad a bar of aluminum with 2-mils of
copper.
No! Eddy currents are not more sensitive to dimensional changes when the
material is thicker.
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THICKNESS IN Ml LS
Notice the change in impedance (the space) between the thickness of 1 mil and
2 mils on the thickness curve. Compare this change in impedance with the
change in impedance between the thicknesses of 7 mils and 8 mils. The change
is much greater between 1 and 2 mils.
Thus the curve shows that eddy current tests are more sensitive to dimen-
sional changes when the material is thin.
You felt that the conductivity would decrease as the coil was moved from the
area with 2-mil cladding to the area with 1-mil cladding. That is incorrect for
this situation (copper cladded aluminum). Let's look at a sketch of the situation.
2-MIL
ALUMINUM
1-MIL
ALUMINUM ---1 \\>sl>ml..::'.'
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2 •
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COPPER --
What we are attempting to show here is that more of the magnetic field is in
the copper when the aluminum cladding is only 1-mil thick than when the
aluminum cladding is 2-mils thick.
Since more of the field is in the copper, the conductivity has to increase. Thus
the decrease in the thickness of the aluminum cladding causes the conductivity
of the article to increase.
Yes, eddy currents are more sensitive to dimensional changes when the
material is thinner. This is plainly shown on the impedance-plane diagram.
There is one more effect that we want to point out. What happens to the
thickness curves at different frequencies?
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THICKNESS IN MILS THICKNESS IN MILS
Good thinking! Since the copper cladding at 100% IACS has better conduc-
tivity than the aluminum at 61 % IACS, the cladding can only increase the
conductivity of the article. It will become greater than 61% IACS.
Now, reviewing for a moment the last few pages, you must realize that in some
cases the addition of a conductive coating to an article will cause the conduc-
tivity of the article to increase while in other cases addition of a conductive
coating will cause the conductivity of the article to decrease.
An increase occurs when the coating is more conductive than the base
material. A decrease occurs when the coating is less conductive than the base
material.
The point is that the eddy current test technician has to keep his head out of
the sand. He has to think about what he is doing, what he is working with, and
the results that he expects to see so that he can recognize unexpected results.
We have an article made of brass (conductivity - 28% IACS) which has been
plated with gold (conductivity - 70% IACS). We are to check the thickness of
the plating.
As the plating becomes thinner, the conductivity of the article will ...
Fine! As you have seen, the impedance-plane diagram agrees with what we
learned previously.
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120 KHz
THICKNESS IN Ml LS
Notice the spread between 7 and 8 mils on the thickness curve. Compare this
spread with the spread between 1 and 2 mils.
This difference in spread tells us that eddy currents are more sensitive to
dimensional changes when the material is ...
Nope, the conductivity will be something greater than 61 % IACS; and here's
why.
If the article were made of bare aluminum the conductivity would be 61%
IACS, right? Now, the copper cladding by itself will have a conductivity of
100% IACS, right?
Then, when we add the copper cladding to the aluminum article, we are adding
a better conductor to a poorer conductor; so the conductivity of the article has
to increase. It's as simple as that.
Also, the thicker the cladding the more the conductivity will increase. This
could be continued until the thickness of the copper exceeded the depth to
which the magnetic field penetrates. In that case the conductivity would be
100% IACS (the conductivity of pure copper).
30
-- --- --- -- --- ----
THICKNESS
- - ----- -
------
-- __
·...._...._
.....••..•.
14 ":---...
. ...•.....••....
120 KHz
THICKNESS IN MILS
Note that these key thicknesses are decreasing as the conductivity increases.
Thus, the depth of penetration decreases as the conductivity increases. The
impedance-plane diagram bears out those facts that we explained in a
previous chapter.
You have selected the wrong answer. In order to get the correct answer to a
question like that you have to have the picture of conductivity firmly in your
mind.
In this case we have the material with the lower conductivity (brass at 28%
IACS) as a base on which we have added a layer of the material with the
higher conductivity (gold at 70% IACS). When the layer of gold was added,
the conductivity of the article increased because we added material of a higher
conductivity. Right?
Now if that layer gets thinner there will be less of it so the conductivity will
decrease.
THICKNESS
14 .
. .....__
120 KHz
THICKNESS IN MILS
Remember that as we move upwards along the conductivity curve the conduc-
tivity of the materials is decreasing. In a previous chapter we said that the
depth of penetration is affected by the conductivity of the material. The
impedance-planediagram bears this out.
Right! Since the plating was of a material with a higher conductivity than the
base material, the plating increased the conductivity; so thin areas in the
plating will cause a decrease in the conductivity.
We have now covered those factors that affect measurement of the CONDUC-
TIVITY of materials. We have also explained how to get rid of adverse effects
caused by PERMEABILITY.
ARTICLE A ARTICLE B
In article A the material is so thick that the coil's magnetic field is completely
contained in the material. In article B the same material is thin enough so that
the magnetic field extends completely through the material. The point being
that part of the field not in the material does not cause eddy currents.
Since the two articles are of the same material, we know that the inherent con-
ductivity of the two materials is the same, yet, because of the difference in
thickness, we can expect that a measurement of the two articles will show that
there is less conductivity in ...
Perhaps you didn't understand the significance of the numbers along the
thickness curves. Here's the illustration again.
THICKNESS
120 KHz
THICKNESS IN MILS
The numbers along the thickness curves represent the thickness of the
material in mils (thousanths of an inch). Now notice that the depth of penetra-
tion of the brass is about 40 mils and of the lead about 70 mils.
Thus, from the impedance-plane diagram, we can see that the depth of
penetration in lead is greater than the depth of penetration in brass.
You feel that the thicker article will register less conductivity than the thinner
article. That feeling is incorrect.
Since the entire magnetic field of the inspection coil is contained within the
article shown in view A, more magnetic lines of force are intercepting (or cut-
ting through) the conductor. We learned back in Chapter 1 that stronger cur-
rents are induced in a conductor when more lines of force are cutting through
the conductor.
In view B, not all of the lines of force are inducing current at all times, since
for at least part of the time the magnetic field is outside the material. Thus
less current is induced in the article.
The coil senses this difference in the induced currents as a change in conduc-
tivity, with the thin material having less conductivity than the thick material.
The test technician must be able to recognize that the change in conductivity
is due to the dimensional factor of the thinness of the material, and not to
some other factor.
Slow down a little. You have selected the answer that says that the point at
which the thickness curve meets the conductivity curve represents the point
at which the thickness of the brass cannot be increased. Don't be fast-talked
into selecting a statement that is as wrong as this one.
The fact is that, starting with a 1-milthick piece of brass, we have gradually
increased the thickness until the thickness has reached the depth of penetra-
tion. At that point, any further increase in the thickness of the brass will not
affect the impedance of the coil.
The meeting of the thickness curve with the conductivity curve does not mean
that the thickness cannot be increased. It does mean that further increases in
thickness will not affect the impedance of the test coil.
Good choice! A measurement of the conductivity of the two articles will show
that the thinner article has less conductivity than the thicker article even
though all other factors are identical.
The next question is, "Will an even thinner article have even less conductivity?"
The answer is so obvious that we'll answer, "Yes, an even thinner article will
have even less conductivity."
Does this suggest that we could possibly gage the thickness of thin materials
using eddy current testing?
Correct. The thickness curve meets the conductivity curve at the point where
the thickness equals the depth of penetration of the eddy currents. Increasing
the thickness of the brass beyond that point has no effect whatsoever on the·
impedance of the test circuit.
You will recall that the depth of penetration depends upon the conductivity of
the material and the frequency applied to the test coil. Here is an expanded
view of the impedance-plane diagram showing how the thickness variations
differ for three different kinds of material (the frequency is held constant).
THICKNESS
120 KHz
THICKNESS IN MILS
Compare the thickness curves of brass and lead on the illustration above.
Which will allow the greatest depth of penetration?
Up to this point we have not emphasized the eddy current path in the
material, but the paths that the eddy currents take do play a part in eddy cur-
rent tests. The eddy currents flow in circular paths that are parallel to the
winding of the inspection coil. They must form complete paths and, in thick
materials, are concentrated near the surface next to the coil as shown here.
If the material contains a discontinuity, the eddy currents are forced out of
their normal circular paths. The paths become longer. Because the paths
become longer, the currents are weakened, and the eddy current magnetic
field is weakened.
AIR
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120 KHz
THICKNESS IN Ml LS
COi L RESISTANCE ••
From the illustration above, what is the significance of the fact that, as the
thickness of the brass increases, the thickness curve meets the conductivity
curve?
The thickness at that point equals the depth of penetration . . . . . . Page 5-23
The thickness at that point represents the point
beyond which the thickness cannot be increased. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 5-24
From page 2-50 2-52
It is true that, when eddy currents are used to gage thicknesses of material,
the material must be alike in every way except for it's thickness. But that's
not the entire story.
You do realize that we are gaging the thickness of the material by detecting
differences in conductivity between various thicknesses. Well then, anything
that changes the apparent conductivity of the material will affect the accu-
racy of the test. Changing test coils, using a different power source, or using a
different meter will affect the accuracy of the tests.
To sum up the discussion, we are saying that in eddy current testing of the
thickness of thin materials the equipment must be calibrated against known
thicknesses (standards) of the material. Then, once calibrated for that par-
ticular test, the equipment, or settings on the equipment, cannot be changed
without recalibrating.
In short, all conditions of the test must be identical except for the thickness of
the material.
+I
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Note that the locus of any point representing a given material shifts towards
the lower end of the curve as the frequency increases. Thus, it is possible to
improve the ability to separate the two variables of conductivity and lift-off
by increasing the test frequency.
No, a crack will not cause the coil's magnetic field to decrease. The crack
weakens the eddy current, the eddy current magnetic field weakens, and the
strength of the coil's magnetic field increases.
Here is a diagram that will help you figure out how the presence of a crack
causes the coil's field to increase.
TEST COIL
MAGNETIC FIELD TEST COIL
MAGNETIC FIELD
~~~~f~I~
RENT
FIELD~
• ---
I
~CRACK
EDDY CURRENT -
This diagram attempts to show the change in the magnetic fields due to the
presence of the crack. The crack weakens the eddy currents by forcing them to
take longer paths around the crack. Since the currents are weakened, the
magnetic field caused by the presence of eddy currents weakens. Since the
eddy current magnetic field always opposes the magnetic field of the coil,
weakening the eddy current magnetic field strengthens the magnetic field of
the coil.
Study the diagram until you have this relationship firmly in mind, then pro-
ceed to page 2-54.
From page 5-1 7 5-20
Somehow you haven't made the proper connection between the impedance
and the resistance and inductive reactance components of the impedance.
CONDUCTIVITY
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<( ANCE COMPONENT
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..J
0 100% IACS "'
u A
COIL RESISTANCE
Note that the change in impedance is mostly in the vertical direction - the
inductive reactance direction. The change in the horizontal direction - the
resistance direction - is small.
Yes, the coil' s magnetic field will increase due to the presence of the crack. It
is the increase in the coil' s magnetic field that allows us to detect the presence
of the crack in otherwise sound material.
Now, there is one more dimensional factor that you should be aware of. It is
called "Edge Effect".
When the inspection coil is brought too near the edge of an article the circular
paths of the eddy current become distorted since there is no material in which
the current can flow. As the coil moves closer and closer to the edge, less and
less of the current can flow.
Since the edge of the article interferes strongly with the flow of eddy current,
the magnitude of its effect on an eddy current test is very large. The limits as
to how close to the edge a coil can be placed is determined by the size of the
coil. Locating the limit at which edge effect becomes a factor to be considered
can be accomplished by approaching the edge with the inspection coil at
several different places (to assure that the reading is not affected by some
discontinuity) and observing the initial change in the instrument. This initial
change marks the limit of coil measurement towards the edge.
Edge effect makes the detection of cracks located at or near the edge of an
article ...
CHANGE IN RESISTANCE
COMPONENTDUE TO
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COIL RESISTANCE
In short it is easier to determine the cause of the change if the angle between
lift-off and conductivity is large.
You selected the answer that says, ''Edge effect makes the detection of cracks
located at or near the edge of an article easier." The opposite is true. Edge
effect makes the detection of edge cracks more difficult.
The reason that edge crack detection is made more difficult by edge effect is
easy to explain. To the inspection coil the edge of an article looks like an enor-
mous crack. So the addition of a little bitty crack wouldn't make all that much
difference.
Yes, edge effect does make the detection of edge cracks more difficult, but not
impossible.
It would seem then that in testing materials that have less conductivity it
would be more difficult to differentiate between the variables of conductivity
and lift-off. And so it is, but there is a way to improve that situation.
Do you recall that we said that the faster the magnetic field changes in a con-
ductive material the higher the eddy current induced? Since this is so, then
increasing the frequency of the alternating current through the coil will cause
more current to flow in the material. Increasing the frequency also increases
the inductive reactance component of the impedance.
All of these factors that are affected by a change in the operating frequency
have an effect on the impedance-plane diagram. First, the change in inductive
reactance changes the impedance values so we will have to plot a new curve
for each new frequency.
When we plot the new curves we discover that in spite of the values being dif -
ferent the curves are similar in many ways. One of the differences is that the
materials are moved along the curve towards the lower end of the curve.
The operator must continually keep in mind that when he changes the fre-
quency he also changes the depth of penetration - higher frequencies have
less depth of penetration.
Now turn to page 5-21 for an illustration of the effect of change in frequency.
From page 2-54 2-56
As you surmised, the magnitude of the edge effect will mask any edge cracks
that may exist, but it is possible to detect edge cracks because their effect on
eddy currents is in addition to the edge effect.
If the coil-to-edgedistance can be held constant while the coil is moved along
the edge, the effect due to the edge will remain at a constant value. A crack
will cause a change above this edge-effect balance point. This can be accom-
plished by using a special holder or fixture so that the coil-to-edgedistance is
maintained at a constant value.
Now let's summarize the factors that affect the conductivity of materials. It is
obvious that there are quite a few. The innate conductivity of the material can
be used to identify the material provided that the factors of material hard-
ness, temperature, and residual stresses are either not present or can be
eliminated; and provided that the dimensional factors of material thickness,
lift-off, discontinuities, and edge effect are either not present or can be
eliminated.
The thickness of a given material can be gaged provided that the material is
not too thick and that the other factors which affect conductivity are not pres-
ent or can be eliminated.
Cracks and other discontinuities can be detected provided that the other fac-
tors which affect conductivity are not present or can be eliminated.
CONDUCTIVITY
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CHANGE IN INDUCTIVE A
00% IACS
0
C) REACTANCE COMPONENT CHANGE IN RESISTANCE
COMPONENT
COIL RESISTANCE
Now suppose that there was a change in lift-off so that the test coil impedance
went from the point marked A to the point marked B. If we divide that change
into its horizontal (resistance) and vertical (inductive reactance) components,
we will find that the horizontal component is much larger than the vertical
component. Therefore the change in impedance at this point is primarily a
change in the resistance component rather than a change in the inductive
reactance component.
Let's see if you understand what we've been talking about well enough to
apply the correct thinking to a change in conductivity near 100% IACS.
The eddy current test technician must be continuously aware of those factors
which, if present, could affect the results of the particular test he is conducting.
An important part of his job is to know which factors could be present and how
to eliminate them, or their effect, from the test results. He even has to be able to
recognize when the factors are such that eddy currents shouldn't be used for
the test.
How all this is accomplished will be covered in the chapters that follow. But
first, turn to the next page for the start of a short review.
From page 5-15 5-16
We have been speaking of only one point on the diagram - the 100% IACS
point. If we plotted the lift-off curve for each material we would get a family of
lift-off curves that looks something like this.
900
0% IACS
\~"
---:- -._ ..._------
' -~=--
,,:-,."-..::,,...~..._
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<{
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Now let's compare the angle at which the lift-off curve approaches the conduc-
tivity curve. Compare the angle marked A with the angle marked B.
5. True
15. decrease
Excellent! The 0% IACS point on the conductivity curve indicates that the
magnetic field of the test coil is no longer inducing eddy currents in the
material.
Keep in mind that the lift-off curve we have just described is for one material
only - the 100% IACS material.
CONDUCTIVITY
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CHANGE IN INDUCTIVE
0
u REACTANCE COMPONENT CHANGE IN RESISTANCE
COMPONENT
COIL RESISTANCE
Notice that the effect of changes in lift-off are in a different direction than
changes in conductivity on the impedance plane diagram. This fact suggests
that there might be a way to separate and identify changes due to either
variable - lift-off or conductivity. And there is, but we'll go into that a little
later in the program.
From the illustration above, it is apparent that at 100% IACS a lift-off change
is primarily a change in the resistance component of the impedance rather
than a change in the inductive reactance component of the impedance.
1. Annealed Copper
6. True
16. flow
17. Edge effect makes the detection of cracks located at or near the
edges of a specimen (easier, harder) to detect with
eddy currents.
From page 5-12 5-14
No! No! No! The impedance is measured by the length of the vector from
point zero to the 0% IACS point. The test coil always has some impedance
value, even when it is held in air.
The test coil's magnetic field no longer reaches the material. Therefore, eddy
currents are not being induced into the material.
2. 100%
7. False
12. decrease
17. harder
18. Edge cracks can be detected with eddy current test methods if the
coil is moved along the edge so that the -to- _
distance is held constant.
From page 5-10 5-13
You felt that a decrease in the conductivity of the bronze would cause the
impedance of the test coil to move down and to the right. That is incorrect.
Let's look at the curve again. Notice that the 0% IACS (no conductivity) point
is at the upper left and the 100% IACS point is at the lower right.
900
0% IACS (AIR) ...___
D~Cf:1
~.<1s,t\tc
r CONDUCTIVITY Col\(
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LOCUS
cl',v
l)'J.-
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100% IACS
--~ ~--'-~~..._~_._~__._~~..__~_._~__.oo
COIL RESISTANCE ----~
This tells us that a decrease in the conductivity causes the test coil impedance
to move towards the 0% IACS point (up and to the left). Thus, as the conduc-
tivity of the bronze decreases, the test coil impedance moves where?
Up and to the left along the conductivity curve. Do you see it?
3. less
8. conductivity
13. less
Right! A decrease in the conductivity of the bronze will cause the impedance
to move up and to the left on the curve.
Again we remind you that this conductivity curve is the result of a particular
test setup. Any change in the test setup will result in different values of
impedance being obtained. The different values of impedance will, in turn,
result in a slightly different curve. However, the curve we have shown is
representative of all conductivity curves.
Now let's see how lift-off looks on the impedance-plane diagram. When the
test coil is held in contact with the 100% IACS material the impedance value
will fall on the conductivity curve. As the coil is gradually lifted off the
material by means of paper shims placed between the coil and the material,
the impedance moves in the direction of the dashed line as shown below.
90°
0%1ACS
(AIR)
.-,-----
\
\ 'tvc1y
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t
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100% IACS
O if
COIL RESISTANCE Ill
Note that as the coil is lifted more and more that the lift-off curve finally
meets the conductivity curve at the 0% IACS point.
4. decrease
10. The conductivity of this test specimen will be a little less than
___ %.
14. No
You felt that the curve represents all the materials that cause the same imped-
ance value in the test coil. Stop and think for a moment.
Now, if all the impedance values we measured had been equal, all the vectors
would have been the same length. Obviously they were not the same length, so
the curve does not represent materials that cause the same impedance value in
the test coil.
Return to page 5-8, study the diagram, and select another answer.
3-1
You will recall that, when an alternating current is applied to a coil, the
amount of current that flows through the coil is determined by the impedance
of the coil. You will also recall that impedance is the result of the resistance
and the inductive reactance of the coil.
In the simple test circuit shown schematically below, we are showing the
inspection coil which consists of a resistance (R) and an inductive reactance
(XL) connected to a source of alternating current. We have also placed an
ammeter in the circuit to measure the amount of current flowing through the
coil.
r-
1
---,I
I R I
ALTERNATING I Ii---lNSPECTION COIL
CURRENT I
SOURCE I XL I
I I
I
L_ _ _JI
If we increase the value of the resistance, the current flowing through the
ammeter will decrease. Since there is more resistance to current flow, less cur-
rent will flow, and the ammeter reading will decrease.
Now, give us your best guess on this one. If the value of the inductive react-
ance increases, the ammeter reading will . . .
Right! The conductivity of any material will cause the impedance of the test
coil to fall somewhere on this curve. The curve is the locus of all the imped-
ances that will result from changes in conductivity for this particular test
setup. If all other factors are held constant, a change in conductivity will
result in an impedance value that will fall somewhere on this curve.
goo
0%1ACS
(AIR)
i
CONDUCTIVITY
LOCUS
w
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0
u
oo
Perhaps it was unfair to have asked you to guess at this answer but we hoped
that you would guess that an increase in the inductive reactance would have the
same effect that an increase in resistance would have, that is - an increase in
either the resistance or the inductive reactance will cause a decrease in the cur-
rent. The reading on the ammeter will decrease in either case.
Let's review a little. The impedance of an ac circuit is the factor that resists
the flow of current. Thus more impedance means less current.
The impedance is made up of two factors - resistance (R) and inductive reac-
tance (XL). Increasing either of these two factors increases the impedance of
the circuit.
No! The curve does not represent all the materials that have the same conduc-
tivity value. If you think for a moment you will realize that each kind of
material has a different inherent conductivity. A difference in conductivity is
one of the properties that distinguish one material from another.
Return to page 5-8, reread the information on how we drew this curve, and see
if you can select a better answer.
From page 3-1 3-3
v I
A
I I
--,
R I I
--,I
R
I I I
I I I
XL I I XL I
I
IL_L....-:J
___ _J
I L ___ _JI
AIR J COPPER l
Suppose that we have read the ammeter with the coil held in air and obtained
a reading of 10 amperes. We then place the coil on top of a piece of copper and
the meter reads 9.5 amperes. We have changed nothing else.
The change in the meter reading is due to a change in the coil' s ...
r
w
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1-
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4:
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o
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0
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100% IACS
00
0
COIL RESISTANCE ------
What is the significance of the curve we've just added to the impedance-plane
diagram? One of the following statements indicates the significance of the
curve. See if you can select the correct one.
Excellent choice. Since nothing else in the circuit changed, the only thing that
could cause a change in the meter reading would be that the impedance of the
coil changed somehow.
This is the link we needed. In Chapter 2 we discussed the ways in which the
coil's magnetic field was affected by a change in conductivity. Now we have
shown that a change in conductivity of the material under the inspection coil
(from air at 0% IACS to copper at 100% IACS) has caused a change in a meter
reading.
From this we can deduce that a change in the coil's magnetic field causes a
change in the impedance of the coil. And now we know that this change will
cause a change in the reading on the meter. Something that we can see and
record.
Here is a block diagram showing the basics of what is occuring in the test we
just described. Everything that is happening in the material is shown below
the dashed line. Everything that is happening in the test circuit is shown
above the dashed line.
CAUSES
TEST Cl RCU IT
CHANGE IN COi L'S
IMPEDANCE -
~ CHANGE IN
METER READING
-----------
CHANGE IN CAUSES
-
--+--
CHANGE IN COIL'S
-------------
CON DUCT IV ITV - MAGNETIC FIELD MATERIAL
The box in the center of this illustration shows the deduction that we just
made as a result of the test we just described.
The box in the center of the illustration above tells us that a change in the
coil's magnetic field causes a change in the ...
What has all this got to do with eddy current testing? Just this - As we have
said countless of times, the conditions that exist in the material under test
affects the impedance of the test coil. So diagramming the impedance gives us
a tool for understanding the relationship between the impedance of the test
coil and changes in conductivity of the material caused by those factors that
affect the conductivity. This diagnostic tool is called the "Impedance-Plane"
diagram.
Let's take several kinds of material, making sure that they are thick enough
so that the thickness (thinness) does not affect the readings, and measure the
impedance and phase angle produced in the test coil as it is passed over each
piece. The result will look something like this.
900
0% IACS
(AIR)
i
w
o
z
<(
1-
o
<(
w
a::
w
>
j::
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0
z
.J
0
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100%IACS
00
0
COIL RESISTANCE------
You felt that the change in the meter reading was due to a change in the
resistance in the coil. This answer is partially true. It is partially true because
the resistance of the coil does change but so does the inductive reactance.
The change in the meter reading is caused by two factors: the change in the
resistance and the inductive reactance. Return to page 3-3 and see if there
isn't an answer that includes both resistance and inductive reactance.
From page 5-5 5-6
Now that you understand the meaning of the impedance vector, you must
clearly understand that the impedance vector we showed on the preceeding
pages is made up of two components: the resistance (R) component and the
inductive reactance (XL) component as shown here.
90°
I
I
Vl
~ I
J:
0 I
M I
II
...J I
x I
I
I
0 ...._____ 1 1 I I 1111-' - - -- · · - en
R; 4 OHMS
Note that the resistance component is in-phase with the voltage (it lies along
the zero-degree line) and the inductive reactance component is 90 ° out of
phase with the voltage (it lies along the 90 ° line).
Thus by plotting the impedance on a graph we can determine how much of the
impedance is due to resistance and how much is due to inductive reactance.
You felt that the change in the meter reading was due to a change in the induc-
tive reactance in the coil. This answer is partially true. It is partially true
because the inductive reactance of the coil does change but so does the
resistance.
The change in the meter reading is caused by both factors: a change in the
inductive reactance and a change in the resistance of the coil. Return to page
3-3 and see if there isn't an answer that includes both resistance and inductive
reactance.
From page 5-4 5-5
The current through the inspection coil lags behind the voltage applied to the
coil by 37 degrees.
a ; 37
0
o·, t - - -- --oo
Here is the vector diagram again. The length of the line O - Z represents the
value of the impedance. Since the line is shown to be 5 ohms in length, the
impedance of the test circuit is 5 ohms.
The angle a represents the phase angle between the voltage and the current
that results from the presence of the impedance in the circuit. Since this angle
is shown to be 37°, then the current lags behind the voltage by 37°.
It is very important that you understand a vector diagram and that you know
what the vectors mean.
Right! The change in the coil's magnetic field causes a change in the coil's
impedance. This is the link between the material and the test circuit.
Notice that we call the coil, the meter, and the ac power supply a "test
circuit". We do this because the test circuits used in eddy current testing
become very complex as we go along and include more than the ac power sup-
ply, the meter, and the inspection coil we have shown here. While the circuit
shown works as advertized, it is not very sensitive to the minute material
changes we will be looking for. For example, we obtained only a half-amp
change in meter reading for a 100% change in conductivity. This circuit would
not be very sensitive to a change in conductivity caused by a small crack.
r- --,
1 I
I R I
ALTERNATING
I Ir---lNSPECTION COIL
CURRENT I
POWER SUPPLY I XL I
I I
I I
L_ _ _j
Here is the basic test circuit again. It contains three elements that are com-
mon to every eddy current test circuit. Every eddy current test circuit must
have at least three elements. Can you name them?
1.
2.
3.
Excellent choice! We can tell that the gradual change in conductivity is due to
a change in hardness and not a change due to the presence of a discontinuity
for two reasons: First, the change is gradual (unlike the change due to the
presence of a discontinuity), and second, the material under test has a history
of applied heat.
In this same manner, simple reasoning can differentiate changes that might
occur because of temperature differences or because of the presence of inter-
nally stressed areas. The real problem is to differentiate between changes in
impedance that are due to conductivity factors and changes that are due to
lift-off or fill-factor. The paragraphs that followpresent detailed methods and
techniques that are available through the use of more sophisticated test
instruments.
0
a= 37
o•, t - ----oo
To review a little, look at the diagram above and complete these statements.
The current through the inspection coil lags behind the voltage applied to the
coil by __ . The impedance of the test circuit is _
Now turn to the next page and see if you completed these statements correctly.
From page 3-4 3-8
Sorry, you're not looking at the box in the center of the illustration. It's true
that a change in the magnetic field ultimately causes a change in the reading
on the meter but the point that we want to make is contained in the box in the
center of the illustration.
CAUSES _
TEST CIRCUIT
CHANGE IN COi L'S
IMPEDANCE . CHANGE IN
METER READING
---------
CHANGE IN
CONDUCTIVITY
CAUSES ~
~
--+--
CHANGE IN COIL'S
MAGNETIC FIELD
~------
MATERIAL
The box in the center indicates that a change in the magnetic field of the coil
causes a change in the impedance of the coil. This fact is the key to all eddy
current testing. It is very important that you understand that it is this one
fact that ties the material to the test circuit. It enables you to understand how
a factor in the material can affect the meter.
"A history of applied heat" is certainly one of the requisites for determining
whether a change in conductivity is due to hardening within the material and
not due to some other factor that could cause a gradual change.
Every eddy current test circuit contains three elements. These are: 1) an ac
power supply, 2) a meter, and 3) a coil.
A more sensitive test circuit can be obtained with the basic bridge circuit
shown here.
INSPECTION
COIL IMPEDANCE
The basic bridge circuit consists of two balanced resistors (R1 and R2), the
inspection coil, a balancing impedance, and an ammeter. These units are con-
nected in a bridge format; i.e., a resistor and the inspection coil in one leg of
the bridge, a resistor and a balancing impedance in the other leg of the bridge,
and an ammeter across the two legs. The ac source is connected across the
bridge.
When the bridge is in balance (resistors and impedances equal) the meter will
read zero amps. When the inspection coil is placed on or near a test sample,
there is a change in impedance in that leg of the bridge, the bridge becomes
unbalanced, and the ammeter will indicate a current that is proportional to the
imbalance. The bridge circuit is far more sensitive to impedance changes than
the basic test circuit.
The inspection coil of the basic bridge circuit is held in air and the ammeter
shows a reading. This means that ...
But, what do we know? Suppose that there was something else in that
material that could cause a gradual change in the coil impedance. How do we
know that the change is due to a change in the hardness and not to this other
unknown factor?
When the ammeter reads zero amps, the technician knows that the bridge is in
perfect balance. Resistor R 1 is exactly equal to resistor R2 and the balancing
impedance is exactly equal to the coil's impedance.
Now, no matter where the coil is placed, if there is a reading on the meter of
anything other than zero amps, the bridge is unbalanced.
In the preceeding chapters we have explained all factors that affect the eddy
currents induced by the inspection coil and their effects on the test results. In
this chapter we will explain how to determine which variable is causing the
change in the meter reading.
Eddy current testing is fairly simple to perform. The most difficult task for
the operator is to be able to judge with any degree of certainty whether a
change in test coil impedance is due to a change in lift-off or is due to a change
in one of the factors that affect conductivity.
For example, we have learned that a change in the hardness of a material will
affect its conductivity. We also know that the presence of a discontinuity will
also affect the conductivity of the material.
When conducting a test with a surface coil we note a gradual change in con-
ductivity. We can tell that this change in conductivity is due to a change in
the hardness, and not a change due to a discontinuity, because ...
Excellent choice. The bridge is indeed unbalanced. So that brings up the ques-
tion, "Where is the coil when the bridge is in balance?" The answer is, "It
depends."
Suppose that we could change the value of the balancing impedance whenever
we wanted. Then we could balance the bridge with the coil placed wherever we
wanted. We could hold the coil in air then balance the bridge. We could place
the coil on a piece of copper then balance the bridge. We could place the coil on
a very thin piece of tin, then balance the bridge.
Suppose that we balanced the bridge with the coil in air. Then, without chang-
ing anything else, we placed the coil on a thick piece of pure annealed copper
and observed that the ammeter read something other than zero.
In this case the reading on the ammeter will most likely be caused by ...
the difference between the conductivity of air and copper . . . . . . . . Page 3-12
a discontinuity in the copper Page 3-13
4-31
4. False
•
Return to page 4-27,
frame 6.
9. False
10. Eddy currents are more dense at the surface of an article than
below the surface. (True - False)
•
Return to page 4-27,
frame 11.
14. less
•
Return to page 4-27,
frame 16.
20. edge
This completes the review. Now turn to page 5-1 and continue.
•
From page 3-11 3-12
Excellent! With the bridge balanced with the coil in air (0% conductivity) the
test circuit is set up to detect any differences that exist between the material
under test and air.
Actually, we have set up the test circuit so that we could measure the conduc-
tivity of any material. We have established an ammeter reading for 0% IACS
and we have established an ammeter reading for 100% IACS. If we marked
these ammeter readings and devised a proper scale of 100 divisions between
these two readings we could read the conductivity of any material directly.
Now let's try something else. Let's balance the bridge with the coil on copper.
Now we move the coil along the piece of copper and suddenly we get a momen-
tary deflection of the needle on the meter.
8. longer
•
9. Eddy currents are evenly distributed throughout an article being
inspected. (True - False)
13. less
•
14. The higher the permeability of the material the (more, less)
the penetration of eddy currents into the material.
•
From page 3-11 3-13
No, the reading on the ammeter, in this case, is most likely caused by the dif-
ference between the conductivity of the air and the copper.
You are right, of course, in thinking that a discontinuity will cause a change in
conductivity and will therefore cause a change in the meter reading but this
change will be very slight when compared with the change in conductivity
that occurs between air and copper.
This probably raises a question in your mind, "How, then, can we detect
discontinuities if the change in the meter reading is slight." The answer is
that we add an amplifier in the test circuit to amplify slight changes. This
essentially expands the scale of the meter. We will discuss this more completely
later on. For now, turn to page 3-12 and continue.
4-29
2. parallel
f SEAM I
BAR
( - ()
3. A surface coil can be used to detect the presence of the seam in this
bar. (True - False)
7. larger
•
8. The magnetic field of an encircling coil or an internal coil is slightly
(shorter, longer) than the coil.
12. conductivity,
permeability
•
13. The higher the conductivity of the material the (more, less)
the penetration of eddy currents into the material.
17. crack
•
18. Any indication of cracks that may exist at the edge of the material
will be hidden by a large indication that results from E
E
•
From page 3-12 3-14
1. perpendicular
6. shorter
•
7. The magnetic field of a surface coil is slightly (smaller,
larger) than the coil.
16. less
•
17. To an eddy current inspection coil the edge of the material under
test looks like a very large
•
From page 3-12 3-15
You are correct - the deflection on the meter was probably caused by a
discontinuity. But to be sure that it was caused by a discontinuity we must be
able to eliminate the other factors that might cause a similar change.
Lift-off would have given the same type of deflection on the meter. If it is lift-
off, a second pass over the same area, if made with care, will eliminate the
deflection.
Now, we are about to test a thin sheet of aluminum to see if the thickness is
within tolerance over the entire area. Where shall we place the coil when we
balance the bridge?
5. smaller
•
6. When using either an external coil or an internal coil the best
resolution is obtained with a (shorter, longer) coil.
10. True
•
11. The depth at which the current density is 37% of the current density
at the surface is defined as the S D of
p
15. frequency
•
16. The higher the frequency of the alternating current applied to the
test coil the (more, less) the penetration of eddy currents .
•
From page 3-15 3-16
You felt that we should balance the bridge with the coil in air before testing
this thin sheet of aluminum. It can be done that way, but, if it is, then zero on
the meter indicates zero thickness of the aluminum. If zero on the meter indi-
cates zero thickness of the aluminum then every area on the aluminum will
produce a reading and it is up to the technician to establish what the upper
and lower acceptable limits might be. He would accomplish this by obtaining
standards made of that exact type of aluminum. One milled exactly to the
lower limit of thickness, the other milled exactly to the upper limit.
You felt that the meter would read a value below the edge effect balance point.
And perhaps you are right depending on the test circuit.
If the edge of the material caused the meter reading to drop, then the presence
of an edge crack would cause the meter reading to drop even further.
The point is that whichever way the meter is reading, the crack will cause the
meter to read beyond the reading obtained from just the edge of the material
alone. This additional movement of the indication beyond the edge effect
balance point indicates the presence of an edge crack.
You felt that we should balance the bridge with the coil on the aluminum
sheet. It can be done that way. If we do, variations in the meter reading as we
pass the coil over various areas of the sheet will indicate variations in the
thickness of the sheet alright but whether or not these variations are within
tolerance will still be unknown.
Since we are testing this sheet to determine whether the thickness is within
upper and lower limits, we must establish meter readings for these upper and
lower limits.
Turn back to page 3-15 and see if these isn't a better answer.
From page 4-24 4-25
Exactly, the meter will read a value that is above the edge effect balance
point.
1. The eddy currents always flow in circular paths that are parallel to
the winding of the coil.
2. The best response is obtained from discontinuities that offer max-
imum interruption to the flow of eddy currents.
3. A discontinuity whose major axis cuts across the flow of eddy cur-
rents will cause the greatest disruption.
4. The smaller diameter surface coils and the shorter encircling coils are
more sensitive to discontinuities.
5. The magnetic field of a surface coil is slightly larger than the coil itself
while the magnetic field of encirclingand internal coils extends slightly
beyond the ends of the coil.
6. Eddy currents are most dense at the surface of a material and become
progressively less dense with increasing distance below the surface.
7. The standard depth of penetration is defined as the depth at which
the current is approximatley 37% of the current density that exists at
the surface.
8. The depth of penetration is affected by the conductivity and the
permeability of the material; the higher the conductivity, the less the
penetration, and the higher the permeability, the less the penetration.
9. Depth of penetration is affected by the frequency of the alternating
current applied to the test coil; the higher the frequency the less the
depth of penetration.
10. Edge effect is a false indication caused by a too-closeapproach of the
inspection coil to an end, or edge, of the material under test.
Excellent choice! We hope you made this choice because you realized that if
we were to know that the thickness was within a particular tolerance we would
have to establish meter readings for the upper and lower limits.
The technician then would have to obtain standards made from that type of
aluminum and milled to the exact upper and lower limits of the allowable
thickness tolerances.
You have probably guessed that in this case it is not absolutely necessary to
balance the bridge so that we get a zero reading for one of the limits.
For now let's get back to discussing test circuits. In this illustration we show
two identical test coils used as impedances in the bridge.
INSPECTION
COIL
If the coils are identical in every way, will the bridge be in balance?
Right. The meter deflection indicates the presence of the crack and the
presence of the edge of the material.
Here we show the probe mounted in a fixture designed to maintain the coil at
a fixed distance from, or in relation to, the edge of the material.
I FIXTURE
As the probe and fixture are moved along the edge, the meter will read a cer-
tain value that is due to edge effect. This value is known as the edge effect
balance point.
If the coil then passes over a crack, the meter will read a value that is
the edge affect balance point.
Yes, the bridge will be in balance if the coils are identical in every way since
being identical would include having identical impedances.
For example: if the reference coil were placed on a reference standard for a par-
ticular test and the inspection coil were placed on one of the items being
inspected, the meter would indicate any differences between the reference
standard and the item under test.
~ INSPECTION ~REFERENCE
L3 COIL LJ COIL
:J
TEST SAMPLE REFERENCE
STANDARD
Another variation in the use of an inspection coil and the reference coil is
shown below.
FIXTURE FIXTURE
VIEWA VIEWB
The two coils are mounted in a fixture as shown, then passed over the mate-
rial. The impedance of each of the two coils depends on the condition of the
material under that coil.
With the coils in the position shown in view A of the illustration, the bridge is
unbalanced in one direction by the presence of the discontinuity. With the
coils in the position shown in view B, the bridge is unbalanced in the opposite
direction by the presence of the discontinuity. In this case, the two coils are
comparing flawed material with ...
You felt that the meter deflection was an indication of the presence of the edge
of the material - and so it was. But the presence of the crack also has an
affect on the meter reading.
Since the crack does offer an interruption of eddy currents, more eddy cur-
rents are disrupted than would be disrupted had the crack not been there.
Hence the meter reading will be a little higher than it would have been without
the presence of the crack.
The point is that the crack and the edge of the material affect the reading.
By your selection you are indicating that the identical coils in the two legs of
the bridge would not assure that the bridge would be in balance.
Look at it this way. If the two coils were not perfectly matched in impedance,
the bridge would be unbalanced, right? So we do have to be sure that the coils
are perfectly matched - especially in impedance.
So when we said the coils are identical in every way, we are including their
being identical in impedance. The bridge will be in balance.
Perhaps you felt that the end of the crack would be the first to intercept the
eddy current and would, therefore, be the cause of the meter deflection of
which we spoke. In that regard you were correct. But keep in mind that a
crack is a very small thing and its presence does not have much effect until
the coil is over it. By that time the edge of the material is having its effect and
this effect is much greater than that of the small crack.
VIEWA VIEW B
The two coils are held a specific distance apart by the fixture. As the fixture
(and the coils) is moved over the surface of the material as indicated in view A
above, coil A will pass over the discontinuity while coil B is still over sound
material. An imbalance results which is reflected in a meter reading. A little
later coil B is over the discontinuity while coil A is over sound material. The
meter again shows an imbalance but in the opposite direction.
In this case the two coils are comparing flawed material with sound material.
The final dimensional factor of eddy currents that we are going to discuss is
"edge effect."
As the coil is moved to an edge, or end, of the material, two things happen.
First, part of the eddy currents have no place to flow so they can no longer
exist. Second, part of the magnetic field is no longer cutting through the
material. Thus the eddy currents are weakened.
//-:::.::>
(((@\ SURFACE
COIL
7-/=,__
MAGNETIC
EDDY CURRENTS
jFIELD
-~;--=-----=-~~-=-------=---,
,,,,...,,.,,.,.-~-- ) ))
=r-
...••..
\ \
\\ I ENCIRCLING
~1)
COIL
This change in the eddy currents results in a false indication that is known as
"edge effect." The effect is strong enough to mask any changes due to other
factors. In effect, the edge of the material looks like a very large crack to the
eddy current instrument.
Here we show a piece of aluminum being inspected with a surface coil. There is
a small crack at the edge of the piece. As the coil moves towards the crack, the
meter shows a deflection. This deflection indicates ...
Excellent choice! The two coils are comparing flawed material with sound
material.
There are other more complex coil systems used in test circuits. They all work
on the same principles that we have discussed but give varying degrees of sen-
sitivity. A few examples of these more complex coil arrangements are given
here without an explanation as to how they are tied in to test circuits. Manu-
facturers' handbooks and brochures are a better source for this type of data.
One such type of coil arrangement is called the "induction bridge." The induc-
tion bridge arrangement utilizes three coils mounted in one probe as shown here.
TRANSMITTER
COIL
TRANSMITTER
COIL
MATERIAL MATERIAL
The three coils consist of two detector coils located atop each other and inside a
transmitter coil. The detector coils are exactly alike except that they are wound
in opposition. When the transmitter coil is energized, the field is intercepted by
You reasoned that high-alloy steel has a higher permeability than the iron.
That reasoning is incorrect. Let's look at the chart again.
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You must understand that the difference in the depth of penetration between
the iron and steel is due to their difference in permeability since the conductiv-
ities of these two materials are almost identical.
Then, since (from the chart) iron has less depth of penetration than steel, the
iron must have the more permeability. The higher the permeability, the less
the penetration.
the detector coils and a voltage is induced. Since the coils are exactly alike, the
induced voltages are identical, but since the detector coils are wound in oppo-
site directions, the two voltages cancel each other and there is no signal out-
put. If one end of the probe is placed near a conductive material, the magnetic
field at that end of the probe is changed. The detector coil nearest the material
detects this change but the other detector coil, being further removed from
the surface of the material, does not. Thus an imbalance occurs and a signal is
produced. Variations in the material will also cause a change in the impedance
of the near-surface coil and not affect the other coil.
Another type of multiple coil arrangement using two coils is called the
"through transmission" method. In a through transmission method, eddy
currents are induced into the material by a transmitting coil placed on one
side of the material and the presence of the eddy currents are sensed by a
pickup coil placed on the opposite side of the material. This arrangement
requires that the two coils be placed exactly opposite each other.
Now turn to page 3-24 for a short review of what we have covered so far in this
chapter.
From page 4-18 4-19
Good choice! Assuming that the conductivity of the two materials is the
same, then the difference in depth of penetration must be due to the difference
in permeability. Therefore, the iron is the more permeable since the depth of
penetration in iron is less than the depth of penetration in high-alloy steel at
any given frequency. Since the depth of penetration in iron is less, it must be
the more permeable.
10~~~~~~-~~~~~~~~-~~~~~~~~-~~~~~~~
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0.0001 ~~~~-'-L..---''--...,_"-'--.,___,.__---1-L..LL__JL___l_.L..l..l.__L__.l_L.LL_L__l_l_l_J::::,,..._::b,__J_[___L
1~2 10-1 101 102 103 104 105
FREQUENCY (KHz)
Graphite, titanium, stainless steel, aluminum and copper are all nonfer-
romagnetic materials so they have no permeability.
The iron and high-alloy steel are certainly not better conductors than copper,
yet they appear below copper on the graph. Thus their permeability has caused
loss of penetration depth beyond even one of the best conductors.
6. impedance
12. sensitive
13. In a bridge circuit a reading on the meter indicates that the bridge is
19. Reference standards for thickness gaging are made from the same type
of material as the material being tested. (True - False)
From page 4-15 4-18
Good thinking! The lower the frequency, the greater the depth of penetration.
We have discussed three factors that affect the depth of penetration. Two are
related to the material itself and the third is related to the test equipment.
The graph below shows the standard depth of penetration that results for
several materials at different operating frequencies.
10 r -- -.... - T -~B=-j.1
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0.0001 I I I 111 I I 111 I I 111 I I I I I I I 111 I I J:R:::::l I 111
10'2 10·1 1 101 102 103 104 105
FREQUENCY (KHz)
The graph also indicates the effect of conductivity and permeability on the
depth of penetration. For example, note that the depth of penetration in cop-
per is less than the depth of penetration in aluminum at any given frequency.
This is because copper is a better conductor of electricity than aluminum.
Let's assume that the conductivity of high-alloy steel and iron is almost the
same. If so; then, from the chart, which has the highest permeability?
1. eddy current
2. The amount of current that flows through this simple eddy current test
circuit depends on the im of the test coil.
7. magnetic field
13. unbalanced
(out of balance)
14. In a bridge circuit that has been balanced with the coil held in air, any
reading on the meter indicates that the material under test has a con-
ductivity greater than % IACS.
20. When two identical coils are used as the impedances in a bridge circuit, one
serves as the inspection coil and the other serves as a --------
coil.
From page 4-15 4-17
You felt that the explanation indicated that higher frequencies result in more
depth of penetration. Apparently our explanation was not very good because
the opposite is true. The higher the frequency the less the depth of penetration.
The key to the whole thing lies in the fact that a higher frequency through the
test coil results in a more rapidly changing magnetic field. Because the field of
the coil is varying at a faster rate, the induced eddy currents are stronger.
These stronger eddy currents produce a stronger magnetic field that is always
in opposition to the coil's field. Since the eddy current's magnetic field
becomes stronger as the frequency is increased it offers more opposition to the
coil's magnetic field preventing a deeper penetration.
2. impedance
rv
r-i--,
I
I
I
I
R I
I
I
I
I XLI
I I
I I
L __ _J
8. conductivity
9. An ac power supply, a meter, and a test coil are the basic elements of
any eddy current test ~c _
14. 0 (zero)
20. reference
21. With the reference coil placed on a reference standard and the inspection
coil placed on a test specimen, a meter deflection would indicate that
there is a difference in between the reference
standard and the test specimen.
From page 4-14 4-16
First, impedance and lift-off are coil factors, not material factors. They have
nothing to do with the material itself. We are looking for those things within
the material itself that affect the depth of penetration.
3. resistance,
inductive reactance
9. circuit
10. The three basic elements of an eddy current test circuit are: ---
~~~~~~~~~~ , a , and a
15. discontinuity
21. conductivity
Exactly. We want to emphasize that the conductivity of the material and the
permeability of the material are the two factors related to the material that
affect the depth of penetration.
There are two other factors that affect the depth of penetration that are con-
trollable to a degree by the operator. These are the geometry of the exciting
coil and the frequency of the power supply.
The effect of the geometry of the exciting coil may be visualized by imagining
the comparison of a closely wound coil versus a loosly wound coil. There is
bound to be a difference in their penetration qualities due to the difference in
their magnetic fields. It is difficult to draw any hard and fast rules that
govern the effect of coil size, etc., since there are so many variables. It is
enough to say that there is no attempt made to control depth of penetration
through selection of particular coils.
The factor that is directly controllable by the operator (on some eddy current
test equipment) is the frequency of the alternating current applied to the test
circuit. When a higher frequency is applied to the inspection coil, the magnetic
field is changing more rapidly. As we pointed out in Chapter 1, a higher rate of
change of the magnetic field will cause higher values of current to be induced
in the material. Stronger eddy currents cause stronger eddy current magnetic
fields that oppose the penetration of the coil's magnetic field.
4. False
16. lift-off
1 7. If the test is repeated with care so that lift-off is avoided and the sudden
momentary deflection occurs again, the cause is a ~~~~~~~~~
22. CONDUCTIVITY
Right! A material with high conductivity will allow less penetration of the
eddy currents.
The other factor of the material that affects the depth of penetration is the
permeability of the material. The effect of permeability is, of course, absent in
nonferromagnetic materials such as copper or aluminum, but in ferromagnetic
(easily magnetized) material, such as iron or ferromagnetic steels, the higher
the permeability the less the penetration.
Note that the permeability factor will have no effect on the depth of penetra-
tion if the test article is magnetized to saturation by a separate de coil.
The two factors inherent to the material that affect the depth of penetration of
eddy currents are the ...
5. meter (ammeter)
11. bridge
12. The bridge circuit is an improvement over the basic test circuit because
it is more s to small changes.
17. discontinuity
23. True
Your answer indicates that you feel that a material with a high conductivity
will allow a greater depth of penetration. That is incorrect.
The higher conductivity allows stronger eddy currents to be induced near the
surface. The magnetic field produced by the stronger eddy currents offer more
opposition to the coil's magnetic field reducing its strength and preventing it
from penetrating as deep into the material.
Thus, materials with high conductivity allow less depth of penetration and
materials with low conductivity allow a greater depth of penetration.
As you might guess, in eddy current testing inspection coils are designed for
particular applications. So far we have only discussed inspection coils that are
placed on or near the surface of the material. Coils that we have shown sche-
matically like this,
\
~
The coil itself is mounted in the end of the probe which has a coating of epoxy
applied to serve as a wear surface as shown in view A of the illustration below.
COIL LEADS
COAX TO
INSTRUMENT
___f\
JJ..
SPRING
COIL
The standard depth of penetration is defined as the depth at which the current
is approximately 37% of the current density that exists at the surface.
Let's see why conductivity affects the depth of penetration. You recall that
the magnetic field produced by the eddy currents opposes the magnetic field
of the coil. You also recall that induced eddy currents are stronger in the more
conductive materials. Then it is reasonable that the stronger eddy current
magnetic field offers stronger opposition to the coil's magnetic field. Thus the
coil's. magnetic field is considerably weakened near the surface. This effect
continues as the coil's magnetic field enters deeper into the material. At every
level it is met with strong opposition.
PROBE
Another class of coils which we have not discussed is the "encircling" coil.
The encircling coil will be shown schematically as shown on the left of this
illustration. An example of an actual coil is shown on the right.
Right! The shorter coil shown in view B is more sensitive to the presence of
the crack.
The magnetic field of a surface coil is slightly larger than the coil itself while
the magnetic field of encircling or internal coils extends slightly beyond the
ends of the coil.
Another dimensional factor that we have not discussed very deeply as yet is
the depth of penetration of eddy currents. We did say, in an earlier chapter,
that the magnetic field of a surface coil does not penetrate entirely through
thick material but we gave no indication as to what the thickness limit might
be, nor did we mention any of the factors that affect the depth of penetration.
We shall do so now.
First, you must realize that eddy currents are not uniformly distributed
throughout an article being inspected. They are most dense at the surface
immediately beneath the coil and become progressively less dense with
increasing distance below the surface.
1.00 1
I-
z
w
a:
a:
::>
(.)
was:
0
0,80
0.60
A
I
STANDARD DEPTHOF PENETRATION
-WHERE DENSITY OF EDDY CURRENT=
37% OF DENSITY AT SURFACE
:::: .: 0.40
I- I-
I I I
<( -
- Cl)
i ~ 0.20
a: 0
0
0 2 3 4 5 6
The graph above shows the relative distribution of eddy current in any
material. The numbers up the left side of the graph give the relative density of
the eddy current as a percentage of the density of the current that exists at
the surface. The numbers across the bottom give the material depth as
multiples of the "Standard Depth of Penetration".
When the circling coil is used, the test specimen is passed through the center
of the coil. The eddy currents induced in the specimen circle around the cir-
cumference of the specimen as shown here.
The encircling coil is especially adaptable to the inspection of rods and pipes;
first, because the circular shape of the coil is compatible with the circular
shape of the rod or pipe; and second, because of the forming processes of rods
and pipes, discontinuities are usually lengthwise of the rod or pipe. A length-
wise discontinuity disrupts the symmetrical flow of the eddy currents causing
significant changes in the associated magnetic field. For discontinuities that
are not lengthwise, the sensitivity is reduced but detection is still possible
since few cracks are totally radial. This illustration shows the effect of a
discontinuity on the pattern of eddy current flow in a pipe.
INSPECTIONJOI L
I EDD~
CURRENT
CRACK
QLOW ~~
PIPE
INSPECTIONCOIL
'------v--"
SECTIONA-A
If the inspection coil shown above is one leg of a bridge circuit, the presence of
the discontinuity ...
As we have indicated, the best sensitivity is obtained when the crack inter-
rupts the biggest proportion of the available eddy currents.
In view A the eddy currents are present in the material from one end of the
coil to the other as shown here.
1
CRACK ZONE
The eddy currents that are interrupted by the crack are only a small part of
the eddy currents induced by the coil. Therefore the change in the meter
reading caused by the presence of the crack will be slight.
In view B the crack interrupts almost all of the eddy currents produced by the
coil.
EDDY
CURRENT
ZONE
r
CRACK ZONE
Therefore, the change in the meter reading caused by the presence of the crack
will be large.
Thus the shorter coil is more sensitive to the presence of the crack than the
longer coil.
Yes, the presence of the discontinuity disrupts the eddy currents induced in
the pipe as the discontinuity passes through the coil. Disrupting the eddy cur-
rent causes the magnetic field of the coil to change. This changes the imped-
ance of the coil. The change in the impedance causes a deflection of the meter.
What we are really saying is that the eddy current principles that are appli-
cable to the use of surface coils are equally applicable to the use of encircling
coils. The factors of conductivity, dimension, and permeability of the test
specimen affect the impedance of the encircling coil in the same manner.
There are a few differences however. The separation between the coil and the
specimen, which we call lift-off when surface coils are used, is called "fill factor"
when encircling coils are used. Obviously, if a rod is to pass through a coil,
there has to be some gap between the two. Any variation in this gap has the
same effect that a change in lift-off has. Because of the necessity to maintain
fill factor at a constant value, it is necessary to have the means to guide the
specimen through the center of the coil as shown here.
~
GUIDE
6 ~ ~LD ~
I
In inspecting a length of tubing using an encircling coil, a variation in the
diameter of the tube will ...
Excellent choice. You realized that a circumferential crack will not disrupt the
flow of eddy currents produced by an encircling coil. Therefore, a surface coil
must be used if circumferential cracks are suspected in a round bar.
Internal coils, like encircling coils, produce eddy currents that flow cir-
cumferentially around the pipe so they, too, are more effective in detecting
discontinuities that lie along the length of the pipe or tubing than in detecting
circumferential discontinuities.
Inspection coils are made in a variety of sizes and shapes and the dimensions
of the coil are an important factor in the detection of discontinuities. The best
resolution is obtained with the smaller diameter surface coils and the shorter
encircling and internal coils but these are also more sensitive to lift-off and fill
factor variations.
VIEWA
l Lm=;VIEW B
You felt that the presence of the discontinuity in the pipe would not cause a
deflection of the meter if the coil were one leg of a bridge circuit. Let's take a
look at the entire picture.
PIPE
Do you see what we mean when we say that the coil is one leg of a bridge cir-
cuit? The impedance of the coil is balanced by the impedance in the other leg
of the bridge. The presence of the discontinuity causes the eddy currents to
take a longer path. Since the path is longer, the conductivity is lessened. The
change in conductivity causes a change in the impedance of the coil. The
change in impedance of the coil causes an unbalance in the bridge that, in
turn, causes a deflection of the needle on the meter.
Thus the presence of the discontinuity does cause a deflection of the meter.
You might argue that a circumferential crack would, at certain places, also lie
parallel to the eddy currents produced by a surface coil. And so it will. As the
surface coil is moved towards the crack, the crack does parallel the eddy cur-
rents at first as shown in view A below. But as the coil is moved over the
crack, the eddy currents, due to their circular direction are then largely
perpendicular to the crack as shown in view B.
CRACK
VIEWA VIEW B
You selected the answer that says, "A variation in the diameter of the tube
will not affect eddy currents in the tube when inspecting the tube with an
encircling coil." That answer is not correct.
The illustration above shows exactly what is meant by the change in fill factor
caused by a change in the diameter of the tube.
A variation in the diameter of the tube will cause the gap between the tube
and the coil to change. Right? Then, if the gap changes, either more (if the
diameter is increasing) or less (if the diameter is decreasing) of the coil's
magnetic field intercepts the tube. This change in the effective magnetic field
of the coil causes a change in the induced eddy currents.
You felt that an encircling coil could not be used to detect the presence of the
seam. You were wrong.
The encircling coil is peculiarly adapted to the detection of seams. Here's why.
The eddy currents produced in the bar by the encircling coil also flow around
the circumference of the bar as shown above. Thus, the seam is perpendicular to
the flow of the current thereby causing the greatest disruption of the current.
The encircling coil can detect seams or any other discontinuity whose major
axis lies along the length of the rod.
Good! A variation in the diameter of the tube will cause either more or less of
the coil's magnetic field to intercept the tube. This causes more (or less) eddy
currents to be induced. The change in the eddy currents causes an apparent
change in the conductivity.
A third type of coil used in eddy current testing is the "internal" or "bobbin
type" coil shown here.
SPECIMEN
COIL
The internal coil can be inserted into tubing to inspect for discontinuities on
the inner circumference of the tube. The internal coil also induces currents
that encircle the entire circumference of the tube so that the entire section sur-
rounding the coil is inspected. The same eddy current principles that apply to
the encircling coil apply to the internal coil.
The three classes of inspection coils that we have discussed herein are illus-
trated schematically as follows:
Excellent! The presence of the seam disrupts the flow of eddy currents which
are following a path around the circumference of the bar as shown here.
BAR
SEAM
END VIEW
Now let's look at another possibility. For one reason or another we suspect
that the circular bar might have circumferential cracks as shown here.
To find out if this circumferential crack does exist, we would use ...
So far we have only discussed test circuits utilizing a single coil arrangement.
Let's consider other ways in which coils can be used in eddy current test circuits.
In the two-coil arrangements, shown schematically here, one coil supplies the
magnetic field and a second coil senses the presence of the magnetic field and
reacts to changes that result from changes caused by changes in the eddy
currents.
EXCITING RECEIVING
COIL COIL EXCITING RECEIVING
COIL COIL
TO TEST
CIRCUIT
TO TEST
I I
CIRCUIT
MATERIAL
MATERIAL
(ROD)
These arrangements of coils are called the "reflection" method since the two
coils are located on the same side of the material.
If the two coils are located on opposite sides of the material as shown below,
the arrangement is called the "transmission" method.
EXCITING RECEIVING
COIL COIL
EXCITING COIL
TO TEST
RECEIVING TO TEST CIRCUIT
COIL CIRCUIT MATERIAL
(PIPE)
The two-coil method that does not require the magnetic field to pass completely
through the material is called the ...
Hold up a minute. You feel that a surface coil could not be used to detect the
presence and location of the seam in the circular bar. This is incorrect.
Perhaps you are thinking that since the surface of the bar is curved, the cur-
vature would affect the results obtained with the surface coil. And so it would.
But this effect can be overcome by using a fixture curved to fit the curvature
of the bar something like this.
( ~----SURFACE COIL
Y--FIXTURE
0-CIRCULAR BAR
The use of a fixture establishes a fixed relationship between the position of the
surface coil and the bar. Since the position relationship doesn't vary as the coil
is moved over the bar there is no variation in the signal produced until a
discontinuity is encountered.
Or perhaps you felt that there would be no variation in the signal as the coil
was moved along the seam. Again you are right, which brings up this point. If
you are looking for seams, it is necessary to move the surface probe crossways
to the seam, i.e., around the circumference of the bar.
You selected the transmission method as being the method that does not
require the magnetic field to pass completely through the material. That is
incorrect. The transmission method does require that the magnetic field
penetrate completely through the material. Here is an illustration showing the
two methods using surface coils.
EXCITING RECEIVING
COIL COIL EXCITING COi L
TO TEST
CIRCUIT
RECEIVING TO TEST
COIL CIRCUIT
REFLECTION METHOD
TRANSMISSIONMETHOD
Note that in the reflection method both coils are on the same side of the
material. The magnetic field does not have to pass completely through the
material to be sensed by the receiving coil.
Very good! You seem to understand fully how a surface coil can be used to
detect cracks. We want to remind you that, in this instance, a fixture, curved
to the same radius as the bar, is needed to ensure that the surface coil is
always held in the same geometrical position with respect to the bar.
Remembering that the eddy currents produced by a coil always flow in direc-
tions parallel to the winding of the coil, could an encircling coil be used to
detect the presence of the seam?
/ ENCIRCLING COi L
That is correct. The two-coil method that does not require the magnetic field
to pass completely through the material is called the reflection method.
The illustration below shows several different coil arrangements that are pos-
sible in the reflection and transmission methods used in inspecting tubing.
B A A
(a) (cl
Note that it is possible to combine the use of a surface coil with an internal coil
as shown in views g and h in the illustration.
Look carefully at each view in the illustration and note the location of each
exciting coil and each receiving coil with respect to the material.
You think the laminar separation will give the biggest response to the eddy
currents from the surface probe. That is incorrect, and here's why.
The eddy currents induced by a surface coil follow circular paths that are
parallel to the winding of the coil. Here we show the set-up with the inspection
coil eddy currents added.
....--~~_~ ..••••
~-'--SUBSURFACE
LAMINAR SEPARATION
INSPECTION COi L
EDDY CURRENTS
The surface coil winding is parallel to the top surface of the material.
Therefore the eddy currents also flow parallel to the surface. The transverse
crack will force the current to take a longer path to avoid the crack as shown
in view A of the cross section below. The laminar separation, on the other
hand, will not cause much disruption of the current path since the separation
lies parallel to the current flow as shown in view B.
LAMINAR
COIL-_ I
I
Y-SEPARATION
PI00>07ZZZZ:
~=:~~~~-EDDY ~
:::::: CURRENTS
VIEWA VIEW B
Since the laminar separation lies parallel to the eddy currents, their flow is not
disrupted as much as they were disrupted by the transverse crack.
In eddy current testing the greater the disruption of the eddy currents the
greater the effect on the test circuit.
Right! Since both coils are on the same side of the material they are being
used in the reflection method.
So far in this section we have discussed two methods of arranging coils which
are used when the test circuit is separate from the exciting circuit.
Now we want to discuss two methods of arranging coils which are used when
the test circuit is not separated from the exciting circuit. These arrangements
are identified as the absolute arrangement and the differential arrangement.
In the differential arrangement the test coils are comparing one area of an
article with another area of the same article or they are comparing one area of
the article with a reference standard.
INDICATION INDICATION
VIEWA VIEW B
Right! The biggest response will be obtained from the transverse crack since
it causes the greater disruption of the current flow.
Could a surface coil be used to detect the presence and location of this seam?
Sorry, view f shows two surface coils used on the inside of a pipe in the reflec-
tion method - not the transmission method. Here's the illustration again.
B A A A
(a) (cl
(f)
In view f both coils are on the same side of the material, i.e., the inside of the
pipe. Since both coils are on the same side of the pipe, the method is the reflec-
tion method.
Now that you have a general idea of how eddy current testing works, let's get
down to the nitty gritty.
In this chapter we are going to discuss those dimensional factors that pertain
to the induction of eddy currents. These factors include the orientation of the
eddy currents with respect to the coil producing them, the effect of coil-to-
specimen spacing, and the depth of penetration.
We have discussed briefly the orientation of the eddy currents with respect to
the coil. We said that eddy currents flow in circular paths that are parallel to
the winding of the inspection coil.
:.------,_~-~: - SUBSURFACE
LAMINAR SEPARATION
~
INSPECTION COi L
If we use a surface coil on the top surface of this material and move the coil
over each discontinuity, the biggest response will be obtained from the ...
Sorry! View A does not illustrate the differential arrangement since that
arrangement does not compare one area of the test article with another.
FIXTURE
COIL COIL
B A
VIEWA
You will recall that the two coils were the legs of a bridge circuit so that the
output of coil A was always being compared with the output of coil B. A
reading is obtained only when there is a difference in the material under the
two coils.
LCf_ X-11-1
I 1 SELF
COMPARISON
INDICATION
VIEW8
Since the two coils are wound in opposite directions their outputs cancel each
other so long as the material under each is identical. Thus, they too are com-
paring different areas and outputting a signal only when there is a difference
in the material under the two coils.
4. encircling
•
Return to page 3-48,
frame 6.
9. change
10. When inspecting a pipe with an encircling coil, a change in the diameter of
the pipe will change the f f
-----
•
Return to page 3-48,
frame 11.
14. same
15. In the transmission method the exciting coil and the receiving coil are on
________ sides of the material.
•
Return to page 3-48,
frame 16.
•
From page 3-40 3-43
In the illustration below we are using four coils to illustrate the use of a dif-
ferential arrangement of coils in the reflection method.
TO TEST
--------IJ, CIRCUIT
DISCONTINUITY
1
EXCITING AND
RECEIVING COILS
~f!J
y~
I
~~:JI EXCITING AND
3
CD . RECEIVING COILS
~~~~~~~ 0
As with any differential system, as long as there is no difference in the
material under the coils there is no output.
---
·,I\
,,,,.
3. bolt holes
~ ~
I'"' '"' '"'
8. fill factor
•
9. When inspecting a rod with an encircling coil, a change in fill factor will
cause a in the meter reading of the test circuit .
18. differential
•
19. Diferential coils are most often used to compare one area of the material
with another area of the material - or one material with a ref
-------
s
•
From page 3-43 3-44
Yes, we can. You are right. The arrangement would look something like this.
REFERENCESTANDAR~~~ c:
One set of exciting and receiving coils is on the reference standard while the
other set is on the test specimen. Any diferences between the test specimen
and the reference standard cause unbalanced signals to the test circuit.
I
INDICATOR
I
MATERIAL MATERIAL
INDICATOR
Note that the signals obtained from the coils are not the result of comparing
one area with another. The coils merely react to the material under them. They
measure absolute values.
2. wear
Q!= l
3. This is an example of a surface coil mounted in an adapter to serve a
special function, the inspection of bh _
7. bridge
•
8. When a surface coil is used, one of the dimension factors is called lift-off.
When an encircling coil is used, the comparable dimension factor is called
12. internal
•
13. The three classes of coils that are used in eddy current inspection are: the
______ coil, the coil, and the _
coil.
1 7. reflection
•
18. Coils which are identical to each other except that they are wound in oppo-
sition to each other are called diff coils.
•
From page 3-43 3-45
You feel that we cannot use a four-coil differential system in the reflection
method to compare a reference standard with a test specimen. Let's examine
the facts.
DISCONTINUITY
I
EXCITINGANO
2EyJ.
RECEIVING COILS
+-- I I
~~:J
I I EXCITING AND
6
G) RECEIVING COILS
e
1
0
Note that this is also an example of the reflection method since one set of coils
are inducing the eddy currents while the other set of coils are sensing the
effect of the material.
Now let's take that right-hand coil off of the specimen and place it around a
reference standard like this.
b 1(11:- . 6~ D
TEST:TICLE
DIRECTION
OF MOTION I
r-
I
l
TO TEST
CIRCUIT
REFERENCESTANOARtttt c
We now have a four-coildifferential system that uses the reflection method to
compare the test specimen with a reference standard.
1. surface
6. lengthwise
•
7. Encircling coils, as well as surface coils, may be used as one leg of a
circuit.
------
16. transmission
~ROD
RECEIVING COIL
•
~ ~EXCITING COIL
•
From page 3-44 3-46
Until now we have indicated that the test signal resulting from impedance
changes in the coil arrangement is read on a meter. In place of, or even in addi-
tion to, the meter other readout devices are used. Oscilloscopes, strip chart
recorders, magnetic tape recorders, and even computers are examples of such
readout devices. These devices may be an integral part of the test set, they
may be modules that are plugged into the test set, or they may be separate
units connectd to the test set with cables. Detailed instructions on the use and
operation of these devices is beyond the scope of this handbook and are left to
the manufacturer of the equipment.
This completes the chapter on eddy current test circuits. We have not gone
into great detail about the circuitry other than the test coils and how they are
applied in bridge circuits. The circuitry inside a test set can be very complex
and is beyond the coverage intended for this handbook.
5. False
•
6. Since the eddy currents induced by an encircling coil circle around the cir-
cumference of a rod, the easiest discontinuity to detect is one that runs
_________ of the bar.
15. opposite
•
16. The method in which the receiving coil is affected only by magnetic fields
that have passed through the material is called the---------
method.
•
From page 3-46 3-47
Now you are ready to start back through the book and read those upside-down
pages.
3-47
817-t
SELF-TEST
a. True b. False
a. True b. False
8. The current induced in a coil that is rotating in a fixed magnetic field is:
9. When a test coil induces eddy currents into a test specimen, the presence
of eddy currents in the specimen:
10. When an alternating curent source is connected to a test coil, the coil's
magnetic field is:
12. A test coil's magnetic field will not pass through a nonconductive
material.
a. True b. False
13. Changes in a material's chemical composition will affect the flow of eddy
currents.
a. True b. False
14. In a circuit having only resistance, the current lags behind the voltage by:
a. 00 c. 180°
b. 90° d. 270°
A-3
16. In a circuit having only pure inductance the current lags behind the
voltage by:
a. 00 c. 180°
b. 90° d. 270°
17. An inclusion in a material will not affect the flow of eddy currents.
a. True b. False
19. The lag of the current behind the voltage through a coil is caused by a fac-
tor of the coil called:
b. Conductivity. d. Impedance.
20. A crack within a material will affect the flow of eddy current.
a. True b. False
21. The total opposition to the flow of alternating current through a coil is
called:
b. Conductivity. d. Impedance.
A-4
22. This figure shows two points lying in the magnetic field extending from
the end of the coil. Which point has the greater magnetic intensity?
•+- POINTA
• +- POINTB
a. Point A b. Point B
23. The correct eddy current path for an encircling test coil is shown by:
a. View A. b. View B.
25. When the frequency of the voltage applied to a coil is increased, the induc-
tive reactance of the coil will:
a. Increase. b. Decrease.
26. When a rod is placed in a test coil, the density of the induced currents will
vary within the rod. The greatest current density will exist:
a. Near the surface of the rod. b. Near the center of the rod.
A-5
PRIMARY SECONDARY
COIL COIL
~AC 1
29. When a rod is placed in a test coil, the density of the induced eddy currents
will vary within the rod. No eddy currents will exist:
30. When a surface test coil is placed on a specimen, the depth of eddy current
penetration into the specimen varies with:
31. The depth of eddy current penetration decreases as the test frequency:
a. Increases. b. Decreases.
A-6
a. Increases. b. Decreases.
SPECIMEN
36. In order for an article to be tested with eddy currents the article must be
made of material that is:
37. The followingillustration shows a rod passing through a test coil. If the
diameter of the rod varies, the indication will:
INDICATOR
'----- AC----'
38. The three properties of the material that affect the strength of the eddy
current induced in the material are:
40. Edge effect causes a reduction in the apparent conductivity of the material
because:
41. The basic elements of a basic eddy current test circuit are:
42. The easiest discontinuity to detect with an encircling coil is one that runs:
43. The arrangement of a test coil, or coils, so that the reading on the test set
does not result from the comparisonbetweendifferent areas of the same test
article or between the test article and a referencestandard is known as a:
44. Eddy currents are more dense at the surface of a specimen than below the
surface:
a. True b. False
45. The term describing how much the current lags behind the voltage is:
46.
0
90
I
0
~/
I
00
0
4 7. Since the linear time base display method effectively suppresses the
dimension, or lift-off, variable, the method measures the:
49. Before conducting any tests, eddy current equipment is always calibrated
with:
50. If a material has low conductivity the eddy currents induced will be:
a. Strong. b. Weak.
52. Edge effect makes the detection of cracks located at or near the edges of a
specimen:
53. In a bridge circuit a reading on the meter indicates that the bridge is:
a. Working. c. Balanced.
b. Sensitive. d. Unbalanced.
A-10
54. One of the dimensional factors of a surface coil is called lift-off. The com-
parable dimensional factor of an encircling coil is called:
55. The maximum response from a discontinuity is obtained when the eddy
currents:
56. The Standard Depth of Penetration is defined as the point at which the
current density is of the current density at the surface.
a. 18% c. 50%
b. 37% d. 78%
57. Lagging of current behind the voltage through a coil is caused by the
coil's:
a. Resistance. c. Impedance.
58. 90°
D"' --
~~
o ....._ o 0
59. In the modulation analysis method the signals received from the test coil
are recorded on:
b. A meter. d. A strip-chart.
60. In the feedback controlled method special feedback circuits are used that
eliminate one component of the coil's impedance. The eliminated com-
ponent might be either:
61. The limits of acceptability for cracks are often established by use of:
a. Stronger. b. Weaker.
63. In eddy current testing an increase in the conductivity of the article under
test will cause the magnetic field of the test coil to:
a. Increase. b. Decrease.
66. When inspecting a pipe with an encircling coil, a change in the diameter of
the pipe will change the:
a. Feedback. c. Feedthrough.
67. The eddy currents induced in conductive material travel in circular paths
that:
68. Factors of the material that affect the depth of penetration are:
0 0°
70. In the ellipse display method, when the impedances of the test coil and the
reference coil are exactly alike, the cathode ray tube (CRT) will display:
71. The modulation device used in the modulation analysis method is actually:
73. A reference standard is also used to make sure that each time the test
equipment is used it provides consistant:
b. Amplification. d. Frequency.
b. A permeability factor.
75. An alloy formed by the combination of two base materials will have a con-
ductivity that is different from the conductivity of either base material.
a. True b. False
A-14
76. The amount of current that flows through an eddy current test circuit
depends on:
77. Reference standards for thickness gaging are made from the same type of
material as the material being tested.
a. True b. False
78. In the reflection method of eddy current testing the exciting coil and the
receiving coil are on:
79. When using a surface coil the best resolution is obtained with:
a. Increases. b. Decreases.
81. 900
O t
On this impedance-planediagram the dashed line is known as the:
82. In the ellipse display method, tilting of the ellipse indicates a change in the:
a. True b. False
84. The filter selected for use in the modulation analysis method must be
capable of passing signals that have the desired:
a. Impedance. c. Frequency.
b. Balance. d. Reflection.
a. True b. False
88. In eddy current testing, a crack in the test material will be indicated by a
change in conductivity.
a. True. b. False
A-16
a. True b. False
90. When two identical coils are used as impedances in a bridge circuit, one
serves as the inspection coil, and the other serves as:
91. In the transmission method of eddy current testing, the exciting coil and
the receiving coil are on:
92. An arrangement of test coils so that the reading on the test instrument
results from the comparison between different areas of the same test arti-
cle or between the test article and a reference standard is known as a(n):
93. The greater the permeability of the test material, the the depth
of penetration.
a. More b. Less
94. 900
~
0 00
a. 1 to 3. c. 3 to 1.
b. 3 to 5. d. 6 to 1.
96. Once an eddy current instrument is calibrated, the controls are not to be
touched during ensuing tests.
a. True b. False
a. True b. False
100. In an eddy current test circuit, the change in the meter reading is caused
by a change in the test coil's:
a. Impedance. c. Resistance.
101. The eddy currents induced in a rod by an encircling coil travel lengthwise
to the rod.
a. True. b. False
d. As reference standards.
104. When using external coils or internal coils, the best resolution is obtained
with:
105. Any indications of discontinuities that may exist at the edge of the
material will be hidden by a large indication that results from:
106. Eddy current testing is more sensitive to dimensional changes when the
material is:
a. Thick. b. Thin.
A-19
107. In the linear time base display method a shift in phase indicates a change
in test coil:
a. Impedance. c. Dimension.
b. Frequency. d. Position.
108. 900
0 0°
112. The thickness of the material under test becomes a factor to be considered
when:
114. In eddy current testing a change in the impedance of the test coil is caused
by a change in the coil' s:
115. Eddy currents are evenly distributed throughout an article being inspected.
a. True b. False
b. Discontinuity. d. Variable.
117. Eddy current testing is more sensitive to dimensional changes when the
frequency is:
a. Higher. b. Lower.
A-21
118. In the reactance testing method an oscillator is added to the circuit. The
frequency of operation of the oscillator depends on the test coil's:
a. Impedance. c. Resistance.
GLOSSARY
Coil, Absolute - A coil (or coils) that respond(s) to all electromagnetic proper-
ties of the test part.
Coil, Probe - A small coil or coil assembly which does not encircle the test
specimen.
Coil, Search - A probe coil which is used to measure load magnetic field inten-
sities by virtue of the change of flux through the coil when it is moved from
one position to another, or when the flux through it is changed by any other
means.
Coil Spacing - The axial distance between two encircling coils of a differential
system.
End Effect - The effect on the magnetic field caused by the geometric bound-
aries of the test specimen that makes it impractical to apply electromagnetic
test methods to the associated regions of the test specimen.
B-3
Fill Factor -The ratio of the square of the diameter of a cylindrical test
specimen to the square of the average diameter of the encircling coil.
Frequency, Test - The number of complete input cycles per unit time of a
periodic quantity such as alternating current. The test frequency is always
considered to be the fundamental whenever harmonics are generated in the
process of testing certain materials such as ferromagnetic materials.
Level, Rejection - The setting of the signal level above or belowwhich all parts
are rejectable or in an automatic system at which objectional parts will act-
uate the reject mechanism of the system.
Lift-off Effect - The effect observed in the test system output due to a change
in magnetic coupling between a test specimen and a probe coil whenever the
distance of separation between them is varied.
B-4
Noise - Any undesired signal that tends to interfere with the normal recep-
tion or processing of a desired signal. In flaw detection, undesired response to
dimensional and physical variables (other than flaws) in the test part is called
"part noise."
Phase Angle - The angular equivalent of the time displacement between cor-
responding points on two sine waves of the same frequency.
Skin Effect - The phenomena wherein the depth of penetration of electric cur-
rents into a conductor decreases as the frequency of the current is increased.
At very high frequencies, the current flow is restricted to an extremely thin
outer layer of the conductor.
Time, Recovery - The time required for a test system to return to its original
state after it has received a signal.