ME-885: Thermal System Design

Lecture 6: Steady and Transient Heat

Transfer

Dr Abdur Rehman Mazhar

Department of Mechanical Engineering

College of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering
National University of Sciences & Technology
Lecture 5: Outline
• Introduction
• Conduction
• Heat Equation
• Convection
• Radiation
• Thermal Resistance Network
• Transient Analysis
• Lumped System Analysis

Recommended Reading: Principles of Heat and Mass Transfer by Frank P. Incropera

2
Why consider heat transfer?

Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation,

use, conversion, and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical
systems. There are many reasons to consider heat transfer in thermodynamic
systems

Three examples that occur with gas turbines are:

1. Use of cooling flows

2. Steady heat transfer to and from components

3. Transient heat flux – thermal growth or storage

3
Cooling Flows
▪ The temperatures in a gas turbine in the combustor and High Pressure turbine
are often higher than the melting point of the metals in the engine

▪ Hence the use of cooling flows is needed to prevent components being

damaged

4
 Cooling Flows

However, cooling flows are a source of loss in the cycle.

▪ Direct loss of turbine work – reduction in turbine mass flow

▪ Expansion is no longer adiabatic – negative reheat effect

▪ Pressure loss and reduction in enthalpy – mixing of spent

cooling air with mainstream

▪ Pumping work on cooling air as it moves are radially outward

▪ Reduces exhaust temperatures (only a concern if using heat

exchangers)

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Methods of heat Transfer

Conduction (Fourier’s Law)

Convection (Newtons Law of Cooling)

Radiation

In this lecture we will consider only conduction and convection 6

Conduction

▪ Conduction primarily occurs in a stationary medium

▪ Primarily concerned with solids (although present in liquids and gasses, but
generally insignificant)

▪ Mechanism in solids – vibration of atomic lattice and motion of free electrons

▪ Governed by Fourier’s Law

7
Conduction

▪ Fourier’s Law states:

“The rate of heat conduction is proportional to the area

measured normal to the direction of heat flow and to the
temperature gradient in the direction of heat flow”

▪ The constant of proportionality ‘𝑘’ is termed the thermal

𝖶
conductivity, and has units of
𝑚𝐾

8
Conduction

▪ Fourier’s equation is in a differential form, i.e. it is only valid for a

differential thickness (𝑑𝑥) of a medium

▪ It can be applied to larger thicknesses under certain circumstance

▪ Steady state
▪ No heat generation
▪ Constant thermal conductivity (within a material)
▪ 1D

▪ While the above simplified approach will be the main focus, take a
minute to consider the general equation for conduction

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General conduction equation Cartesian
Coordinates

▪ The full derivation of the general conduction equation is

beyond the scope of this lecture

▪ It comes from considering a think (differential) element in a

volume.

▪ Consider the flux of heat in one surface and out the other
(assume 1D for now)

▪ Consider heat generation within the volume

▪ Consider energy stored within the element (Transient)

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 General conduction equation Cartesian
Coordinates

▪ The heat conduction equation is a partial differential equation that describes the distribution
of heat (or the temperature field) in a given body over time. Detailed knowledge of the
temperature field is very important in thermal conduction through materials. Once this
temperature distribution is known, the conduction heat flux at any point in the material or on
its surface may be computed from Fourier’s law. This equation is also known as the Fourier-
Biot equation, and provides the basic tool for heat conduction analysis.

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General conduction equation Cylindrical and
Spherical

▪ For the sake of completeness, below are the 3D equations in cylindrical

and spherical coordinates as well

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Heat Equation

▪ The heat equation is a certain partial differential equation. Solutions of the heat equation are
sometimes known as caloric functions. As the prototypical parabolic partial differential equation,
the heat equation is among the most widely studied topics in pure mathematics, and its analysis
is regarded as fundamental to the broader field of partial differential equations.

13
Thermal Diffusivity

▪ Thermal diffusivity is the thermal conductivity divided by density and specific heat capacity at
constant pressure.
▪ It measures the rate of transfer of heat of a material from the hot end to the cold end. It has the SI
derived unit of m2/s.
▪ One way to view thermal diffusivity is as the ratio of the time derivative of temperature to its
curvature, quantifying the rate at which temperature concavity is "smoothed out".
▪ In a sense, thermal diffusivity is the measure of thermal inertia.

▪ In a substance with high thermal diffusivity, heat moves rapidly through it because the substance
conducts heat quickly relative to its volumetric heat capacity or 'thermal bulk'.

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Steady, 1D heat conduction, no heat
generation, Constant k

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Steady, 1D heat conduction, no heat generation,
Constant k

𝑑2𝑇
=0
𝑑𝑥 2

▪ Integrate once:

𝑑𝑇
= 𝐶1
𝑑𝑥

▪ Integrate again:

𝑇 𝑥 = 𝐶1𝑥 + 𝐶2

▪ We need two boundary conditions to define

the constants of integration (for each direction)

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Steady, 1D heat conduction, no heat generation,
Constant k

Using known temperature at either side:

𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝐶1 = and C2 = T1
𝐿

The temperature distribution is:

𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑇1
𝐿

Heat flux:

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Thermal Resistance Concept

This can be rewritten as :

Where

R is known as the Thermal Resistance of the wall

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Thermal Resistance Concept

Related to the electrical analogy

𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝐼=
𝑅𝑒

We will return the electrical analogy after reviewing

Convection

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Convection

▪ Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent
liquid or gas that is in motion

▪ It involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion

▪ The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer

▪ Falls into two categories

▪ Forced convection – fluid is forced over the surface by external means
▪ Natural convection - fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that are induced by density differences

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Convection

▪ Convection heat transfer is observed to be proportional to the temperature difference

▪ Expressed by Newton’s Law of Cooling

𝖶
Where ‘ℎ’ is the convective heat transfer and 𝐴𝑠 is the surface area
𝑚2℃
coefficient
through which convection takes place

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Convection

▪ The convective heat transfer coefficient ‘ℎ’ is not a property of the fluid

▪ It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on all the

variables influencing convection such as
▪ the surface geometry
▪ the nature of fluid motion
▪ the properties of the fluid
▪ the bulk fluid velocity

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Convection

▪ From this form we can see 𝑄̇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 is proportional to the temperature difference, just as

conduction 𝑄̇𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 is proportional to 𝑑𝑇

▪ Write this in an electrical analogy form as well:

Where

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Radiation

▪ While not being considered here, it is also possible to develop resistance

coefficients for radiation problems:

Where

. ‘h’ is a function of the temperatures so

problem must be solved iteratively

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Thermal Resistance Network

▪ Consider steady 1D heat flow through a plane wall of thickness L, area A, and
thermal conductivity k

▪ It is exposed to convection on both sides to fluids at temperatures T1 and T2 with

heat transfer coefficients h1 and h2, respectively

▪ If 𝑇∞1 > 𝑇∞2 then the temperature distribution will be something like this:

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Thermal Resistance Network

▪ Under steady state conditions:

Rate of Rate of Rate of

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑛
into the wall through the wall from the wall

▪ Or:

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Thermal Resistance Network

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Thermal Resistance Network

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Multiple Plane Walls

Overall heat transfer:

̇ = 𝑇∞1 − 𝑇∞2
𝑄
𝑅 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

Once Q is known, can use the known resistances to fin the

intermediate temperatures

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Example 1

Consider a 0.8 m high and 1.5 m wide double-pane window

consisting of two 4 mm thick layers of glass (𝑘 = 0.78 W/m°C)
separated by a 10 mm wide stagnant air space (𝑘 = 0.026 W/
m°C). Determine the steady rate of heat transfer through this
double-pane window and the temperature of its inner surface
(T1) for a day during which the room is maintained at 20°C while
the temperature of the outdoors is -10°C. Take the convection
heat transfer coefficients on the inner and outer surfaces of the
window to be ℎ1 = 10 W/m2°C and ℎ2 = 40 W/m2°C.

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Example 1 - Solution

Draw the thermal resistance network

Calculate the individual thermal resistance

1 1
𝑅𝑖𝑖 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣,1 = = = 0.08333 ℃/W
ℎ1𝐴 10 W/m2°C 1.2 m2

𝐿1 0.004 𝑚
𝑅1 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅𝑔𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = = = 0.00427 ℃/W
𝑘1𝐴 0.78 𝑊𝑊/𝑚℃ 1.2 𝑚2

𝐿2 0.01 𝑚
𝑅2 = 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑟 = = = 0.3205 ℃/W
𝑘2𝐴 0.026 𝑊𝑊/𝑚℃ 1.2 𝑚2

1 1
𝑅𝑜 = 𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣, = = = 0.02083 ℃/W
2
ℎ2𝐴 40 W/m2°C 1.2 m2

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Example 1 - Solution

As all the resistances are in series:

𝑅 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣,1 + 𝑅𝑔𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠,1 + 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑖𝑟 + 𝑅𝑔𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠,2 + 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣,2
𝑅 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.0833 + 0.0427 + 0.3205 + 0.00427 + 0.02083
𝑅 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.4332 ℃/𝑊𝑊

Steady state heat transfer through the window becomes:

℃
̇𝑄= 𝑇∞1 − 𝑇∞2 = 20 − −10 = 69.2 𝑊
𝑅 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 0.4332 ℃/𝑊𝑊

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Example 1 - Solution

To find 𝑇1:

̇ = 𝑇∞1 − 𝑇1
𝑄
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣,1

̇ 𝑅𝑐 𝑜 𝑛 𝑣 ,1
𝑇1 = 𝑇∞1 − 𝑄
𝑇1 = 20℃ − 69.2 𝑊 0.08333 ℃/W = 14.2℃

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Generalised Thermal Resistance Networks

The thermal resistance concept or the electrical analogy can also be used to solve
steady heat transfer problems that involve:

▪ parallel layers

▪ combined series-parallel arrangements

Although such problems are often 2- or even 3-D, approximate solutions can be
obtained by assuming 1D heat transfer and using the thermal resistance network

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Generalised Thermal Resistance Networks

▪ In series, add resistances as before

▪ In parallel:

From electrical analogy you get:

Where

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Generalised Thermal Resistance Networks

̇ = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑄
𝑅 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

Where

𝑅 1𝑅 2
𝑅𝑡 𝑜 𝑡 𝑎 = 𝑅 12 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑐 𝑜 𝑛 = + 𝑅3 + 𝑅𝑐 𝑜 𝑛
𝑙
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

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Heat conduction in cylinders and spheres

Considering only the heat transfer in the radial direction. The conduction
resistance coefficient in cylindrical and spherical coordinate are:

▪ Cylindrical

▪ Spherical

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 Cooling and Heating Load Calculations
Heating Load Calculation

▪ Thermal Resistance R of a material is its ability to resist the flow of heat through
it
▪ Building construction materials with a high R-value are desirable to reduce heat
losses

▪ Thermal Resistances of various building materials are usually listed in Tables

38
 Cooling and Heating Load Calculations
Heating Load Calculation

▪ Many tables do not list the results as Overall Resistance, but as overall
conductance, called the Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

39
 Cooling and Heating Load Calculations
Heating Load Calculation
Example Heat Transfer Losses: Basement Walls and Floors

Following Table lists recommended U-values for below grade basement walls and
floors

40
Typical R Values - Walls

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Typical R Values - Windows

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Transient Conduction

▪ So far we have only consider heat transfer under steady conditions and in 1D with
no heat generation

▪ But what if our problem varies with time?

▪ It is possible to solve transient conduction problems, which have convection as

boundary conditions, using the general conduction equation

▪ But even 1D problems are complex and beyond that they normally require
computer models

▪ Is there a simplification for Transient Problems? Yes – Lumped System Analysis

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Lumped System Analysis

Some bodies are observed to behave like a “lump”

whose interior temperature remains essentially
uniform at all times during a heat transfer process.

𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 → 𝑇 𝑡

or
𝑇 𝑟, 𝜙,𝑧, 𝑡 →𝑇 𝑡

44
Lumped System Analysis

Consider an arbitrary shape of:

▪ Mass 𝑚

▪ Volume 𝑉

▪ Surface Area 𝐴𝑠

▪ Density 𝜌

▪ Specific Heat 𝐶𝑝

Initially at a uniform temperature 𝑇𝑖𝑖

45
Lumped System Analysis

▪ At time 𝑡 = 0, the body is placed in a medium at

temperature 𝑇∞.

▪ Heat transfer occurs by convection with a coefficient of ℎ

▪ Assume lumped system analysis is applicable, i.e.

𝑇=𝑇 𝑡

46
Lumped System Analysis

During an interval 𝑑𝑡, the temperature of the body

rises by 𝑑𝑇. Look at the energy balance

Heat transfer The increase in the

into the body = energy of the body
during 𝑑𝑡 during 𝑑𝑡

ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝑇∞ − 𝑇 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝𝑑𝑇

47
Lumped System Analysis

ℎ𝐴𝑠 𝑇∞ − 𝑇 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝𝑑𝑇

Noting 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 and since 𝑇∞ is constant 𝑑𝑇 ≡ 𝑑 𝑇 − 𝑇∞

𝑑 𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ℎ𝐴
= − 𝑠 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 − 𝑇∞ 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝
Integrating from 𝑡 = 0, at which 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖𝑖, to any time 𝑡, at
which 𝑇 = 𝑇 𝑡 , gives:

𝑇 𝑡 − 𝑇∞ ℎ𝐴𝑠
ln =− 𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝

48
Lumped System Analysis

𝑇 𝑡 − 𝑇∞ ℎ𝐴𝑠
ln =− 𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝

Take the exponential of both sides:

𝑇 𝑡 − 𝑇∞
= 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇∞

Where:

ℎ𝐴𝑠
𝑏= [1/𝑠]
𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝

49
Lumped System Analysis

𝑇 𝑡 − 𝑇∞ ℎ𝐴𝑠
= 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑏= [1/s]
𝑇𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝

Reciprocal of 𝑏 is known as the time constant.

For a given initial temperature difference, we can plot

the change in temperature with time for different values
of 𝑏.

50
Lumped System Analysis

𝑇 𝑡 − 𝑇∞ ℎ𝐴𝑠
= 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑏= [1/s]
𝑇𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝

Observe two things from equation and graph:

1. From eq. can determine the temperature 𝑇 𝑡 of a

body at time 𝑡, or the time required to reach a
specified value

51
Lumped System Analysis

𝑇 𝑡 − 𝑇∞ ℎ𝐴𝑠
= 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑏= [1/s]
𝑇𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇∞ 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝

Observe two things from equation and graph:

2. Temperature of the body approaches the ambient

temperature 𝑇∞ exponentially.
Body temp changes rapidly at first, but slower later on.
The larger the value of 𝑏 the higher the rate of decay
of temperature.

52
Lumped System Analysis

When is it valid to use lumped system analysis?

▪ Define a Characteristic Length:

𝑉
𝐿𝑐 =
𝐴𝑠

▪ Define a Biot number Bi as:

ℎ𝐿𝑐
𝐵i =
𝑘

53
Lumped System Analysis

Biot number can also be expressed as:

ℎ ∆𝑇 Convection at the surface of the body

𝐵𝑖𝑖 = =
𝑘⁄𝐿 ∆𝑇 Conduction within the body
𝑐

Or

𝐿𝑐⁄𝑘 Conduction resistance within the body

𝐵𝑖𝑖 = =
1/ℎ Convection resistance at the surface ofthe body

54
Lumped System Analysis

Lumped System analysis assumes uniform temperature,

i.e. zero thermal resistance to conduction: Bi = 0

Generally accepted that lumped system analysis is

applicable if:

Thus small bodies with high thermal conductivity are good

candidates

55
Example of Lumped System Analysis
Temperature Measurement by Thermocouples

The temperature of a gas stream is to be measured by a

thermocouple whose junction can be approximated as a
1 mm diameter sphere. The properties of the junction are
𝑘 = 35 W/m · °C, ρ = 8500 kg/m3, and 𝐶𝑝 = 320 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 · °𝐶,
and the convection heat transfer coefficient between the
junction and the gas is ℎ = 210 W/m2 · °C. Determine how
long it will take for the thermocouple to read 99 percent of
the initial temperature difference.

56
 Example of Lumped System Analysis
Temperature Measurement by Thermocouples

First determine is Lumped System analysis is applicable:

Characteristic Length:
4 𝜋𝑟3 1 𝜋𝐷3
𝑉 1 1
𝐿𝑐 = =3 = 6 = 𝐷 = 0.001 m = 1.67 × 10−4 m
𝐴𝑠 4𝜋𝑟2 𝜋𝐷2 6 6

Biot Number:

ℎ𝐿𝑐 210 W/m2℃ 1.67 × 10−4 m

𝐵i = = = 0.001 < 0.1
𝑘 35 W/m℃

Lumped System analysis is Valid is this

case

57
Example of Lumped System Analysis
Temperature Measurement by Thermocouples

In order to read 99 percent of the initial temperature difference

𝑇𝑖𝑖− 𝑇∞ between the junction and the gas, we must have:

𝑇 𝑡 − 𝑇∞
= 0.01
𝑇𝑖𝑖 − 𝑇∞

e.g. if 𝑇𝑖𝑖 = 0℃ and 𝑇∞ = 100℃, to read 99% of initial value

𝑇 𝑡 = 99℃

58
Example of Lumped System Analysis
Temperature Measurement by Thermocouples

Value of exponent 𝑏:

ℎ𝐴𝑠 ℎ
𝑏= =
𝜌𝐶𝑝𝑉 𝜌𝐶𝑝𝐿𝑐

210 W/m2℃
𝑏= = 0.462 𝑠−1
8500 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 −4
320 J/kg℃ 1.67 × 10 m

59
Example of Lumped System Analysis
Temperature Measurement by Thermocouples

Using equation for lumped system analysis:

𝑇 𝑡 − 𝑇∞
= 𝑒 −𝑏𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑖− 𝑇∞
−1
0.01 = 𝑒− 0.462 𝑠 𝑡

Rearranging for 𝑡:
𝑡 = 10 𝑠

Therefore, we must wait at least 10 s for the temperature of the thermocouple junction
to approach within 1 percent of the initial junction-gas temperature difference.

60
Example of Lumped System Analysis
Temperature Measurement by Thermocouples

▪ The above problems are specifically for a problem involving only heat transfer by
Convection

▪ Can derive the equation for a combination of heat transfer sources

▪ Solve using the first law energy balance

𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

For problems with heat transfer only:

̇ ∆𝑡 = ∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
∆𝑄
𝑄 → ̇ ∆𝑡 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
∆𝑄
𝑄

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