Moulded Construction

UNIT 1 MOULDED CONSTRUCTION

Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives

1.2 Direct Moulded Construction

1.3 The Process of Injection Moulding
1.4 Reaction Moulding
1.5 Multi-colour/Multi-component Moulding
1.6 Vulcanisation
1.7 Summary
1.8 Key Words

1.1 INTRODUCTION
A shoe construction method in which the sole of rubber, PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or
other mouldable material is moulded direct onto the shoe upper by :
(i) Vulcanisation
(ii) Injection moulding
(iii) Reaction moulding
(iv) Multi-colour/multi-component moulding
(v) Insert moulding
(vi) Multi-component moulding
Objective
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• familiarise yourself with the various other constructions prevalent in the
footwear industry.

1.2 DIRECT MOULDED CONSTRUCTION

Direct Attach Construction
In injection molding, thermoplastic materials are heated and liquefied before
entering the mould. The mould is not heated, so that the heated liquid cools and
sets, or returns to a solid form in the shape of the mould. Sometimes, chemical
accelerators are used with certain materials, such as polyurethane, and are mixed in
the machine head and rapidly injected into the mould because of the speed of
reaction. Many of these materials do not require pre-heating because the chemical
reaction produces its own heat. The injection moulding process is used for both flat
lasted and string lasted footwear
Reaction Moulding
A method of moulding sole units, direct-moulded sole or other articles in which the
moulding pressure is developed by the chemical reaction of the components which
combine in the mould to form the moulding material. Micro cellular polyurethane 5
Other Construction is moulded in this way. The expression RIM (reaction injection moulding)
Materials indicates the process of high pressure impingement mixing of 2 or more reactive
liquid chemical components, typically a polyol and an isocyanate, which when
mixed, react together to form a urethane.

1.3 THE PROCESS OF INJECTION MOULDING

Lasting for moulded constructions may be carried out in the same way as for the
cemented (stuck on construction). Only the bottom preparation varies. Alternatively,
many direct moulded shoes are string lasted onto the metal foot of the moulds.
Plastic Powder

Heat
Mould

Heat Motor

START

For PVC Injection Moulding

Bottom Preparation
Scour and Rough
Roughing for direct moulding must always be slightly over the edge of
the insole because the sole actually has a small ‘wall’ around the
featheredge.
Attach Shank and Filler Block
Special lightweight shank and heel fillers are stapled onto the bottom
of the insole to reduce the weight of the sole and the amount of PVC
needed.
Bottom Cementing
A special polyurethane adhesive is used, and at the same time a piece
of paper is often stuck onto the bottom of the shoe to prevent any
molten PVC from creeping into the inside of the shoe through the
lasting allowance. This is particularly important in the case of tack
lasted work.
PVC Injection Mould
There are many types of injection moulding machines in current use. Many of
which do not mould directly onto the shoe bottom, but produce moulded units for
the stuck on process.
An injection-moulding machine consists of three basic parts; the mould plus the
clamping and injection units. The clamping unit is what holds the mould under
pressure during the injection and cooling. Basically, it holds the two halves of the
injection mould together.
Most moulding machines for direct moulding have between 24-36 ‘stations’. Each
station holds one set of moulds. Because of the amount of stations, by the time a
shoe gets back to the injection area the sole which is on it has cooled and is ready
for removal. Smaller machines have refrigerated moulds to assist cooling.
A set of moulds consist of a left or right sole mould, with the attendant side moulds
and last mould, the moulds are made from metal alloy.
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 The shoe is slipped onto the metal foot or last, which usually has a device for Moulded Construction
shortening its length to allow easy entry and removal of the shoe. The last then
turns and presents the shoe into the sole mould as the side moulds close in the grip
the shoe around the edge of the insole.
During the injection phase, PVC material, usually in the form of pellets, are loaded
into a hopper on top of the injection unit. The pellets feed into the cylinder where
they are heated until they reach molten form (think of how a hot glue gun works
here). Within the heating cylinder, there is a motorized screw that mixes the molten
pellets and forces them to end of the cylinder. Once, enough material has
accumulated in front of the screw, the injection process begins. Once the moulds
are locked under low pressure, the heated injection screw (165°-175°C) forces the
molten PVC into the mould through a sprue (the hole through which molten
material is channelled into a mould), while the pressure and speed are controlled by
the screw.
Note : Some injection moulding machines use a ram instead of a screw.
When the mould is full, a small plunger fitted to the mould surface is forced
upwards cutting off the molten PVC supply. Alternatively an air valve is fitted
which cuts out once the mould is full. This is the dwelling phase, which consist of
a pause in the injection process. The molten PVC has been injected into the mould
and the pressure is applied to make sure all of the mould cavities are filled.
The PVC sole is allowed to cool to its solid form within the mould for several
minutes. Meanwhile the machine feeds the next station up to the moulding area and
the process begins over. By the time the first station returns to the moulding area,
the moulds have opened automatically and the shoe can be slipped off.
The clamping unit is opened, which separates the two halves of the mould. An
ejecting rod and plate eject the finished piece from the mould. After slipping, a
strip of plastic known as the sprue (the waste material filling or protruding from the
hole after hardening) is left protruding from the sole. This was where the PVC was
injected into the mould. This is now removed by a rotating cutting blade or by hand
knife. The shoe is then ready for shoe rooming.
The un-used sprues and runners can be recycled for use again in future molds.
Polyurethane Injection Moulding
The preparation of the upper is the same as described above, except that it is often
not necessary to apply adhesive to the bottom (PU has its own self adhesive
properties when moulded direct) or to place paper over the bottom of the shoe.
PU is usually supplied in liquid form for injection moulding and because it is partly
mixed with hardness has already started to coagulate, so it has a limited shelf life
and stocks must be carefully controlled.
It is moulded using similar moulds to those used for PVC moulding, but the
machine mixes the partly formed PU with the rest of the hardness creating a
chemical reaction, which causes the mixture to expand under pressing and fill the
moulds.
Rubber Injection Moulding
The injection moulding of vulcanised rubber was first developed for the shoe
industry in the 1960s and it is a moulding technology that has shown a slow
growth. The advantage of this moulding process is reduction of labour content and
the cycle time is shorter due to high temperature used in processing before the
mould is filled.
Unvulcanised rubber as pellets or ribbon is introduced into the machine barrel, just
as a thermoplastic compound would be handled. Here the similarities in technology
end, as the temperature needed to ensure the adequate flow is close to the
vulcanising temperature and hence the temperature zones in the screw ram injector
barrel and the injection speed have to be precisely controlled. The mould itself is 7
Other Construction heated and the clamping forces are much higher than employed for thermoplastic
Materials injection.
These machines are expensive than other systems and are frequently of the
carousel type. They can be fitted with two or three injection heads to provide the
two (three) colour/two (three) compound option.
EVA Injection Moulding
EVA is a light soling material, which is generally produced by compression
moulding. Even in this process, difficulties can be experienced due to poor
dimensional stability. It was, therefore, a significant challenge to develop injection-
moulding machinery to handle this compound.
The EVA compound in the granule form and containing blow agent and crosslinker
is introduced into the barrel and processes at about 90oC before being injected into
a mould at about 170oC. The in-mould time and temperature will depend on the
actual compound but after five minutes the mould is opened and the ejected unit
continues to expand and crosslink further.
Obtaining the desired shape and size requires careful control of the compound; the
shot size, the temperatures and the mould design. However, several machines of
both static and carousel type capable of producing good results are now available.
Advantages of Injection Moulding
• High production rates
• High tolerances are repeatable
• Wide range of materials can be used
• Low labour costs
• Minimal scrap losses
• Little need to finish parts after moulding
Disadvantages of Injection Moulding
• Expensive equipment investment
• Running costs may be high
• Parts must be designed with moulding consideration
• Large regular size of orders of a particular style.
SAQ 1
(a) What are the various types of moulded constructions? How do they vary one
from the other?
(b) What are the advantages and disadvantages of injection moulding?

1.4 REACTION MOULDING

This technology has a great impact on the soling industry. It had been introduced
25 years ago. The polyurethane reaction moulded soles still take less than 20% of total
soling market. Big advantage of this type of moulding is that, when moulding to leather,
no adhesive is required, although the margin must be well prepared.
The expression Reaction Injection Moulding (RIM) indicates the process of high
8 pressure impingement mixing of 2 or more reactive liquid chemical components,
typically a polyol (Polyols is a collective term for polyester-polyether- and Moulded Construction
aliphatic-polyols. All Polyols have more than one alcohol group multifunctional
alcohols) and an isocyanate, which when mixed, react together to form a urethane.
The RIM mixing head is mounted to a closed mould to contain the reaction mixture so it
will take the shape of the mould. The internal moulding pressure does not exceed 100 psi,
thus allowing the use of lower cost aluminium mould building material.
The RIM process is based on the injection of the two polyurethane components (a polyol
and an isocyanate) inside a mould cavity. The Polyol and isocyanate are stored at about
50°C and 40°C respectively before metering into a mixing head and then injecting into a
closed mould at a temperature between 50°C to 60°C and under low pressure (0.5 MPa),
two or more reactive components mixed within a nozzle, just prior to their injection into
the mould. The reaction, in the case of a polyol and an isocyanate, the mixture foams and
expands to take up the shape of the mould and crosslinks leads to the formation of
dimensionally stable soling of polyurethane.
The introduction of short strands, such as milled fibres, directly into one of the two
reactive constituents, leads to the injection of a pre-reinforced mixture. This is known as
R-RIM [Reinforced Reaction Injection Moulding]. The introduction of long strand
reinforcements – such as continuous filament mats, fabrics, complexes or chopped strand
preforms – into the mould before the injection takes place, allows parts with higher
mechanical performance to be obtained. In this case, the process is known as S-RIM
(Structural Reaction Injection Moulding.)
Resin

Mould

Mixing
Area

Resin +
Glass Standards

Developments are still occurring to enhance the products or to improve the processing.
An area that has received attention is the method of introducing the colour pigment by
means of a third stream directly into the mixing head so reducing the time for colour
changeover.
SAQ 2
What is RIM? What is its advantage and how is it done?

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Other Construction
Materials
1.5 MULTI-COLOUR/MULTI-COMPONENT MOULDING
Another aspect of the moulding technology today is the increasing use of the multi-
colour and multi-component moulding. This is done to improve the aesthetics or
performance of the sole or increasingly now for both reasons.
The performance of soling in service depends on good :
• Adhesion to the upper
• Flex crack performance
• Abrasion resistance
• Anti-slip properties
By carefully selecting the compounds, dual or multi-component solings can be made
highly durable, non-cracking and anti-slip wearing surface and with a non-wearing
surface that adheres well to the upper.
Another requirement of today’s market is for light weight, cushioned soles and varying
degrees of weight reduction. Cushioning can be introduced into the composite solings by
use of cellular compounds of different densities for the sole.
Apart from the physical properties of these combined solings, one other important aspect
concerns the compatibility of the compounds. In some soles, mechanical keying of two
compounds can assist but generally they must be capable of forming strong bond to each
other to ensure that the delamination does not occur in service. Sometimes to effect this
compatibility it is necessary to keep times between moulding stages short, treat the
surface of the solid component, or apply adhesive.
The growth of this type of moulding has been rapid over the past 30 years to keep pace
with the public’s requirements for the multi-coloured or light weight solings in the sports
or leisure, and industrial markets. The production is either by use of moulding or dual or
multi-component moulding.

1.6 VULCANISATION
Rubber, unless specially formulated with certain plastics, cannot be moulded by the
injection process, so rubber soled shoes are vulcanised in the same way as car tyres. This
is a very old process developed in the 19th Century by Mr. Charles Goodyear.
Raw rubber is treated by milling with sulphur and heat, to allow it for moulding and to
increase its durability and inhibit deterioration. Usually, the actual chemical cross-linking
is done with sulphur but there are other technologies, including peroxide-based systems.
The combined cure package in a typical [rubber] compound comprises the cure agent
itself, (sulphur or peroxide), together with accelerators and retarding agents.
The definitions of vulcanisation is stated as under :
• Vulcanization is an irreversible process during which the polymeric
molecules of the rubber develop cross-links. (For this reason reclaimed
rubber never can be completely recycled into “virgin” rubber.) Although
sulphur works for vulcanizing natural rubber, it cannot be used for
vulcanizing many synthetic rubbers. Chemists have developed alternative
vulcanizing agents for these purposes.
• Vulcanisation is a chemical process in which individual polymer molecules
are linked to other polymer molecules by atomic bridges. The end result is
that the springy rubber molecules become locked together to a greater or
lesser extent. This makes the bulk material [harder] much more durable and
also more resistant to chemical attack. It also transforms the surface of the
material from a sticky, yucky feel to a smooth, soft surface which does not
adhere to metal or plastic substrates. The rubber also becomes insoluble.
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Chemicals such as aniline that increase the rate of vulcanisation are called accelerators. Moulded Construction
To make these chemicals more efficient, accelerator activators such as zinc oxide
sometimes are added. Agents that slow down degradation in rubbers are called age-
resistors or antidegradants. These chemicals block up the sites along polymer molecules
that usually are attacked by light, other chemicals, and heat.

The Chemical Reaction of Vulcanisation

Three elements of vulcanisation are :

(i) Vulcanising agent
(ii) Accelerator
(iii) Zinc oxide
If only sulphur or zinc oxide is used, the vulcanisation temperature shall be high and it
takes a longer time. That is what vulcanising agents are for. The use of small amount of
the agents is effective to obtain the high quality physical property of the required
elastomer in a relatively short time.
The Vulcanised Shoe Process
Again the upper may be lasted in the conventional way. But care must be taken to
ensure that any adhesive used during lasting is capable of withstanding very high
temperatures used in vulcanising. The bottom of the upper is coated with a
rubber-based adhesive, and is usually cemented twice. Again filler blocks are used
to ensure an even substance and to reduce weight and cost.
The machines usually process 1 pair at a time. Therefore, it is necessary to use
banks of several machines, which may all be controlled by one operator. The
moulds consist of four part-1 sole mould or piston, two side moulds which come
together at the toe and seat and the foot or last onto which the upper is placed.
The moulds are heated to approximately 180°C, the side moulds are kept slightly
cooler than the sole mould and because of the need for a very high pressure within
the moulds they must be securely fixed.
The shoe is placed onto the foot, and pre-heated (110°C) sole ‘blank’ (which is a
block of the uncured rubber, very carefully measured and weighed to ensure that it
fills the mould properly during the vulcanising process) is placed onto the mould,
which is then closed around the shoe bottom. The pressure inside the moulds is
around 600-800 lbs per sq. inch. The combination of heat and pressure melts and
expands the rubber blank which flows to fill the mould and vulcanises itself to the
bottom of the shoe. The cement film on the shoe is also vulcanised so that the
complete unit is firmly attached and the time taken for curing varies according to
the compound used which is always several minutes.
Vulcanised shoes often have a rubber rand or mudguard, vulcanised up the side of
the shoe to improve waterproofing. This is moulded at the same time as the sole
using special side moulds.
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Other Construction Where the moulds join together, a thin film of rubber called ‘flesh’ is formed. This
Materials and any other sprue is trimmed before the shoes enter the shoe room.
SAQ 3
(a) What is vulcanisation? What is its process?
(b) How does it vary from the other moulded constructions?

1.7 SUMMARY
The student has gained knowledge of the other construction. He has also understood the
various methodology used in making these constructions.

1.8 KEY WORDS

Injection Molding : In this method, the thermoplastic materials are
heated and liquefied before entering the mould.
The mould is not heated, so that the heated liquid
cools and sets, or returns to a solid form in the
shape of the mould.
Reaction Injection Moulding : It is a process of high pressure impingement
(RIM) mixing of 2 or more reactive liquid chemical
components, which when mixed, react together to
form a urethane.
Vulcanisation : It is a chemical process in which individual
polymer molecules are linked to other polymer
molecules by atomic bridges. The end result is that
the springy rubber molecules become locked
together to a greater or lesser extent.

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 Moulded Construction
FURTHER READINGS
FDDI Handouts.
Shoe Process and Technology by Lasra.
Shoe Making Manual by Clarkes.
Swayam Siddha Manual by FDDI.

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Other Construction
Materials OTHER CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
In this block, you will be introduced to the moulded construction.
This block also focuses on the history of adhesives, basic principles, different types,
properties and the wear characteristics of adhesives.
This block consists of three units.
In Unit 1, you will be introduced to the various moulded construction methodology with
their merits and demerits.
In Unit 2, attention is drawn to the different types of adhesives used in the footwear
industry on the upper and the soling materials. Moreover, light is thrown on the factors
that help us to choose the types of adhesives and uses for new developments.
In Unit 3, quality specifications, standards and quality control are discussed in detail. It
also covers the safety rules and procedures followed in lasting and making room. This
area can affect the saleability of the shoe to a greater extent.
Self assessment questions are included in these units wherever necessary.

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 Moulded Construction
MOULDED CONSTRUCTION AND FINISHING
In footwear manufacturing, the ‘construction’ is associated with some specific operations
in the making department, which is carried out in order to attach outsole etc. with upper,
related to a particular bottoming construction.
It involves the use of the various types of equipment each type being available of the
various capacities. Therefore, the requisite knowledge of the present day equipment is of
utmost importance to practicising footwear technologists. The method of making a
complete shoe is also influenced by availability of skill, material and changing fashion.
Moreover, finishing is where the shoe is not actually being built up or any component
added to the construction except stain and wax.
This course comprises two blocks.
Block 1 deals with the various moulded construction methodology with their advantages
and disadvantages. This block also covers the excellent physio-mechanical properties to
ensure the quality and productivity during production.
It also discusses the basic principles, wear characteristics, different types and history of
adhesives. Moreover, attention is drawn to the lasting process control systems which are
an important part of a construction.
Block 2 focuses on shoe finishing. Finishing is done to upgrade the quality and the
aesthetic appeal of the product. It also imparts the desired colour and some special
appearance, e.g. shadow effect or antique effect to the material.
Further reading recommends some titles for references, given at the end of the block.

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