Chapter 04:

Power Analysis in Alternating Current

Foreword. This module will tackle the power analysis in alternating current circuits. From how the
formula was derived going to the differences of instantaneous, average and complex power. This
module will also tackle topics about conservation of energy and correction of power factor.
Note: The choice of AC over DC allowed high-voltage power transmission from the power plant
to the consumer.
I. Instantaneous and Average Power
a. Instantaneous Power 𝑝(𝑡) absorbed by an element is the product of the instantaneous
voltage 𝑣(𝑡) across the element and the instantaneous current 𝑖(𝑡) through it. It is
measured by watts and is the power at any instant of time or the rate at which an element
absorbs energy. Assuming passive linear network,

𝒑(𝒕) = 𝒗(𝒕)𝒊(𝒕)

Since it’s a sinusoidal source,

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𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙𝑣 )
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙𝑖 )
 Then,
𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙𝑣 ) cos⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙𝑖 )
1
Using the trigonometric identity: 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴⁡𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = 2 [cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)]

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑝(𝑡) = [cos(𝜙𝑣 − 𝜙𝑖 ) + cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙𝑣 + 𝜙𝑖 )]
2
Simulating the above equation to GNU octave,

2𝜋
From the simulated graph, where 𝑇 = is the period of either current or voltage. We can
𝜔
𝑇
notice that 𝑝(𝑡) is periodic, 𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑝(𝑡 + 𝑇0 ), with a period of 𝑇0 = 2, since its frequency is
twice that of voltage or current. We can also observe that 𝑝(𝑡) is positive for some part of
each cycle, which means that power is absorbed by the circuit, and negative for the rest
of the cycle, which means that power is absorbed by the source (𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 → 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 →
𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒). This is possible due to the active devices such as capacitors and inductors in the
circuit.
As we have discussed in previous lectures, there is no definite value of instantaneous
power, voltage and current because it varies over time. Thus, we use the term “average”
to conveniently measure voltage, current and power.

b. Average Power measured in watts, is the average of instantaneous power over one
period. It is given by,

𝟏 𝑻
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = ∫ 𝒑(𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝟎

Let’s substitute the eq. 𝑝(𝑡) to 𝑃 to simplify it,

1 𝑇 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ∫ { [cos(𝜙𝑣 − 𝜙𝑖 ) + cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙𝑣 + 𝜙𝑖 )]} ⁡𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 2
 𝑇 𝑇
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= [cos(𝜙𝑣 − 𝜙𝑖 ) ∫ 1 𝑑𝑡 + ∫ cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙𝑣 + 𝜙𝑖 ) 𝑑𝑡]
2𝑇 0 0

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑇 1 𝑇
= {cos(𝜙𝑣 − 𝜙𝑖 )[𝑡]| + (2𝜔) sin(2𝜔𝑡 + ⁡ 𝜙𝑣 + 𝜙𝑖 ) | }
2𝑇 0 0
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = {𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜙𝑣 − 𝜙𝑖 ) + ( ) [sin(2𝜔𝑇 + ⁡ 𝜙𝑣 + 𝜙𝑖 ) − sin(⁡𝜙𝑣 + 𝜙𝑖 )]}
2𝑇 2𝜔
The sine in the equation are equal to zero, hence
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
⁡∴ 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = cos⁡(𝜙𝑣 − 𝜙𝑖 )
2

Let 𝜃 = 𝜙𝑣 − 𝜙𝑖 , then

1 𝑉𝑚2 1 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ( ) cos(𝜃) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
2 𝑍 2

Also note that,

𝑉𝑚 2
𝑉𝑚2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠⁡𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = → 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑⁡𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜⁡𝑖𝑛⁡𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
√2 2
Hence,
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos⁡(𝜃)
Consider also if 𝜙𝑣 = 𝜙𝑖 , which implies a purely resistive load because current and voltage
are in-phase then,
1 1 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅
2 2
And if 𝜙𝑣 − 𝜙𝑖 = ±90°, which implies a purely reactive load (capacitive or inductive) then
1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(90) = 0
2
Thus, we can say that a resistive load (R) absorbs power at all times, while reactive load
(L or C) absorbs zero average power.
#IMPORTANT NOTE:
Philippine Residential Electrical Requirements: 230V – 60Hz (377 rad/s)!
II. Impedance Triangle. It provides a convenient graphical interpretation of impedance as a
vector in the complex plane.
 Thus, using SOHCAHTOA,
𝑅 = |𝑍| cos(𝜃)
𝑋 = |𝑍| sin(𝜃)
For computing power, we used RMS phasor form,
V = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠𝜃𝑣
I = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠𝜃𝑖

III. Maximum Average Power Transfer. As we have discussed in previous chapter, maximum
power is transferred to the load when the load impedance is complex conjugate of the circuit’s
output impedance.
When 𝒁𝑳 = 𝒁∗𝑻𝑯 , we say that the load is “matched” to the source.

Quick Note: In Power AC, devices such as antenna, motor, TV and others are used as a
load, and those devices has a corresponding impedance.
We use the approach of Thevenin’s theorem in above circuit.
𝑍𝑇𝐻 = 𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑗𝑋𝑇𝐻 ⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝑍𝐿 = 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿
VTH VTH VTH
I= = =
𝑍𝑇𝐻 + 𝑍𝐿 ⁡ 𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑗𝑋𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ⁡ (𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 ) + 𝑗(𝑋𝑇𝐻 + 𝑋𝐿 )⁡
1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = |I|2 𝑅𝐿
2
|VTH |2 𝑅𝐿
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 2
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 − (𝑋𝑇𝐻 + 𝑋𝐿 )2

To get the maximum average power, we set 𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹𝑻𝑯 ⁡𝒂𝒏𝒅⁡𝑿𝑳 = −𝑿𝑻𝑯,

|VTH |2 𝑅𝑇𝐻
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
(𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝑇𝐻 )2 − (𝑋𝑇𝐻 − 𝑋𝑇𝐻 )2
|VTH |2 𝑅𝑇𝐻
2 |VTH |2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2 = = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
4𝑅𝑇𝐻 8𝑅𝑇𝐻
IV. Complex Power and -Triangle
Apparent Power (in VA or ‘volt-ampere’) is the product of the RMS voltage and RMS current
denoted by letter S.

𝑆 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑃 = 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)

It is called like that because it seems ‘apparent’ that the power should be the voltage-current
product and is measured in VA to distinguished it from average or real power.

Power factor a dimensionless, ratio of the average power to the apparent power.
𝑃
𝑝. 𝑓. = = cos⁡(𝜃)
𝑆
But, 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 , hence it is called as a power factor angle, and is equal to the angle of the load
impedance.
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑣 𝑉𝑚
𝑍𝐿 = = = ∠(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 )
𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚 ∠𝜃𝑖 𝐼𝑚

Alternatively,

V = √2 ∗ 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠𝜃𝑣

I = √2 ∗ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠𝜃𝑖

V √2 ∗ 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠𝜃𝑣 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝑍𝐿 = = = ∠(𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 )
I √2 ∗ 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠𝜃𝑖 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

Also, power factor may also be regarded as the ratio of the real power dissipated in the load to
the apparent power of the load. This relationship will be shown in the latter discussion, the power
triangle.
When,
𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 = 0 𝑝. 𝑓. = 1 Purely resistive load, voltage
and current are in phase

𝜃𝑣 − 𝜃𝑖 = ⁡ ±⁡90 𝑝. 𝑓. = 0 Purely reactive load, average

power is zero, p.f. is either
leading or lagging.
Complex Power it contains all information pertaining to the power absorbed by a given load; it is
the product of the rms voltage phasor and the complex conjugate of the rms current phasor. As a
complex quantity, its real part is real power P and its imaginary part is reactive power Q.

∗
𝑆 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ⁡𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑃 = 𝑆⁡cos⁡(𝜃) 𝑄 = 𝑆 sin(𝜃)

2
2 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑆 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑍 𝑆 = 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄 𝑆=
𝑍∗

1 𝑃
𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗ 𝑝. 𝑓. = = cos⁡(𝜃) |𝑆| = ⁡ √𝑃2 + 𝑄 2
2 𝑆

Where S is Apparent power in VA, P is Real power in watts, and Q is the Reactive power in VAR

Real power denoted as P is the average power, it is the only useful and actual power dissipated
by the load. Whereas the reactive power denoted as Q is a measure of energy exchange between
the source and the reactive part of the load (measured in Volt-Ampere-Reactive or VAR).
If,
1. 𝑄 = 0 for resistive load (unity in pf)
2. 𝑄 < 0 for capacitive load (leading in pf)
3. 𝑄 > 0 for inductive load (lagging pf)

-Triangle is the relationship between Power and Impedance Triangle (𝑃𝐼⁡∆).

Where the 1st and 4th quadrant lies the inductive load and capacitive load respectively. It can be
observed that the Q (reactive power) is directly related to X (purely reactance), P (real power) to
R (purely resistance), S and Z having the same real and imaginary part, and the common power
factor.
V. Power Factor Corrector
Power factor most domestic loads (washing machine, air conditioners, and refrigerators) and
industrial loads (induction motors) are inductive and operate at a low lagging power factor.
Although the inductive nature of such load cannot be change, correction of power factor by
increasing it is possible.

Correcting a power factor is applying a capacitor in parallel to the inductive load. It is important to
note that a power factor close to unity is ideal and very beneficial to consumers. Because a low
power factor indicates a larger current due to the increase of power losses and power companies
tend to charge more in that situation.
Consider the diagram below,

Q1 has a smaller p.f. compared to Q2 and to increase the p.f. from cos(𝜃1 ) 𝑡𝑜⁡cos⁡(𝜃2 ) without
altering the average power (P), then
𝑄2 = 𝑃𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝜃2 )
Where,
𝑄𝐶 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 = 𝑃(tan 𝜃1 − tan 𝜃2 )
And,
2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝑄𝐶 = = ⁡𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑋𝐶
Hence, the value of capacitor needed to increase or to correct the power factor is:
𝑄𝐶 𝑃(tan 𝜃1 − tan 𝜃2 )
𝐶= 2 = 2 ⁡⁡𝑓𝑜𝑟⁡𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒⁡𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝜔𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝜔𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
Though the most common load is inductive, capacitive load are also possible, hence
2 2 2
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑄𝐿 = = ⁡𝑜𝑟⁡𝐿 =
𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝑄𝐿
Where 𝑄𝐿 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2

VI. Three-Phase Circuits

In previous discussions, we dealt exclusively with single phase AC power (single sinusoidal
sources) but most of the AC power used today is generated and distributed as three-phase power
(three sinusoidal voltages generated out of phase with each other).
Why is three-phase more okay to use than single phase AC power?
Because of:
a) Efficiency, it minimizes transmission losses over long distances
b) Ability to deliver constant and steady supply of power
c) Efficient used of conductors
d) Ability to provide starting torque for industrial motors
Balanced Three-Phase AC Circuit: Wye (Y) configuration
If the voltage sources have the same amplitude and frequency and are out of phase with each
other by 120 deg., the voltages are said to be balanced. Wye configuration are usually AC
generator or alternator.
Three-phase source connected in the wye (or Y) configuration and each of the three voltages is
120 out of phase with the others.
The phase voltages are computed as follows:
𝑉𝑎𝑛 + 𝑉𝑏𝑛 + 𝑉𝑐𝑛 = 0
|𝑉𝑎𝑛 | = |𝑉𝑏𝑛 | = |𝑉𝑐𝑛 |
For abc sequence or positive sequence, it rotates on counterclockwise direction, and Van leads
Vbn, which in turn leads Vcn.
𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠0°⁡; 𝑉𝑏𝑛 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠ − 120°⁡; 𝑉𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠ − 240°
For acb sequence or negative sequence, it rotates on clockwise direction, and Van leads Vcn, which
in turn leads Vbn.
𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠0°⁡; 𝑉𝑐𝑛 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠ − 120°⁡; 𝑉𝑏𝑛 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠ − 240°

Balanced Three-Phase AC Circuit: Delta () configuration

It is also possible to connect the three AC sources in a three-phase system in a delta connection,
but it is rarely used. For simplification, let’s focus and only consider wye configuration for sources.
Balanced Wye-connected Load
From the term balance, each one of the phase impedances are equal in magnitude and in
phase

𝑍1 = 𝑍2 = 𝑍3 = 𝑍𝑌
1
𝑍𝑌 = 𝑍∆
3
Balanced Delta-connected Load

𝑍𝑎 = 𝑍𝑏 = 𝑍𝑐 = 𝑍∆
𝑍∆ = 3𝑍𝑌

VII. Solved problems

1. For the op amp circuit, 𝑽𝑺 = 2∠30° 𝑉. Find the average power absorbed by the 20-k
resistor.

Sol’n:

Using nodal analysis, @ node Vs

𝑉𝑠 − 0 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑍2
= → 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠 ( + 1)
𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍1
10𝑘 + 𝑗6𝑘
𝑉𝑜 = 2∠30° ( + 1) = 6.9857∠6.3706°⁡𝑉
2𝑘 + 𝑗4𝑘
 𝑉𝑜 (6.9857∠6.3706°)
𝐼𝐿 = = = (2.3814 + 𝑗1.8164)𝑥10−4 𝐴
𝑍𝐿 20𝑘 − 𝑗12𝑘
1 1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = |𝐼|2 𝑅 = (|(2.3814 + 𝑗1.8164)𝑥10−4 |)2 (20𝑘)
2 2
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝟖𝟗𝟕. 𝟎𝟓𝟖𝟖𝛍𝐖

2. In the circuit, find the value of 𝑍𝐿 that will absorb the maximum power and the value of
the maximum power. (11.15)

Sol’n:
First we need to find the Thevenin equivalent circuit, let’s use the step-by-step solution in
module 03
(a) Open two terminals between which you want to find the Thevenin circuit,

(b) Then solve for Vth, using nodal analysis

𝑉𝑜 12 − 𝑉𝑜
= + 2𝑉𝑜
𝑗 1
−12
𝑉𝑜 =
1+𝑗
And KVL @ loop 1:

𝑉𝑇𝐻 − (−𝑗(2𝑉𝑜 )) − 𝑉𝑜 = 0 → 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = (1 − 𝑗2)𝑉𝑜

−12 + 𝑗24
𝑉𝑇𝐻 =
1+𝑗

(c) Obtain the ZTH by replacing a close circuit to the ideal voltage source. But there is a
problem, we know what to do in ideal source yet there is an existing dependent source
here.
We need to shunt a 1A current source (again, 1 is an arbitrary value chosen for
convenience, it is chosen because it is a number a number divisible by the sum of currents
leaving the node)
Using nodal analysis @ node 1
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑜
+ = → 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑗𝑉2 ⁡⁡⁡⁡(1)
1 𝑗 −𝑗
@ node 2
𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑜
= 2𝑉𝑜 + 1 → 1 = 𝑗𝑉2 − (2 + 𝑗)𝑉𝑜 ⁡⁡⁡⁡(2)
−𝑗
Substitute eq. 1 to eq. 2
1 = 𝑗𝑉2 − (2 + 𝑗)𝑗𝑉2 = (1 − 𝑗)𝑉2
1
𝑉2 =
1−𝑗
Hence,
1
𝑉2 1 − 𝑗
𝑍𝑇𝐻 = = = 0.5 + 𝑗0.5
𝐼𝑠 1
∗
And to get the maximum power transfer 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝑇𝐻
𝑍𝐿 = [0.5 − ⁡𝑗0.5]Ω⁡

2
−12 + 𝑗24
1+𝑗
2 | |
𝑉𝑇𝐻 (0.5 + 𝑗0.5) + (0.5 − ⁡𝑗0.5)
|𝑍 |
𝑇𝐻 + 𝑍𝐿
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑅𝑇𝐻 = (0.5)
2 2
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = 𝟗𝟎𝑾⁡
3. If load impedance is to be purely resistive, what load should be connected to terminals a-
b of the given circuit so that the maximum power is transferred?

Sol’n:
Step 1: Short the ideal voltage source and open the ideal current source

100(40 + 𝑗30) 1300 600

𝑍1 = 100||(40 + 𝑗30) = = +𝑗
100 + 40 + 𝑗30 41 41
1300 600 1300 190
𝑍2 = +𝑗 − 𝑗10 = +𝑗
41 41 41 41
1300 190
𝑍𝑇𝐻 = ( +𝑗 ) ||50 = 19.5011 + 𝑗1.7298
41 41
Since load impedance is purely resistive, 𝑍𝐿 = |𝑍𝑇𝐻 |
𝑍𝐿 = 19.5777𝛀

4. For each of the following cases, find the complex power, the average power, and the
reactive power:
 Sol’n:
(a) 𝐕 = 169.7∠45 = 118.9960 + 𝑗118.9960⁡𝑽⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝐈 = 5.657∠0 = 5.657𝑨
1 1
𝑆 = VI* = (118.9960 + 𝑗118.9960⁡)(5.657)∗
2 2
𝑺 = 𝟑𝟑𝟗. 𝟒𝟎𝟖𝟕 + 𝒋𝟑𝟑𝟗. 𝟒𝟎𝟖𝟕𝐕𝐀; 𝑷 = 𝟑𝟑𝟗. 𝟒𝟎𝟖𝟕𝐖; 𝑸 = 𝟑𝟑𝟗. 𝟒𝟎𝟖𝟕𝐕𝐀𝐑
(b) 𝐕 = 339.4∠90 = 𝑗339.4⁡𝑽⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝐈 = 5.657∠45 = 4 + 𝑗4𝑨
1 1
𝑆 = VI* = (𝑗339.4)(4 + 𝑗4)∗
2 2
𝑺 = 𝟔𝟕𝟖. 𝟖 + 𝐣𝟔𝟕𝟖. 𝟖⁡𝐕𝐀; 𝑷 = 𝟔𝟕𝟖. 𝟖𝐖; 𝑸 = 𝟔𝟕𝟖. 𝟖𝐕𝐀𝐑
(c) 𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 = 900∠90 = 𝑗900⁡𝑽⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝐙 = 75∠45 = 53.033 + 𝑗53.033𝛀

|V𝒓𝒎𝒔 |𝟐 |𝑗900|2
𝑆= =
Z* (53.033 + 𝑗53.033)∗

𝑺 = (𝟕. 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝟖 + 𝒋𝟕. 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝟖)𝐤𝐕𝐀; 𝑷 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝟖𝐤𝐖; 𝑸 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟑𝟔𝟖𝐤𝐕𝐀𝐑

(d) 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 = 100∠60 = 50 + 𝑗50√3⁡𝑨⁡𝑎𝑛𝑑⁡𝐙 = 50∠60 = 25 + 𝑗25√3𝛀

2
𝑆 = |I𝒓𝒎𝒔 |𝟐 𝑍 = |50 + 𝑗50√3| (25 + 𝑗25√3)

𝑺 = (𝟐𝟓𝟎 + 𝒋𝟕𝟒𝟑𝟑. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟕)𝐤𝐕𝐀; 𝑷 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝒌𝐖; 𝑸 = 𝟕𝟒𝟑𝟑. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝟕𝐤𝐕𝐀𝐑

5. For the entire circuit, calculate:

a. Power factor
b. Average power delivered by source
c. Reactive power
d. Apparent power
e. Complex power

Sol’n:
(a) find 𝑍𝑇 and get the power factor angle
 𝑍𝑇 = 2 + (10 − 𝑗5)||(8 + 𝑗6)
(10 − 𝑗5)(8 + 𝑗6)
𝑍𝑇 = 2 +
10 − 𝑗5 + 8 + 𝑗6
𝑍𝑇 = 8.1900∠5.3893 ∴ 𝑝. 𝑓. 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 5.3893
𝑝. 𝑓. = cos(5.3893) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟓𝟔⁡(𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈)
(e) Complex power
|𝑉|2
𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗ =
𝑍∗
502
𝑆= = 305.2503∠5.3893𝑉𝐴
(8.1900∠5.3893)∗
𝑺 = 𝟑𝟎𝟑. 𝟗𝟎𝟏 + 𝒋𝟐𝟖. 𝟔𝟔𝟗𝟖𝑽𝑨
(d) Apparent power
|𝑺| = 𝟑𝟎𝟓. 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟑

(b) Average or Real power

𝑃 = |𝑆|𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) = (305.2503) cos(5.3893)
𝑷 = 𝟑𝟎𝟑. 𝟗𝟎𝟏𝑾
(c) Reactive power
𝑄 = |𝑆| sin(𝜃) = (305.2503) sin(5.3893)
𝑸 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟔𝟔𝟗𝟖𝑽𝑨𝑹

6. For the given circuit, find the average, reactive, and complex power delivered by the
dependent current source. (11.57)

Sol’n:
 Using nodal analysis @ node Vo
[24 − 𝑉𝑜 ] (𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉1 ) 𝑉𝑜 − 0
= + ⁡⁡
4 −𝑗 1
24 = 𝑉𝑜 (5 + 𝑗4) − 𝑗4𝑉1 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡(1)⁡
Using nodal analysis @ node V1
𝑉1 (𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉1 )
= + 2𝑉𝑜
𝑗2 −𝑗
1
0 = 𝑉𝑜 (2 + 𝑗) − 𝑉1 ( 𝑗)
2
𝑉1 = (2 − 𝑗4)𝑉𝑜 ⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡(2)
Substitute (2) into (1)
24 = 𝑉𝑜 (5 + 𝑗4) − 𝑗4[(2 − 𝑗4)𝑉𝑜 ⁡]
−24 −24(2⁡ − ⁡j4)
𝑉𝑜 = ⁡𝑽; 𝑉1 = 𝑽
11 − ⁡j4 11 + ⁡j4
The voltage across the dependent source, by using KVL @ Loop 1
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 + (2)(2𝑉𝑜 ) = 𝑉1 + 4𝑉𝑜
−24(2⁡ − ⁡j4) −24
𝑉2 = + 4( )
11 + ⁡j4 11 − ⁡j4
−24(6⁡ − ⁡j4)
𝑉2 = 𝑉
11 + ⁡j4
𝑆 = 𝑉2 𝐼 ∗ = 𝑉2 (2𝑉𝑜 )

−24(6⁡ − ⁡j4) −24

𝑆= (2 ( ))
11 + ⁡j4 11 − ⁡j4

𝑺 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟐𝟔 − 𝟑𝟑. 𝟔𝟑𝟓𝑽𝑨

7. A 240-V rms 60-Hz supply serves a load that is 10 kW (resistive), 15 kVAR (capacitive),
and 22 kVAR (inductive). Find:
a. the apparent power
b. the current drawn from the supply
c. the kVAR rating and capacitance required to improve the power factor to 0.96
lagging
d. the current drawn from the supply under the new power-factor conditions
Sol’n:
(a) Apparent power
𝑆 = 10 + 𝑗(22 − 15) = 10 + 𝑗7𝑉𝐴

|𝑆| = √102 + 72 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟏𝒌𝑽𝑨

(b) Current drawn from supply

𝑆 10000 + 𝑗7000
𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼 ∗ → 𝐼 ∗ = =
𝑉 240
𝐼 = 41.6667 − 𝑗29.1667 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟎𝟕∠ − 𝟑𝟒. 𝟗𝟗𝟐𝑨
(c) Reactive power and capacitance needed to achieve a power factor of 0.96
7
𝜃1 = tan−1 ( ) = 34.992
10
𝜃2 = cos−1(0.96) = 16.2602
𝑄𝐶 = 𝑃1 [𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃2 ] = 10[tan(34.992) − tan(16.2602)]]
𝑄𝑐 = 4.0833𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
𝑄𝑐 4083.3
𝐶= 2 =
𝜔𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2𝜋(60)(240)2
𝑪 = 𝟏𝟖𝟖. 𝟎𝟒𝛍𝐅
(d) Current drawn from supply with improved power fator
𝑆2 = 𝑃2 + 𝑗𝑄2 ; 𝑃2 = 𝑃1 = 10𝑘𝑊⁡⁡⁡⁡#𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒⁡𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡⁡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙⁡𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟⁡𝑖𝑠⁡𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑄2 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄𝑐 = 7 − 4.0833 = 2.9167𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅
Hence,
𝑆2 = 10 + 𝑗2.9167⁡𝑘𝑉𝐴
But, 𝑆2 = 𝑉𝐼2∗
𝑆2 10,000 + 𝑗2916.7
𝐼2∗ = =
𝑉 240
𝐼2 = 41.6667 − 𝑗12.1529
𝑰𝟐 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟒𝟎𝟐𝟖∠ − 𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟔𝟎𝟒
8. Consider the power system shown, calculate:
a. the total complex power
b. the power factor
c. the parallel capacitance necessary to establish a unity power factor

Sol’n:
(a) solve for complex power of every branches:
|𝑉|2
𝑆=
𝑍∗
4402
𝑆1 = = 1936 − 𝑗5808
10 + 𝑗30
4402
𝑆2 = = 9680 + 𝑗9680
10 − 𝑗10
4402
𝑆3 = = 19360
10
Complex powers are additive, because it is a vector force
𝑆𝑇 = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3
𝑺𝑻 = 𝟑𝟎𝟗𝟕𝟔 + 𝒋𝟑𝟖𝟕𝟐⁡𝑽𝑨
(b) the power factor
3872
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = 7.125
30976
𝑝. 𝑓. = cos(7.125) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟐𝟑⁡(𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈)
(c) parallel capacitance needed to establish a unity power factor
Since power factor already near unity (0.0077 away), compensation is not necessary.
9. Compute the power delivered to the wye delta load by the three-phase generator in the
circuit shown

Given:
2π 2π
𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 480∠0 𝑉𝑎𝑛 = 480∠ − 𝑉𝑐𝑛 = 480∠
3 3
𝑅𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 = 2; 𝑅𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 = 10
𝑍𝑌 = 2 + 𝑗4 = 2√5∠1.1071
𝑍∆ = 5 − 𝑗2 = √29∠ − 0.3805

Sol’n:
Convert the balanced delta load to an equivalent wye load.

𝑍∆ √29
𝑍∆→𝑌 = = 1.6667⁡ − ⁡𝑗0.6667⁡ = ∠ − 0.3805
3 3

Since the circuit is balanced, we can use per-phase analysis, and the current through
the neutral line is zero

𝑃𝑎 = |𝐼|2 𝑍𝐿

Where
(𝑍𝑌 )(𝑍∆→𝑌 )
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝑌 ||𝑍∆→𝑌 = = ⁡1.6199⁡ − ⁡𝑗0.0181⁡ = ⁡1.62∠ − 0.0112⁡
(𝑍𝑌 ) + (𝑍∆→𝑌 )
Thus, load current is given by
𝑉𝑎 480∠0
|𝐼| = | |=| | = 132.5987𝐴
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑅𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 1.6199⁡ − ⁡𝑗0.0181 + 2

Hence,
𝑃𝑎 = 𝐼 2 |𝑍𝐿 | = 132.59872 (√1.61992 + (−0.0181)2
𝑃𝑎 = 28.4837𝑘𝑊

Therefore, since balanced, all power in the branches are equal and to total load power
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑏 + 𝑃𝑐 = 3𝑃𝑎 = 3𝑃𝑏 = 3𝑃𝑐
𝑷𝑳 = 𝟖𝟓. 𝟒𝟓𝟏𝟏𝒌𝑾