characteristics of

Absorption characteristics low-resistivity

of low- germanium
resistivity germanium

Jack Thornton . .
British Aerospace
British (Dynamics) Limited
Aerospace (Dynamics) Limited
Road, Hatfield,
Manor Road, Hertfordshire, AL10
Hatfield, Hertfordshire, 9LL, England
AL10 9LL,

' ' ABSTRACT

Transmission measurements have

Transmission measurements made on
been made
have been set of
on aa set germanium samples
of germanium range of
having a range
samples having of
resistivity values, at temperature increments
at temperature 150°C.
incrementsupuptoto150 °C. Values of absorption
Values
coefficient have
coefficient been derived
have been measurements and
these measurements
from these
derived from plotted against
and plotted temperature on
against temperature on aa
logarithmic scale,
logarithmic scale, covering two orders of of magnitude. The The curves
curves allow the optimum
resistivity to
resistivity be selected
to be for aa given
selected for according to
application, according
given application, to the component thickness
the component thickness
and the operating
and the range.
operating temperature range.
1.
1. INTRODUCTION

for airborne
As aa material for airborne IR operating in
windows operating
IR windows -12 micron
the 88-12
in the waveband, germanium
micron waveband,
can under
can some advantages
under certain circumstances offer some over alternative
advantages over materials. These
alternative materials.
include low absorption,
include low absorption, RF shielding properties and for anti
suitability for
and suitability -reflection coating
anti-reflection coating
layer of
with a single layer hard carbon,
of hard providing extreme
carbon, providing durability.
extreme durability.
In order
In order to
to provide
provide aa high
high transmission
transmission at
at the relatively high
the relatively attained by
temperature attained
high temperature by
modern aircraft,
modern aircraft, however,
however, the requires to
germanium requires
the germanium be doped
to be resistivity
doped to a much lower resistivity
that used
than that
than optics. For such material there is
for general IR optics.
used for is little
little data available
available
that would
that would enable
enable the
the best
best grade
grade to
to be
be chosen
chosen for
for aa given
given set
set of
of operating
operating conditions,
conditions, so
so
British Aerospace
British Aerospace (BAe)
(BAe) has obtained characteristics
characteristics by
by means
means of
of practical
practical measurements.
measurements.

2. SAMPLES

When a boule of germanium is produced, the

is produced, zone-refining
the zone occurs as
that occurs
effect that
-refining effect as it
it
solidifies tends
solidifies tends to bias the concentration of doping ingredients
of doping towards one
ingredients towards end. This
one end.
causes resistivity
causes to vary
resistivity to by aa factor
vary by of typically
factor of 4:1 from
typically 4:1 end of
one end
from one the boule
of the to the
boule to the
other, an
other, effect that was
an effect was useful in preparation of
the preparation
in the samples.
of samples.
For the purpose of these measurements aa crystal
For the of nn-type
crystal of germanium was
-type germanium was grown, having aa
grown, having
resistivity graded from less than 11 ohm cm at one end to
resistivity ohm cm
to 44 ohm the other
at the
cm at end. This
other end.
of equal
slices of
was cut into slices
was equal thickness from which
thickness from the specimens
which the specimens werewere produced and polished.
produced and polished.
the resulting
Final dimensions of the resulting nine were 25
samples were
nine samples 25 xx 6mm.
25 xx 25 Figure 11 shows a
6mm. Figure
to the
similar to
crystal, similar
germanium crystal, one grown
the one for the
grown for the present purpose. The
present purpose. The nine finished
specimens produced from the boule are
specimens shown in
are shown figure 2.
in figure 2.

1.
Figure 1. crystal
Germanium crystal 2.
Figure 2. The specimens
The test specimens

samples was
Resistivity of each of the samples carefully measured
was carefully -probe method''
by aa 44-probe
measured by and they
methodl and they
numbers. The
were marked with identification numbers.
were recorded values
The recorded values of from
of resistivity ranged from
0.85 to
0.85 cm. All of the
to 3.8 ohm cm. in producing the germanium boule and
the work in the
and preparing the
carried out
test samples was carried Pilkington Electro
by Pilkington
out by Electro-optic Ltd.
-optic Materials Ltd.

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 3.
3. MEASUREMENTS
MEASUREMENTS

surfaces the samples were placed in

their surfaces
After thorough cleaning of their in turn in aa
turn in
miniature oven, to fit
oven, designed to on aa dual
fit on spectrophotometer and
beam spectrophotometer
dual beam the
and to allow the
measurement beam to through the
to pass through it is
sample while it
the sample heated. Figure
being heated
is being Figure 33 shows the
shows the .

sample in position on the spectrophotometer,

oven in
sample oven beam.
the path of the sample beam.
spectrophotometer, in the

3.
Figure 3. oven
The sample oven

In the modest temperature

In view of the measurements on germanium,
for measurements
required for
temperature required no oxidation
germanium, no oxidation
of the
of the sample
sample surface
surface was
was anticipated,
anticipated, therefore no inert
therefore no gas purge
inert gas was used
purge was and the
used and the
from the
removed from
windows were removed oven and
the oven the spectrophotometer.
and the Sample temperature was
spectrophotometer. Sample
-type thermocouple
of aa KK-type
measured by means of to the
attached to
thermocouple attached and connected
sample and
the sample to aa
connected to
thermometer.
microprocessor thermometer.
In the case of each each specimen,
specimen, spectral transmission over
spectral transmission -12 micron
the 88-12
over the range was
micron range was
recorded at at room
room temperature,
temperature,then sample
thenatatsample temperatures
temperatures of °,
of 70 90 90°,
70°, °, 105105°, 130°and
°, 130° 150°C.
and150 °C.
With the
t he sample
s amp1e temperature
t empe r ature then
then maintained
maintained at at 150 C, tthe
15 0 °°C, sample be
he samp1e beam was b1
am was o eked be
blocked tween
between
tthe
he NNernst
e r n, s t ffilament
i 1 ame n t and tthe amp 1 e , whi
he ssample, while recording was
1 e aa recording f app
made Q'of
was made apparent spectral
ar e n t spectral

:
transmission. A reading of zero throughout the spectrum in each case confirmed that that
emission from the sample was negligible
emission negligible compared with the
compared with power of
the power the measurement
of the beam.
measurement beam.
Thus no
Thus no correction
correction was was necessary
necessary to to the curves of
the curves transmission, of
indicated transmission,
of indicated which two
of which two
examples
examples are shown in in figures and 5.
figures 44 and 5.

50
50

40
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IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII1íiíiiíiíiIMM
10 m umm. m.mn um

1111111111111111111111111111111111111111
8 10 12 14 16 18 20

WAVELENGTH - pm

4.
Figure 4. Transmission
Transmi s s ion of sample no.
of samp1e no. 1, cm
1 , 3.8 ohm cm

SPIE Vol.1112
SPIEVol. Windowand
1112Window DomeTechnologies
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and (1989)
Materials / / 95
(1989) 95

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 ::: .:::+:::
50

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ialim0aliaa`iauuaal
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WAVELENGTH --pm
WAVELENGTH pm

5.
Figure 5. of sample
Transmission of
Transmission no. 9,
sample no. 9, 0.85 ohm cm
0.85 ohm cm
each temperature
For each
For increment, transmission values
temperature increment, taken from each of
were taken
values were the nine
of the
recordings and the 8 8-11
over the
averaged over
and averaged -11 micron waveband. A curve
micron waveband. transmission/resistivity
of transmission
curve of /resistivity
was then produced
was then for each temperature increment,
produced for figure 6.
as shown in figure
increment, as This procedure
6. This
provides curves that
provides curves the results
that smooth the some extrapolation to be made.
results and also allow some made.

T'EItHÍfIE- Íf-I-1FBI-- FH -I f f 1HifiI II 1I

50
I I r
me
ne
40 90°C

105°C

30

20
130 C
130°C

150 C
150°C
10
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
RESISTIVITY-Ohm
RESISTIVITY --Ohm cm

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Transmission (8(8-11jim
Transmission average)
-11µm average)

4. CALCULATIONS
From curves of
smooth curves
the smooth
From the of figure 6, transmission
figure 6, were taken
values were
transmission values taken at convenient
increments of
increments of resistivity and input into
and input formula derived
into aa formula from:
derived from:
T == (1 -$t1
- R 2 ) e'P
T (1 - R2) (1)
- R2
11 - R^ ee-2pt
-2ßt

where TT is
where is transmission, coefficient, tt is
is absorption coefficient,
transmission, pp is thickness and R is
is thickness reflectance,
is reflectance,
from:
derived from:
n
n —
=(n - 11 \ 2 (2)
(2)
R +
n + 11 J
)

96 / SPIE
/ SPIEVol
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 index at
n being the refractive index at the
the appropriate
appropriate specimen
specimen temperature.
temperature.
Equation (1)r
(1) was
was rearranged
rearranged to make p the subject,
p the subject, resulting in
in the
the expression:
expression:
zl
Pp == ZJ
-1
t
ln
In I"CJ(1 -
7(1 - R) 44 +
+ 4(TR)
2TR2
2TR
2
4(TR) 2 - (1
(1 R)22
- R)

J
(3)

Finally,
Finally, the
the results
results obtained for
for p were plotted
plotted against
against temperature
temperature on
on aa log
log/linear
/linear
scale as shown in
in figure
figure 7.
7.

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IIMIROMMINUxgrE=E-se=i_

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OMEN IllillIlUll
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20
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
140 160
TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE~ - "c
C

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Absorption coefficient
coefficient (8
(8-11 jam ave.)
-114m ave.) vs.
vs. temperature
To overcome the inaccuracy inherent in the
overcome the the method when the value of pp is
the value is low,
low, the
values relating to room temperature were derived from transmission measurements using a
values
C02
CO2 laser
laser beam directed at
at the
the edge
edge of
of each
each specimen
specimen in
in turn.
turn. Thus length in
Thus the path length in the
the
germanium
germanium was
was 25mm,
25mm, rather
rather than
than 6mm
6mm as
as used
used for
for all
all the
the measurements
measurements at
at elevated
elevated
temperature.
5.
5. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
For four
For four grades
grades of
of material resistivity,
resistivity, thethe absorption coefficients
coefficients plotted in
figure 77 are
are averaged
averaged over
over an
an 88-11
-11 micron waveband.
waveband. If If material
material should be required forfor a
a
different waveband
waveband such
such as
as 88-10,
-10, 8-12
8 -12ororsimply
simply at
at 10.6
10.6 microns,
microns, the
the spectral
spectral transmission
transmission
curves
curves in
in figures
figures 44 and
and 55 will
will suggest
suggest the
the scale
scale of
of any
any small
small correction
correction that
that should
should be
be
applied
applied to
to the
the values indicated by by figure
figure 7.
7.
The simplified calculations
The simplified for deriving values
calculations used for values of coefficient imply
of absorption coefficient imply aa
including the
number of assumptions, including the following:
following:

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 (a)
(a) There no surface
is no
There is reflection, as
except reflection,
surface effect except (2),
predicted by equation (2).
as predicted
(b)
(b) There no scattering of the
is no
There is within the
measuring beam within
the measuring test.
the material under test.
(c)
(c) Within at least the volume occupied by
least the by the measuring beam thethe material resistivity is
resistivity is
exactly the
uniform and is exactly recorded for
value recorded
the value specimenfrom
each specimen
for each the4 4-probe
fromthe measurements.
-probe measurements.

none of
Probably none
Probably assumptions is
of these assumptions true but it
is strictly true is considered that the
it is
errors can be neglected for the purpose of selecting a grade of material to
resulting errors
fulfil a given duty. The most significant uncertainty is
fulfil is in resistivity,
the measurement of resistivity,
in the
for which
for an accuracy no better than
which an about 10%
than about can be
10% can expected in
be expected the case
in the of the
case of single--
the single
used. The use of polycrystalline
crystal material used. uncertainty.
polycrystalline germanium could double this uncertainty.
tolerance of
A tolerance of at least ±50%
at least nominal resistivity value is
±50% about a nominal is likely to be required in in
case in
any case
any material.
in procuring material.

To provide
To some indication of where the
provide some limits of
useful limits
the useful of this lie, consider
this material lie,
example of
an example
an of a forward- looking infra-red
forward-looking sensorhaving
infra -redsensor system sensitivity
having aa system that the
such that
sensitivity such the
transmission window must
transmission of its window be less
not be
must not 80% under
than 80%
less than worst-case
under worst conditions. We will
-case conditions.
stress considerations require
that stress
assume that
assume thickness to be 5mm and that germanium of
require window thickness
11 to 22 ohm cm grade is available. If a small reflection loss at the coated surfaces
is available. is
surfaces is
the transmission requirement will be
for, the
allowed for,
allowed be fulfilled only if the absorption
does not
germanium does
coefficient of the germanium exceed 0.35
not exceed cm~1. Figure 7
0.35 cm-1. for
7 will show that for
limits of
resistivity limits
germanium having resistivity to 2
of 11 to 2 ohm cm, the absorption coefficient will
cm, the
0.35 cm-1
increase to 0.35 temperature in
at aa temperature
cm""1 at regionofof105
the region
in the 109°C.
105toto109 °C.

Thus aerodynamic heating of the flight must not cause

the window during flight cause its temperature to
its temperature to
exceed this
exceed the design performance of the
level if the
this level the FLIR system is obtained. The
is to be obtained.
actual temperature of
actual temperature the window will of course depend on the airspeed,
of the airspeed, the outside air air
(OAT) and
temperature (OAT) position on
the position
and the aircraft. Figure
the aircraft.
on the Figure 8 shows an envelope of mach
8 shows
number different static
at different
number at temperatures that would cause
static air temperatures the window to be heated to
cause the
105°C.
approximately 105
approximately °C. It is seen that
is seen in the
that in of an
case of
the case of 5050°C
OAT of
an OAT the airspeed
°C the is
airspeed is
M1.0. In
about M1.0.
limited to about there is
In practice however there less than 1%
is less 1% probability of such a
OAT. In the vast majority of flight cases a much lower
high OAT. lower temperature will prevail and and
airspeed of
an airspeed of around performance, in
M1.4 might be typical of the level beyond which FLIR performance,
around M1.4
the present
the example, would
present example, would fail requirements. It
its minimum specification requirements.
fail to attain its It must
that absorption in a hot window is
remembered that
be remembered
be emission, which
is necessarily accompanied by emission,
could be
could be significant in the case
in the sensitive FLIR
of aa sensitive
case of system.
FLIR system.

2.4

2.2

2.0

1.2

1.0

-80 -60 -40 -20 0

0 20 40
STATICAIR
STATIC AIR TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE - - *C
C

8.
Figure 8. Airspeed /OAT envelope
Airspeed/OAT temperature of
recovery temperature
envelope for recovery 105°C
of 105 °C

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
to thank
The author wishes to Pilkington Electro
thank Pilkington -optic Materials
Electro-optic Ltd, in particular
Materials Ltd,
Brian Duchart,
Brian for producing
Duchart, for the germanium material
producing the samples and making the measurements
material samples
of resistivity.
7. REFERENCES

1.
1. ASTM.
ASTM. F43 -74, Standard
F43-74, methods of
Standard methods test for
of test of semiconductor materials,
resistivity of
for resistivity materials,
Institute.
Standards Institute.
American National Standards

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